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Ubba

March 11, 2023

For the Swedish band, see UBBA.

Ubba (Old Norse: Ubbi; died 878) was a 9th-century Viking and one of the commanders of the Great Heathen Army that invaded Anglo-Saxon England in the 860s.[note 1] The Great Army appears to have been a coalition of warbands drawn from Scandinavia, Ireland, the Irish Sea region and Continental Europe. There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the Viking forces specifically originated in Frisia, where some Viking commanders are known to have held fiefdoms on behalf of the Franks. Some sources describe Ubba as dux of the Frisians, which could be evidence that he also associated with a Frisian benefice.

Ubba's name as it appears on folio 48v of British Library Harley 2278 (Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund): "Vbba"[1]

In 865, the Great Army, apparently led by Ivar the Boneless, overwintered in the Kingdom of East Anglia, before invading and destroying the Kingdom of Northumbria. In 869, having been bought off by the Mercians, the Vikings conquered the East Angles, and in the process killed their king, Edmund, a man who was later regarded as a saint and martyr. While near-contemporary sources do not specifically associate Ubba with the latter campaign, some later, less reliable sources associate him with the legend of Edmund's martyrdom. In time, Ivar and Ubba came to be regarded as archetypal Viking invaders and opponents of Christianity. As such, Ubba features in several dubious hagiographical accounts of Anglo-Saxon saints and ecclesiastical sites. Non-contemporary sources also associate Ivar and Ubba with the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok, a figure of dubious historicity. Whilst there is reason to suspect that Edmund's cult was partly promoted to integrate Scandinavian settlers in Anglo-Saxon England, the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok may have originated in attempts to explain why they came to settle. Ubba is largely non-existent in the Icelandic traditions of Ragnar Lodbrok.

After the fall of the East Anglian kingdom, leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to Bagsecg and Halfdan, who campaigned against the Mercians and West Saxons. In 873, the Great Army is recorded to have split. Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria, the army under Guthrum, Oscytel and Anwend struck out southwards and campaigned against the West Saxons. In the winter of 877–878, Guthrum launched a lightning attack deep into Wessex. There is reason to suspect that this strike was coordinated with the campaigning of a separate Viking force in Devon. This latter army is reported to have been destroyed at Arx Cynuit in 878. According to a near-contemporary source, this force was led by a brother of Ivar and Halfdan, and some later sources identify this man as Ubba himself.

Origins of Ubba and the Great Army

In the mid-9th century, an invading Viking army coalesced in Anglo-Saxon England. The earliest version of the 9th- to 12th-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle variously describes the invading host as "micel here",[10] an Old English term that can translate as "big army"[11] or "great army". Archaeological evidence and documentary sources suggest that this Great Army was not a single unified force, but more of a composite collection of warbands drawn from different regions.[12]

The exact origins of the Great Army are obscure.[13] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle sometimes identifies the Vikings as Danes.[14] The 10th-century Vita Alfredi seems to allege that the invaders came from Denmark.[15] A Scandinavian origin may be evinced by the 10th-century Chronicon Æthelweardi, which states that "the fleets of the tyrant Ivar" arrived in Anglo-Saxon England from "the north".[16] By the mid-9th century, this Ivar (died 870/873)[17] was one of the foremost Viking leaders in Britain and Ireland.[18]

The Great Army may have included Vikings already active in Anglo-Saxon England, as well as men directly from Scandinavia, Ireland, the Irish Sea region and the Continent.[19] There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the army specifically originated in Frisia.[20] For example, the 9th-century Annales Bertiniani reveals that Danish Vikings devastated Frisia in 850,[21] and the 12th-century Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses states that a Viking force of Danes and Frisians made landfall on the Isle of Sheppey in 855.[22] The same source, and the 10th- or 11th-century Historia de sancto Cuthberto, describe Ubba as dux of the Frisians.

Whilst the Old English Anglo-Saxon Chronicle calls the Viking army micel here, the Latin Historia de sancto Cuthberto instead gives Scaldingi,[23] a term of uncertain meaning that is employed three times in reference to the leadership of the Viking forces. One possibility is that the word means "people from the River Scheldt".[24] This could indicate that Ubba was from Walcheren, an island in the mouth of the Scheldt.[25] Walcheren is known to have been occupied by Danish Vikings over two decades before. For example, the Annales Bertiniani reports that Lothair I, King of Middle Francia (died 855) granted the island to a Viking named Herioldus in 841.[26] Another possibility is that this term simply refers to Scyldings, an ancient lineage from which Danish monarchs of the time claimed descent.

According to the same source and the 9th-century Annales Fuldenses, another Viking named Roricus was granted a large part of Frisia as a benefice or fief from Lothair in 850.[27] As men who held military and judicial authority on behalf of the Franks, Herioldus and Roricus can also be regarded as Frisian duces. Although it is uncertain whether Ubba was a native Frisian or a Scandinavian expatriate, if he was indeed involved with a Frisian benefice his forces would have probably been partly composed of Frisians. If his troops were drawn from the Scandinavian settlement started by Herioldus over two decades before, many of Ubba's men might well have been born in Frisia.[28] In fact, the length of Scandinavian occupation suggests that some of the Vikings from Frisia would have been native Franks and Frisians. The considerable time that members of the Great Army appear to have spent in Ireland and on the Continent suggests that these men were well accustomed to Christian society, which in turn may partly explain their successes in Anglo-Saxon England.

Viking invasion of Anglo-Saxon England

 
A 15th-century depiction of Ivar and Ubba ravaging the countryside as it appears on folio 48r of British Library Harley 2278.[29] The Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund presents 9th-century events in a chivalric context.[30][note 2]

In the autumn of 865, the Anglo Saxon Chronicle records that the Great Army invaded the Kingdom of East Anglia, where they afterwards made peace with the East Anglians and overwintered.[33] The terminology employed by this source suggests the Vikings attacked by sea.[34] The invaders evidently gained valuable intelligence during the stay,[35] as the Great Army is next stated to have left on horses gained from the subordinated population, striking deep into the Kingdom of Northumbria, a fractured realm in the midst of a bitter civil war between two competing kings: Ælla (died 867) and Osberht (died 867).[36]

Late in 866 the Vikings seized York[37]—one of only two archiepiscopal sees in Anglo-Saxon England, and one of the richest trading centres in Britain.[38] Although Ælla and Osberht responded to this attack by joining forces against the Vikings, the chronicle indicates that their assault on York was a disaster that resulted in both their deaths.[37][note 3] According to Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses,[46] and Historia de sancto Cuthberto, the Northumbrians and their kings were crushed by Ubba himself.[47][note 4]

 
The 9th-century Frisian fiefdom of Roricus appears to have encompassed a region around Dorestad, Walcheren and Wieringen.[51]

Also that year, Annales Bertiniani reports that Charles II, King of West Francia (died 877) paid off a Viking fleet stationed on the Seine.[52] After proceeding down the Seine towards the sea, where they repaired and rebuilt their fleet,[53] a portion of the force is reported to have left for the district of IJssel[54] (either Hollandse IJssel or Gelderse IJssel).[55] Although the destination of the rest of the fleet is unrecorded, one possibility is that it participated in the sack of York. The fact that the Great Army remained in East Anglia for about a year before it attacked Northumbria could mean that it had been reinforced from the Continent during the layover.[56] The part of the fleet that went to Frisia is later stated to have been unable to secure an alliance with Lothair. This statement seems to suggest that these Vikings had intended to acquire a grant of lands in the region, which could mean that they thereafter took part in the Great Army's campaigning across the Channel.[57] Furthermore, Annales Bertiniani notes that Roricus was forced from Frisia the following year. This ejection could also account for the evidence of a Frisian dimension to the Great Army, and for the attestations of Ubba himself.[58]

With the collapse of the Northumbrian kingdom, and the destruction of its regime, the 12th-century Historia regum Anglorum,[59] and Libellus de exordio, reveal that a certain Ecgberht (died 873) was installed by the Vikings as client king over a northern region of Northumbria.[60] In the following year, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that the Great Army attacked Mercia, after which the Vikings seized Nottingham and overwintered there.[61] Although the Mercian and West Saxon kings, Burgred (died 874?) and Æthelred (died 871), responded by joining forces and besieging the occupied town, both the chronicle[62] and Vita Alfredi report that this combined Anglo-Saxon force was unable to dislodge the army.[63] According to both sources, the Mercians made peace with the Vikings.[62][63] It was probably on account of this seemingly purchased peace that the Great Army relocated to York, as reported by the chronicle, where it evidently renewed its strength for future forays.[64]

Hagiographic association with Edmund

 
A 13th- or 14th-century depiction of Edmund, King of East Anglia, being brought bound before Ivar, as it appears on folio 28r of John Rylands Library French 142[65][note 5]

The earliest source to make specific note of Ubba is Passio sancti Eadmundi, which includes him in its account of the downfall of Edmund, King of East Anglia (died 869).[67] Almost nothing is known of this king's career,[68] and all that remains of his reign are a few coins.[69] The first[70] contemporary documentary source to cast any light upon his reign is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.[71] According to this account, the Great Army invaded East Anglia in the autumn of 869, before setting up winter quarters at Thetford. The chronicle relates that the kingdom was conquered and Edmund was amongst the slain.[72][note 6]

Although the specific wording employed by most versions of the chronicle suggests that Edmund was killed in battle,[75] and Vita Alfredi certainly states as much[76]—with neither source making note of a martyrdom ordeal[77]—later hagiographical accounts portray the king in an idealised light, and depict his death in the context of a peace-loving Christian monarch, who willingly suffered martyrdom after refusing to shed blood in defence of himself.[78][note 7]

 
A 12th-century depiction of the killing of Edmund, King of East Anglia as depicted on folio 14r of Pierpont Morgan Library M.736[84][note 8]

One such account is Passio sancti Eadmundi,[90] a source that makes no mention of a battle.[91] Whilst this source's claim that Edmund was martyred after being captured is not implausible,[92] the fact that he came to regarded as a martyr does not negate the possibility that he was slain in battle (as suggested by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).[93][note 9] The apparent contradictory accounts of Edmund's demise given by these sources may stem from the telescoping of events surrounding an East Anglian military defeat and the subsequent arrest and execution of the king.[96] In any case, surviving numismatic evidence of coins bearing Edmund's name—the so-called St Edmund memorial coinage—reveals that he was certainly regarded as a saint about twenty years after his death.[97][note 10]

The reliability of Passio sancti Eadmundi is nevertheless uncertain.[103] Although this source was composed over a century after the event,[104] it may convey some credible material as the latest useful source.[105][note 11] Nevertheless, there is also reason to suspect that the account is little more than a collection of well-known hagiographical elements,[108] and that the composer knew little to nothing of Edmund's demise and early cult.[109] The lurid depictions of Viking invaders presented by Passio sancti Eadmundi appears to owe much to the author's otherwise known association with Fleury,[110] and specifically to the account of the Viking invasion of the Loire Valley detailed by Miracula sancti Benedicti, a 9th-century work composed by the Fleurian monk Adrevaldus (fl. 860s).[111]

Boys, and men old and young, whom he encountered in the streets of the city were killed; and he paid no respect to the chastity of wife or maid. Husband and wife lay dead or dying together on their thresholds; the babe snatched from its mother's breast was, in order to multiply the cries of grief, slaughtered before her eyes. An impious soldiery scoured the town in fury, athirst for every crime by which pleasure could be given to the tyrant who from sheer love of cruelty had given orders for the massacre of the innocent.

— excerpt from Passio sancti Eadmundi depicting Ivar's invasion of East Anglia.[112][note 12]

In specific regard to Ubba, Passio sancti Eadmundi states that Ivar left him in Northumbria before launching his assault upon the East Angles in 869.[115][note 13] If this source is to be believed, it could indicate that Ubba stayed behind to ensure the cooperation of the conquered Northumbrians.[118] Although Vita Alfredi and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle fail to note any Viking garrisons in the conquered Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, this may merely be a consequence of their otherwise perceptible West Saxon bias.[119][note 14] In contrast to Passio sancti Eadmundi, the 12th-century "F" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle specifically identifies Ubba and Ivar as the chiefs of the men who killed the king.[123] Whilst this identification could be derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi or the 10th-century Lives of the Saints,[124] it could merely be a mistake on the chronicler's part. In any case, later and less reliable literature covering the martyrdom associates both men with the event, revealing that this version of events was current as early as the 12th century.[125][note 15]

Hagiographic association with Æbbe and Osyth

 
A 16th-century depiction of Æbbe and the nuns of Coldingham disfiguring themselves whilst pursued by Vikings[128]

Ubba is associated with the martyrdom of Æbbe, an alleged abbess of Coldingham said to have been slain by Vikings in 870.[129] The historicity of this woman is nevertheless uncertain.[130] The earliest accounts of the alleged events at Coldingham date to the 13th century. They include Chronica majora,[131] and both the Wendover[132] and Paris versions of Flores historiarum.[133] According to these sources, Æbbe compelled the nuns of Coldingham to disfigure themselves to preserve their virginity from an incoming horde of Vikings. Leading by example, Æbbe is said to have cut off her nose and upper lip with a razor. When the Viking arrived the following morning, the sight of the mutilated and bloody women repelled the raiders. Nevertheless, Ivar and Ubba are stated to have ordered the razing of the monastery, burning to death Æbbe and her faithful nuns.[134]

 
A 12th-century depiction of Vikings attacking a town, killing men, women and children, as depicted on folio 10r of Pierpont Morgan Library M.736[135][note 16]

Despite many lurid 12th-century tales of ecclesiastical devastation wrought by Vikings, the principal contemporary source for this period, the 9th- or 10th-century "A" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, fails to note the destruction of a single Anglo-Saxon church by Scandinavians during the 8th and 9th centuries.[137] Although Passio sancti Eadmundi presents the invasion of East Anglia by Ubba and Ivar as a campaign of wanton rape and murder, the account does not depict the destruction of the kingdom's monasteries.[138] In fact, there is reason to suspect that most Anglo-Saxon monastic sites probably survived the Viking invasions of the era,[139] and that the East Anglian Church withstood the Viking invasions and occupation.[140][note 17]

Whilst Viking depredations of monasteries tend not to feature in sources intended for royal audiences, religious desecrations appear in sources composed for ecclesiastical audiences.[143] There are several reasons why 12th-century sources associate the Vikings with seemingly unhistorical atrocities against particular monasteries. For example, such depredations could explain changes in monastic observance, or the switch from monastic- to clerical observance.[144] Stories of Viking attacks could be used as evidence of the former possession of property claimed by religious houses centuries after the fact.[145] The 9th-century Viking onslaught may have also been a way in which 12th-century commentators sought to explain what was regarded as monastic decay in 10th-century Anglo-Saxon England.[146] This imagined or exaggerated religious extirpation could well have been a convenient way of accounting for the scarcity of documentary evidence concerning early religious institutions.[147] Twelfth-century ecclesiastical historians availed themselves of sources such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[148] and Passio sancti Eadmundi.[149] The fact that the latter was particularly influential to mediaeval historians is evidenced by the frequent occurrences of Ivar and Ubba in reports of religious atrocities.[150] To medieval hagiographers and historians, these two figures were archetypal Viking invaders[151] and emblematic opponents of Christianity.[152][note 18]

 
A 13th- or 14th-century depiction of Osyth as it appears on folio 134v of British Library Additional 70513[159]

The accounts of Æbbe could be an example of such a constructed tale. The story appears be ultimately derived from the account of Coldingham preserved by the eighth-century Historia ecclesiastica.[160] According to this source, Æthelthryth (died 679), wife of Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria (died 685), entered the monastery under the tutelage of an abbess named Æbbe (died 683?). At some point after Æthelthryth left Coldingham to found a monastery at Ely, Historia ecclesiastica reports that the monastery of Coldingham burned to the ground.[161] This account of Coldingham's burning was later incorporated into Liber Eliensis, a 12th-century chronicle covering the history of Æthelthryth's establishment at Ely.[162] The account of the burning given by Historia ecclesiastica may well be the inspiration behind the tale of facial mutilation and fiery martyrdom first associated with Coldingham by the Wendover version of Flores historiarum.[148][note 19] To 12th-century ecclesiasts, invented tales of 9th-century violence—particularly violence inflicted by Ivar and Ubba—may have been intended to validate the refoundation of certain religious communities.[164][note 20]

The earliest Anglo-Saxon virgin-martyr is Osyth.[174] A now-lost 12th-century vita of this woman associated Ivar and Ubba with her seventh-century martyrdom. According to this source, Ivar and Ubba commanded the pirates who beheaded her after she refused to worship their pagan idols.[175] This work may have been the inspiration behind the Anglo-Norman hagiography Vie seinte Osith,[176] a composition that also attributes Osyth's killing to Ivar and Ubba and their followers.[177][note 21]

The Great Army after Ivar

 
 
The obverse and reverse of an Edmund memorial coin.[198] Although some of the moneyers' names that appear on these coins are Anglo-Saxon, many more are foreign.[199] The names suggest that there was a significant influx of Continental emigration into Anglo-Scandinavian-controlled regions.[200][note 22]

The history of East Anglia immediately after Edmund's demise is extremely obscure.[209] The account of events presented by Passio sancti Eadmundi seems to show that Edmund was killed in the context of the Great Army attempting to impose authority over him and his realm.[210] Such an accommodation appears to have been gained by the Vikings in Northumbria[211] and Mercia.[212] In any case, numismatic evidence appears to indicate that two client kings—a certain Æthelred and Oswald—thereafter ruled over the East Angles on behalf of the Viking conquerors.[213]

It is at about this point that Ivar disappears from English history.[214] According to Chronicon Æthelweardi, he died in the same year as Edmund.[215] However, this record may partly stem from the fact that he did not take part in the subsequent war against the Kingdom of Wessex,[216] beginning in the autumn or winter of 870.[2][note 23] In any case, the leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to kings Bagsecg (died 871) and Halfdan (died 877),[221] the first principal Viking leaders attested by all versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle after the army's recorded arrival.[222][note 24]

 
The prehistoric barrow at Lanhill, near Chippenham and Avebury, probably dates to about the third millennium BC.[229] Nevertheless, it was associated with Ubba in the 17th century.[230][note 25]

For about a year, the Great Army campaigned against the West Saxons, before overwintering in London.[231] Late in 872, after spending nearly a year in London, the Vikings were drawn back to Northumbria, and afterwards to Mercia.[232] By the end of 874, the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria were finally broken.[233] At this point, the Great Army split. Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria, the army under Guthrum (died 890), Oscytel (fl. 875) and Anwend (fl. 875), struck out southwards, and based itself at Cambridge.[234] In 875, the Vikings invaded Wessex and seized Wareham. Although Alfred, King of Wessex (died 899) sued for peace in 876, the Vikings broke the truce the following year, seized Exeter, and were finally forced to withdraw back to Mercia.[235]

Although much of Guthrum's army started to settle in Mercia,[236][note 26] the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[239] and Vita Alfredi reveal that Guthrum launched a surprise attack against the West Saxons in the winter of 877/878. Setting off from their base in Gloucester, the latter source specifies that the Vikings drove deep into Wessex, and sacked the royal vill of Chippenham.[240][note 27] It is possible that this operation was coordinated with another Viking attack in Devon that culminated in the Battle of Arx Cynuit in 878.[243]

Battle of Arx Cynuit

Further information: Battle of Cynwit
 
Wind Hill, near Countisbury, Devon, possibly the site of the Viking defeat at the hands of local men in 878.[244] Some mediaeval sources claim that Ubba led the vanquished army, and that he was among those slain.

Most versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle locate the battle to Devon.[245][note 28] Vita Alfredi specifies that it was fought at a fortress called Arx Cynuit,[247] a name which appears to equate to what is today Countisbury, in North Devon.[248][note 29] This source also states that the Vikings made landfall in Devon from a base in Dyfed, where they had previously overwintered.[257] As such, the Viking army could have arrived in Dyfed from Ireland, and overwintered in Wales before striking forth into Devon.[258][note 30]

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle does not identify the army's commander by name. It merely describes him as a brother of Ivar and Halfdan, and observes that he was slain in the encounter.[260][note 31] Although Ubba is identified as the slain commander by the 12th-century Estoire des Engleis,[262] it is unknown whether this identification is merely an inference by its author, or if it is derived from an earlier source.[263][note 32] For example, this identification could have been influenced by the earlier association of Ubba and Ivar in the legends surrounding Edmund's martyrdom.[263] In any case, Estoire des Engleis further specifies that Ubba was slain at "bois de Pene"[266]—which may refer to Penselwood, near the Somerset–Wiltshire border[267]—and buried in Devon within a mound called "Ubbelawe".[268][note 33]

 
The remains of the Gokstad ship, a 9th-century Viking ship unearthed in Norway

The clash at Arx Cynuit culminated in a West Saxon victory.[281] Whilst Vita Alfredi attributes the outcome to unnamed thegns of Alfred,[282] Chronicon Æthelweardi identifies the victorious commander as Odda, Ealdorman of Devon (fl. 878).[283] Most versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle number the Viking fleet at twenty-three ships,[284] and most versions number the Viking casualties at eight hundred and forty dead.[285][note 34] These numbers roughly give about thirty-six-and-a-half men per ship, which is comparable to the 32-oared Gokstad ship, a 9th-century Viking ship unearthed in Norway.[292]

On one hand, it is possible that the Viking commander at Arx Cynuit seized upon Guthrum's simultaneous campaigning against the West Saxons to launch a Viking foray of his from Dyfed.[297] On the other hand, the location and timing of the engagement at Arx Cynuit may indicate that the slain commander was cooperating with Guthrum. As such, there is reason to suspect that the two Viking armies coordinated their efforts in an attempt to corner Alfred in a pincer movement after his defeat at Chippenham and subsequent withdrawal into the wetlands of Somerset.[243] If the Vikings at Arx Cynuit were indeed working in cooperation with those at Chippenham, the record of their presence in Dyfed could also have been related to Guthrum's campaign against Alfred. As such, they could have been campaigning against Hyfaidd ap Bleddri, King of Dyfed (died 892/893) before their attack at Arx Cynuit.[298][note 35]

 
Old Burrow, near Countisbury, the site of a ruined Roman fortress, is another possible site of Arx Cynuit.[249]

It is possible that the defeat at Arx Cynuit left Guthrum overextended in Wessex, allowing Alfred's forces to assail Guthrum's exposed lines of communication.[301] Although Alfred's position may have been still perilous in the aftermath, with his contracted kingdom close to collapse,[237] the victory at Arx Cynuit certainly foreshadowed a turn of events for the West Saxons. A few weeks later in May, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Alfred was able to assemble his troops, and launch a successful attack against Guthrum at Edington.[302] Following Guthrum's crushing defeat, the Vikings were forced to accept Alfred's terms for peace. Guthrum was baptised as a Christian, and led the remainder of his forces into East Anglia, where they dispersed and settled.[303] Guthrum thereafter kept peace with the West Saxons, and ruled as a Christian king for more than a decade, until his death in 890.[304][note 36]

Medieval legend of Ragnar Lodbrok

 
A depiction of Lodbrok (Lothbrok) and his sons, Ivar and Ubba, worshipping pagan idols, as it appears on folio 39r of British Library Harley 2278.[307] This illustration depicts the pagan Danes as elaborately dressed Muslim Saracens, wearing tall turban-like headdresses and forked beards. Other illustrations in the manuscript, depicting Ivar and Ubba, show Vikings armed with curved swords.[308][note 37]

Although Ubba and Ivar are associated with each other by Passio sancti Eadmundi, the men are not stated to be related in any way.[310] The earliest source claiming kinship between the two is the Annals of St Neots,[311] an 11th- or 12th-century account stating that they were brothers of three daughters of Lodbrok (Lodebrochus).[312] This source further states that these three sisters wove a magical banner named Reafan that was captured at the Arx Cynuit conflict.[313] Although certain versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle also note the capture of a raven banner, named Hræfn ("Raven"), they do not mention any magical attributes, or refer to Lodbrok and his progeny.[314][note 38]

 
A 15th-century depiction of Lodbrok's murder by Björn as it appears on folio 34r of British Library Yates Thompson 47 (Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund)[327]

Lodbrok appears to be an early reference to Ragnar Lodbrok,[328] a saga character of dubious historicity, who could be an amalgam of several historical 9th-century figures.[329][note 39] According to Scandinavian sources, Ragnar Lodbrok was a Scandinavian of royal stock, whose death at the hands of Ælla in Northumbria was the catalyst of the invasion of Anglo-Saxon England—and Ælla's own destruction—by Ragnar Lodbrok's vengeful sons.[341] None of the saga-sources for the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok accord him a son that corresponds to Ubba.[342] The latter is only specifically attested by sources dealing with the East Scandinavian tradition.[343] One of these sources is the 13th-century Gesta Danorum.[344] According to this text, Ubba was the son of Ragnar Lodbrok and an unnamed daughter of a certain Hesbernus.[345] Gesta Danorum does not associate Ubba with Anglo-Saxon England in any way.[346][note 40] According to the 13th- or 14th-century Ragnarssona þáttr, a source that forms part of the West Scandinavian tradition, Ivar had two bastard brothers, Yngvar and Husto, who tortured Edmund on Ivar's instructions.[356] No other source mentions these sons.[357] It is possible that these figures represent Ivar and Ubba,[358] and that the composer of Ragnarssona þáttr failed to recognise the names of Ivar[359] and Ubba in English sources concerned with the legend of Edmund's martyrdom.[360][note 41]

 
A depiction of Ivar and Ubba setting forth to avenge their father, Lodbrok, as it appears on folio 47v of British Library Harley 2278[29][note 42]

Whilst Scandinavian sources—such as the 13th-century Ragnars saga loðbrókar—tend to locate the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok in a Northumbrian context, English sources tend to place them in an East Anglian setting.[369] The earliest source to specifically associate the legend with East Anglia is Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi,[370] a 12th-century account depicting the Viking invasion of East Anglia in the context of a dynastic dispute.[371] According to this source, Lodbrok (Lodebrok) was extremely envious of Edmund's fame. As such, it is Lodbrok's taunts that provoke his sons, Ivar, Ubba and Björn (Bern), to slay Edmund and destroy his kingdom.[372][note 43] Although this text is heavily dependent upon Passio sancti Eadmundi for its depiction of Edmund's death, it appears to be the first source to meld the martyrdom with the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok.[371][note 44]

 
An inscribed plaque at "Bloody Corner", between Appledore and Northam. In the early 19th century, it was imagined that this spot may have marked the site of Ubba's demise.[388][note 45]

By the 13th century an alternate rendition of the story appears in sources such as Chronica majora,[399] and both the Wendover[400] and Paris versions of Flores historiarum.[401] For example, the Wendover account states that Lodbrok (Lothbrocus) washed ashore in East Anglia, where he was honourably received by Edmund, but afterwards murdered by Björn (Berno), an envious huntsman. Although the latter is expelled from the realm, he convinces Lodbrok's sons, Ivar and Ubba, that the killer of their father was Edmund. As such, East Anglia is invaded by these two sons, and Edmund is killed in a case of misplaced vengeance.[402][note 46] A slightly different version of events is offered by Estoire des Engleis, which states that the Vikings invaded Northumbria on behalf of Björn (Buern Bucecarle), who sought vengeance for the rape of his wife by the Northumbrian king, Osberht.[406][note 47] On one hand, it is possible that the theme of vengeance directed at Edmund is derived from the tradition of Ælla's demise in Northumbria at the hands of Ragnar's progeny.[410][note 48] On the other hand, the revenge motifs and miraculous maritime journeys presented in the accounts of Edmund are well-known elements commonly found in contemporaneous chivalric romances.[412]

There is reason to suspect that the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok originated from attempts to explain why the Vikings came to settle in Anglo-Saxon England. The core of the tradition may have been constructed as a way to rationalise their arrival without assigning blame to either side (as illustrated by the sympathetic Wendover account).[413] As such, the legend could have been intended to justify Edmund's violent demise.[414] The tales may have evolved at an early stage of Viking settlement, and may have functioned as an origin myth of the emerging Anglo-Scandinavian culture.[415][note 49] The shared kinship assigned to Ivar and Ubba within the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok may stem from their combined part in Edmund's downfall as opposed to any historical familial connection.[422]

In popular culture

 
Alfred in the Isle of Athelney, receiving news of a Victory over the Danes, an 18th-century depiction of Alfred, King of Wessex learning of the Viking defeat at Arx Cynuit[423][note 50]

Ubba appears as a character in modern historical fiction. For example, the unnamed Danish king that appears in Alfred: A Masque, a musical play with a libretto by James Thomson (died 1748) and David Mallet (died 1765)—first presented in 1740[428]—may be a composite of Ubba, Guthrum, Ivar and Halfdan.[429] Ubba certainly appears in Alfred the Great, Deliverer of His Country,[430] an anonymous play that first appears on record in 1753;[431] and The Magick Banner; or, Two Wives in a House,[432] a play by John O'Keeffe (died 1833), first presented in 1796.[433][note 51] He also appears in the Sketch of Alfred the Great: Or, the Danish Invasion,[435] a ballet by Mark Lonsdale, first performed in 1798;[436] and Alfred; An Epic Poem,[437] a long piece of epic poetry by Henry James Pye (died 1813), published in 1801;[438] and the similarly named Alfred, an Epic Poem, by Joseph Cottle (died 1853)[439]—a poem almost twice as long as Pye's[440]—first published in 1800.[441]

Ubba later appears in Alfred the Great; Or, The Enchanted Standard, a musical drama by Isaac Pocock (died 1835),[442] based upon O'Keeffe's play,[443] and first performed in 1827;[444] and Alfred the Great, a play by James Magnus, dating to 1838.[445] He further appears in Alfred of Wessex, an epic poem by Richard Kelsey, published in 1852;[446] and in the 1899 novel King Alfred's Viking, by Charles Whistler (died 1913);[447] and the 2004 novel The Last Kingdom by Bernard Cornwell.[448] Ubba is also a character in Vikings, a television series first aired on the History network in 2013. His name was changed to Ubbe, and he was portrayed by Jordan Patrick Smith from season 4B through the end.[449]

In 2015, BBC Two released The Last Kingdom,[450] a fictional television series (based upon Cornwell's The Saxon Chronicles series of novels).[451] It was later aired on Netflix. Although the series and many of its characters were based on real events and people, the series also contains fictional events.[452] The character was portrayed a little differently than the real-life Ubba.[453] Ubba is played by actor Rune Temte.[454]

Ubba, Halfdan and Ivar the Boneless appear in the Ubisoft video game Assassin's Creed Valhalla as brothers, sharing significant roles in the story of Viking conquests of England during the 9th century.[455]

Notes

  1. ^ Since the 1990s, academics have accorded Ubba various personal names in English secondary sources: Huba,[2] Hubba,[3] Ubba,[4] Ubbe Ragnarsson,[5] Ubbe,[6] Ubbi,[7] Ubbo,[8] and Ube.[9]
  2. ^ The Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund may be the high point of the late-medieval cult devoted to Edmund. The work draws from Passio sancti Eadmundi.[31] The Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund represents the first significant augmentation of Edmund's legend after Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi.[32]
  3. ^ The Great Army's seizure of York is dated to 1 November (All Saints' Day) by the 12th-century Libellus de exordio,[39] and the 13th-century Wendover version of Flores historiarum.[40] Preying upon a populated site on a feast day was a noted tactic of the Vikings. Such celebrations offered attackers easy access to potential captives who could be ransomed or sold into slavery.[41] According to Libellus de exordio,[42] and the 12th-century Historia regum Anglorum, the Anglo-Saxons' attempt to recapture York took place on 21 March.[43] The Wendover version of Flores historiarum,[40] and Historia de sancto Cuthberto, date this attack to 23 March (Palm Sunday).[44] Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses states that Ubba crushed the Northumbrians "not long after Palm Sunday".[45]
  4. ^ At one point after its account of Ubba's stated victory over the Northumbrians, Historia de sancto Cuthberto expands upon the Vikings' successful campaigning across Anglo-Saxon England, and specifically identifies the Viking commanders as Ubba, dux of the Frisians, and Halfdan, rex of the Danes.[48] Historia regum Anglorum identifies the commanders of the Vikings in 866 as Ivar, Ubba, and Halfdan.[49] Libellus de exordio states that the Vikings who ravaged Northumbria were composed of Danes and Frisians.[50]
  5. ^ This manuscript preserves a copy of the 12th-century La vie seint Edmund le rei.[66]
  6. ^ During this period, the compilers of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle began the year during the autumn, in September.[73] As such, whilst most versions of the chronicle assign Edmund's demise to the year 870, it is evident that he actually died in the autumn of 869.[74]
  7. ^ In contrast to earlier versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the 12th-century "E"[79] and "F" versions make note of the king's sanctity.[80] However, there is reason to suspect that these entries are influenced by hagiographical accounts of Edmund,[81] and may stem from late textual additions into the chronicle.[82] As such, these entries may not be evidence of the king's cult in the years immediately after his death.[83]
  8. ^ The account of Edmund's martyrdom preserved by Passio sancti Eadmundi likens him to Jesus Christ[85] and St Sebastian.[86] Specifically, Edmund is mocked and scourged like Christ,[85] and later tied to a tree and shot like St Sebastian.[86] Ubba and Ivar feature in the account of Edmund preserved by the 13th-century South English Legendary,[87] a source steeped in anti-Danish sentiment.[88] This source appears to depict the tortures inflicted upon Edmund as a way to define the English national identity in contrast to the barbarian Other.[89]
  9. ^ For example, Oswald, King of Northumbria (died 642) was venerated as a martyr after he was slain battling seventh-century heathens.[94] Óláfr Haraldsson, King of Norway (died 1030) was also slain in battle and later remembered as a martyr.[95]
  10. ^ The fact that Passio sancti Eadmundi was commissioned, and later spawned the account of Edmund presented by the 10th-century Lives of the Saints, reveals that the king's cult was recognised into the late 10th and 11th centuries.[98] The composer of Passio sancti Eadmundi claimed that his version of events was mainly derived from a story he had heard told by the elderly Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 988). The source relates that Dunstan heard this tale, as a young man, from a very old man who claimed to have been Edmund's armour-bearer on the day of his death.[99] Passio sancti Eadmundi[100] and the Lives of the Saints specify that Edmund was killed on 20 November.[101] This date was certainly commemorated by the 11th century.[102]
  11. ^ Passio sancti Eadmundi is the earliest hagiographical account of Edmund,[106] and Vita Alfredi is the earliest biography of an Anglo-Saxon king.[107]
  12. ^ This source portrays Ivar and Ubba as agents of the Devil,[113] as does the derivative Lives of the Saints.[114]
  13. ^ This is the last time Passio sancti Eadmundi mentions Ubba.[116] Whilst this source depicts the Vikings arriving in East Anglia by sea from Northumbria, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle depicts them marching across Mercia into East Anglia.[117]
  14. ^ There does not appear to be any hagiographical reason why the composer of Passio sancti Eadmundi would have constructed a narrative in which Ubba was left behind in Northumbria.[120] Certainly, the 12th-century Estoire des Engleis, the earliest surviving Anglo-Norman history,[121] notes that the Vikings left a garrison at York when the struck out at Nottingham in 867.[122]
  15. ^ One such source is Estoire des Engleis, which implies that Ubba and Ivar, described as kings, led the invasion of East Anglia, and further states how the apprehended Edmund was kept prisoner until their arrival.[126] The fourteenth- to 15th-century Liber monasterii de Hyda also assigns the killing of Edmund to Ivar and Ubba.[127]
  16. ^ This miniature depicts several scenes. Whereas the first scene shows the Vikings battling against armed defenders of a burning town, the second shows mainly slaughtered unarmed inhabitants. Some of the latter are naked, which reflects the language employed by Passio sancti Eadmundi.[136]
  17. ^ Supposed ecclesiastic devastation wrought by the Vikings has not been established by archaeology.[141] The only ecclesiastical site proven to have suffered a detrimental effect from the Vikings is St Wystan's Church at Repton, where the Vikings are otherwise known to have overwintered in 873/874.[142]
  18. ^ In comparison to hagiographies like Passio sancti Eadmundi and Lives of Saints, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives a much less dramatic and detailed depiction of the 9th century. As a result, the authors of later mediaeval histories relied upon these hagiographies for their narratives. Even today, Lives of Saints is one of the most-read Old English texts, and historians' views of the past are still shaped by it.[153] The reputation of Ivar and Ubba may lay behind the similarly named Yvor and Yni, noted by the 12th-century Historia regum Britanniæ. According to this source, Yvor and Yni were closely related Britons who failed to eject the Anglo-Saxons from Britain after launching a series of maritime invasions of the island. As a result of their failure, Historia regum Britanniæ declares that the British people thereafter became known as the Welsh.[154] Whilst Yvor seems to correspond to the Old Norse Ívarr, the form Yni may be a garbled attempt at Ubba's name.[155] The 12th-century "E" version of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle claims that Ivar and Ubba destroyed all monasteries they encountered, and specifies that they burned the monastery of Medeshamstede (Peterborough), and killed its abbot and monks.[156] The 12th-century chronicle of Hugh Candidus (died c.1160) also relates that Ivar and Ubba were responsible for the annihilation of churches throughout Anglo-Saxon England, and specifies that they destroyed the monastery and monks of Medeshamstede.[157] According to this source, which is heavily influenced by Passio sancti Eadmundi, some of the monasteries ravaged by Ivar and Ubba remained deserted and in ruins until his own time.[158]
  19. ^ The story of nuns self-mutilating to avoid rape at the hands of roving Vikings is not confined to Coldingham, it is also attributed to the 9th-century nuns of Fécamp across the Channel in Normandy.[163]
  20. ^ For example, the 13th-century Whitby cartulary preserves a 12th-century account of how the knight Reinfrid came to "Streoneshalc", a place that had been "laid to waste, in a ferocious devastation", by Ivar and Ubba, "the most cruel pirates". As a result of this carnage, the accounts relates that the religious services of monks and nuns had ceased for over two centuries, and that Reinfrid was struck with compunction having observed the desolation for himself.[165] Another example is given by the 12th-century Chronicon ex chronicis which states that the invasions of Ivar and Ubba were responsible for the flight of the Cuthbertine community of Lindisfarne.[166] Ivar and Ubba are also woven into the account of the monastery of Ely preserved by Liber Eliensis. If this source is to be believed, the Vikings' destruction of this religious house—in a blazing fire that consumed all of its nuns—were the reason why this formerly flourishing ecclesiastical site became a secular community by the end of the 10th century.[167] According to this account, the monastery's annihilation occurred in the context of Ivar and Ubba's campaigning at the time of Edmund's downfall.[168] Whilst this tale of fiery destruction appears to be derived from the 12th-century Libellus Æthelwoldi,[169] the portrayal of marauding Vikings is borrowed from sources such as Chronicon ex chronicis[170] and Passio sancti Eadmundi.[171] The latter account also seems to be the source for the appearance of Ivar and Ubba in the account of the hermit Suneman, and the destruction of St Benet's Abbey, given by the 14th-century Chronicon Joannis Bromton.[172] According to the 13th-century Chronica Johannis de Oxenedes, Suneman was martyred by invading Vikings.[173]
  21. ^ This source also associates Ivar and Ubba with Edmund's martyrdom.[178] The lost vita can be reconstructed from notes dating to the sixteenth century.[179] Ivar and Ubba play a role in an hagiographical account of Hild, a seventh-century Anglo-Saxon saint. According to an hagiographical poem preserved by the 15th-century manuscript Cambridge Trinity College 0.9.38 (T), the campaigning of Ivar and Ubba forced a certain Titus to remove Hild's relics to Glastonbury Abbey, where he became abbot.[180] This account appears to conflate two incompatible accounts presented by the author of the 12th-century texts Gesta pontificum Anglorum and De antiquitate Glastonie ecclesie.[181] Whilst the former composition states that the relics were donated to Glastonbury by Edmund himself,[182] the latter relates that the relics were brought to Glastonbury in the eighth century by Tica, a man who became Abbot of Glastonbury.[183] Tica appears to be identical to Tyccea, an historical eighth-century ecclesiast attested in the western Anglo-Saxon England.[184] The rampaging of Ivar and Ubba is also noted by De sancto Oswino, an account of Oswine, King of Deira (died 651) that forms part of the 14th-century Sanctilogium Angliae, Walliae, Scotiae, et Hiberniae.[185] This hagiography of Oswine appears to derive its account from Vita tertia sancti Oswini. Although the latter text fails to include Ivar and Ubba in its version of events,[186] the manuscript of this source—British Library Cotton Julius A.x.—contains a lacuna between folios 9 and 10 where at least one leaf has been lost.[187] There is reason to suspect that the missing content has been preserved by Chronica majora and the Wendover and Paris versions of Flores historiarum—sources which state that Ivar and Ubba destroyed the monastery of Tynemouth, and thereby massacred the nuns of Hild's convent who cared for Oswine's shrine.[188] An hagiographical account of Oswine could be the source behind the account of the monastery's burning given by the sixteenth-century Collectanea of John Leland (died 1552).[189] Although this source attributes the monastic destruction to Ivar and Ubba, the fate of the nuns is not mentioned.[190] Ivar and Ubba also feature in the legend of the martyrdom of Fremund,[191] a 9th-century saint whose historicity is also uncertain.[192] Accounts of Fremund are not found in any Anglo-Saxon historical sources, and are preserved in later hagiographical compositions.[193] The earliest source of the legend is a 13th-century manuscript Dublin Trinity College 172 (B 2 7),[194] The best-known version of the legend is given by the 15th-century Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund.[195] All versions of Fremund's vitae tell a similar tale.[196] According to these sources, Ivar and Ubba invaded Anglo-Saxon England and slew Edmund, after which Fremund orchestrated a miraculous avenging victory over the Vikings, and was treacherously slain afterwards.[191] Ivar and Ubba also play a part in the legend of Sexburga (died 674?). Specifically, according to the 12th-century Vita beate Sexburge regine, this seventh-century East Anglian saint had a premonition of future calamities that were proved true through the invasion of Ivar and Ubba.[197]
  22. ^ The moneyer of this particular coin was a man named Hlodovicus–whose name is inscribed on the reverse–which could be evidence that he was a Frank.[201] The coins that bear Edmund's name, the so-called St Edmund memorial coinage, are the earliest evidence of a religious cult devoted to the king.[202] There is reason to suspect that the cult was advanced by later Anglo-Scandinavians as a way to retain authority in East Anglia,[203] as a way to repent for his death at the hands of their Viking predecessors.[204] It is also possible that the cult was originally promoted as a way the surviving East Anglian aristocracy attempted to oppose Anglo-Scandinavian overlordship,[205] and that the Anglo-Scandinavian regime thereafter adopted the cult and capitalised upon it.[206] Conversely, it is possible that the cult was originally more focused upon Edmund's royal standing than his death, and only acquired anti-Anglo-Scandinavian connotations in a later period.[202] In any case, the memorial coinage seems to have been minted under the auspices of the Anglo-Scandinavian leadership,[207] and his cult certainly spread into the Scandinavia later in the Middle Ages.[208]
  23. ^ Whilst there is reason to suspect that Ivar is identical to Ímar (died 873), a Viking king later active in Ireland and northern Britain,[217] such an identification is uncertain.[218] Nevertheless, if Ivar is indeed identical to Ímar—and therefore commanded Vikings settled in the Irish Sea region before the coalescence of the Great Army in Anglo-Saxon England—it is possible that he and Halfdan led the troops identified as Danes and that Ubba led those identified as Frisians.[219] It is also possible that Ubba is identical to Rodulfus (died 878), a Viking attested on the Continent in the 860s and 870s. Rodulfus is recorded to have been slain in an attack on Oostergo in 873.[220]
  24. ^ Many of the earliest Vikings attested by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle are those that lost recorded battles or died in them.[223] Such is certainly the case in Irish sources. The fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster, for example, reports the deaths of Saxólfr (died 837),[224] Þórgísl (died 845),[225] Hákon (died 847),[226] and Þórir (died 848) in the 830s and 840s,[227] before naming the first living Viking, Steinn (fl. 852), in the 850s.[228]
  25. ^ Specifically, John Aubrey (died 1697) called it "Hubbaslow" and "Hubba's Low", and stated that it was the site "where they say that one Hubba lies buried".[230]
  26. ^ This region of settlement came to be known as Five Boroughs:[237] Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, and Stamford.[238]
  27. ^ A vill was an administration unit, roughly equating to a modern parish.[241] Chippenham appears to have been a significant settlement during the period, and might well have been a seat of the West Saxon monarchy.[242]
  28. ^ The "B" and "C" versions of this source do not locate the conflict to any specific place.[246]
  29. ^ Other locations have been suggested. One such place is Old Burrow (grid reference SS 7874 4928), the site of a nearby Roman fortlet.[249] Another possible location is Castle Hill, near Beaford and Great Torrington.[250] Another is Kenwith Castle,[251] and another is Congresbury.[252] The seventeenth-century Devonian topographer Thomas Westcote (fl. 1624–1636) remarked that "as many places in this county claim the honour of this victory, as cities in Greece for the birth of Homer". Westcote himself located the battle to place near Appledore, where he claimed that a cairn called "Whibbestow" sat on the site before it was lost to the encroaching sea.[253] A close contemporary of Westcote, Tristram Risdon (died 1640), also located the site near Appledore, stating that the Danes buried Ubba on the shore in a mound called "Hubba stone". According to Risdon, although the mound of stones had washed away by the time of his writing, a form of the site's name existed near Appledore as "Wibblestone" in the parish of Northam.[254] By the eighteenth century, it was claimed that Ubba's burial was located near Bideford, and was called "Hubblestone" and "Hubble's Stone" because of a large stone that marked the grave.[255] The site came to be called "Whibblestone" by the nineteenth century.[256]
  30. ^ Nevertheless, the attack on Dyfed, and the actual siege of Arx Cynuit, is not noted by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.[259]
  31. ^ Vita Alfredi similarly identifies the slain commander as a brother of Ivar and Halfdan.[261]
  32. ^ Estoire des Engleis is otherwise known to have been partly derived from a now-non-existent early version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.[264] The source nevertheless attributes the victory to Alfred himself.[265]
  33. ^ Estoire des Engleis is the only source to assign the burial site to Ubba.[269] The 13th-century Ragnars saga loðbrókar states that Ivar was also buried in a mound. According to this source, Harald Hardrada (died 1066) was defeated by the English near the mound, and when William II, Duke of Normandy (died 1087) arrived on the scene he had the mound destroyed and thereby conquered the English.[270] A somewhat similar tale concerning Ivar's mound is given by the 13th-century Hemings þáttr.[271] The tale of Ivar's burial is paralleled by one given by Historia regum Britanniæ—which in turn seems to be derived from a tale presented by Historia Brittonum—that recounts how the Briton Vortimer, son of Vortigern, asked to be buried in a mound along the British coast to deter the Saxon invasions.[272] According to the Distich on the Sons of Lothebrok, a series of notes preserved by the twelfth- to 13th-century Cambridge Pembroke College 82, Ubba was slain at Ubbelaw in Yorkshire. This source further relates that Björn (Beorn), a brother of Ubba, destroyed a church at Sheppey, violated the nuns, and was miraculously killed in an act of divine retribution, as he was swallowed alive by the ground at Frindsbury, near Rochester.[273] A similar story is given by the 13th-century British Library Arundel 69.[274] According to Liber monasterii de Hyda, Ubba met his end the same way.[275] One possibility is that this version of events is connected to the tale of the burial mound given by Estoire des Engleis.[276] Whilst Ubba is specifically associated with Frisia and Frisans by sources such as Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses and Historia de sancto Cuthberto, Björn is specifically associated with Frisia by the 11th-century Gesta Normannorum ducum, which remarks that he (Bier Costae ferreae) went there and died.[277] The later Chronicon Joannis Bromton gives a confused account of Ubba, Ivar, and Björn (Bruern Bocard). This source seems to associate the demise of these men with the Anglo-Saxon victory at the Battle of Chippenham, but states that the surviving Danes came across Ubba's body amongst the slain, and buried him in a mound called "Hubbelow" in Devon.[278] A similar account associating Ubba with the same battle, and a burial mound named after him, is given by the 14th-century Eulogium historiarum sive temporis.[279] Another unreliable depiction of Ubba's demise is given by Liber Eliensis, which states that he was one of the slain Viking leaders at the Battle of Ashdown.[280]
  34. ^ The "D" and "E" versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle do not number the ships.[286] The "B" and "C" versions state that the Vikings suffered eight hundred and sixty dead.[287] The discrepancy can be accounted for by the similarity to the tallies when presented in roman numerals: ".dccc. + .xl." (840) compared to ".dccc. + .lx." (860).[288] All versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle number the Viking casualties in a complex manner, stating that eight hundred "men with him" and a further forty (or sixty) "men of his army" were killed.[289] The Old English heres, generally taken to mean "army" in this passage, may be an error for hīredes, a term for a personal retinue.[290] As such numbers forty and sixty in these sources may well refer to Ubba's personal retinue.[291] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle does not employ the term micel ("great") in its depiction of the army.[292] Vita Alfredi numbers the Viking dead at one thousand two hundred.[293] Chronicon Æthelweardi numbers the dead at eight hundred, and the fleet at thirty ships. This source specifically identifies the slain Viking commander as Halfdan, describing him as the brother of Ivar, and unlike other accounts, states that the Vikings were victorious in the affair.[294] The 12th-century Historia Anglorum, partly derived from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, does not name the Viking commander, but describes him as a brother of Halfdan.[295] Historia regum Anglorum makes no mention of any brother, and merely states that it was Ivar and Halfdan who fought and died in Devon.[296]
  35. ^ Although Hyfaidd's political alignment in 877 is unknown, he was certainly an ally of Alfred by 885.[299] The version of events given by Historia de sancto Cuthberto has it that, after the destruction of the Northumbrian kingdom, and the devastation of northern and southern England, the forces of Ubba and Halfdan split in three. Whilst one part settled and rebuilt in the region of York, another part positioned itself in Mercia. Another part is stated to have commenced a campaigned against the South Saxons, and forced Alfred to seek refuge in a Glastonbury marsh "in great want".[300]
  36. ^ The father of Oda, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 958) was a Viking who settled in Anglo-Saxon England with the army of Ubba and Ivar,[305] as evidenced by Vita Oswaldi.[306]
  37. ^ This depiction of the Danes in this illustration contrasts the depictions of Edmund elsewhere in the manuscript, where he is presented engaging in royal activities.[309]
  38. ^ It is possible that the association of Ubba with Ivar given by the Annals of St Neots is derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi.[315] The capture of the raven banner is noted by the "B", "C", "D", and "E" versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.[316] It is not noted by the "A"[317] and "F" versions,[318] or either by Vita Alfredi[319] and Chronicon Æthelweardi.[320] As such, it is uncertain whether the reports of a raven banner represent an historical event.[321] The source from which the author of the Annals of St Neots drew these details is unknown.[322] Whilst it is possible that its story is derived from the "B", "C", "D", and "E" versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, it is unknown why the earliest version of the chronicle fails to include this material.[323] The notice of the banner preserved by the 10th-century "B" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the earliest attestation of a gúþfana ("war banner") in Anglo-Saxon England. Nevertheless, this version of the chronicle dates at least a century after the event, which could mean that the banner's classification as a gúþfana is anachronistic.[324] This entry is also the earliest record of a raven banner.[325] It is possible that the motif of the raven banner, associated with figures such as Cnute the Great (died 1035), Siward, Earl of Northumbria (died 1055), and Sigurd the Stout (died 1014), is derived from traditions concerning the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok and his asserted his family.[326]
  39. ^ Forms of the names Ragnarr and Loðbrók are only used together for this character by Scandinavian sources,[330] and are first used by the 12th-century Íslendingabók.[331] As such, there is no evidence of a figure named Ragnarr loðbrók before the twelfth century.[332] One possible historical prototype for this literary character is Reginheri, a Viking commander recorded to have raided Paris in 845.[333] The earliest record of a form of the name Loðbrók in English sources[334]—and the first source to assign Ubba and Ivar as sons of this figure—is the account of the raven banner given by Annals of St Neots.[335] Forms of the name Loðbrók are first attested by the 11th-century texts Gesta Normannorum ducum[336] and Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum.[337] Whilst the former makes note of a king named Lodbrok (Lotbrocus), the father of a Viking named Björn (Bier Costae ferreae),[338] the latter source makes note of a man named Lodbrok (Lodparchus), the father of a Viking king named Ivar.[339] There is also reason to suspect that the character Ragnar Lodbrok is partly derived from a woman named Loðbróka.[340]
  40. ^ According to this account, at one point Ubba revolted againstRagnar Lodbrok at the behest of Hesbernus, and afterwards Ragnar Lodbrok slew Hesbernus, overcame the rebellion, and reconciled himself with Ubba.[347] Halfdan is not identified as a son of Ragnar Lodbrok in any Scandinavian source.[348] The first Scandinavian source to claim kinship between Ubba, Ivar, and Lodbrok, is the 12th-century Chronicon Roskildense.[349] This source is also the earliest Danish source to make note of Lodbrok and his sons.[350] According to Sǫgubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum, Ubbi fríski slew Rǫgnvaldr hái at Brávellir, a man also known as Raðbarðr hnefi.[351] This slain figure equates to Rǫgnvaldr (Regnaldus), a figure attested by Gesta Danorum who is described as a nephew or grandson of Raðbarðr (Rathbartus).[352] The Old Norse hnefi can either mean "fist" or refer to a piece in a board game.[353] On one hand, it is possible that the compiler of Gesta Danorum transformed this epithet into the Latin nepos, meaning "nephew" or "grandson".[354] On the other hand, the epithet given by Sǫgubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum may merely be a corruption of nepos.[335] In any case, Gesta Danorum also accords Ragnar Lodbrok sons with the names Rǫgnvaldr (Regnaldus) and Raðbarðr (Rathbartus).[355]
  41. ^ In some cases, the Old Norse personal names Ingvarr[335] and Yngvarr represent Ívarr.[361] It is possible that Hústó is a corrupt form of Hubbo, and therefore stems from a Latin source.[335] Chronicon Roskildense seems to suffer a problem similar to that of Ragnarssona þáttr, since it accords Lodbrok with sons bearing forms of the same two names.[362] This suggests that Ragnarssona þáttr may be partly derived from Chronicon Roskildense,[363] or that both texts were influenced from English sources pertaining to the legend of Edmund.[364] The 13th-century Annales Lundenses likewise accords Lodbrok with sons bearing forms of these names.[365] The bastardy accorded to Yngvarr and Hústó by Ragnarssona þáttr may be a device to help explain the cruelty that they inflicted upon the saintly Edmund.[361]
  42. ^ The Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund consists of over three thousand lines of poetry, and is the most elaborate version of the legend of Edmund.[366] It portrays the invasion of Ivar and Ubba as an act motivated by envy of Edmund, and by the misplaced need to avenge their father's murder upon him.[367] Whilst Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi portrays their mocking father (Lodbrok) as a foil to Edmund, the Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund portrays Lodbrok as a virtuous pagan, who disdained the rapine of his sons and admired the generosity and nobility of Edmund.[368]
  43. ^ A similar account is given by the 12th-century La vie seint Edmund le rei, which gives the same tale of Lodbrok's (Lothebrok) taunts, and of his jealous sons, Ivar, Ubba, and Björn (Bern).[373] La vie seint Edmund le rei is probably derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi, Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi, Estoire des Engleis,[374] and the 12th-century Roman de Brut.[375] La vie seint Edmund le rei is the first extended account of Edmund's legend in French.[376] Another French text making note of Ívarr and Ubba, and their part in the legend of Edmund, is the 13th-century Passiun de Seint Edmund,[377] a source mainly derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi.[378] Passiun de Seint Edmund also states that Ivar and Ubba were responsible for the martyrdom of (the seventh-century Northumbrian king) Oswald.[379]
  44. ^ Whilst Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi may owe its information on Lodbrok and Björn to Gesta Normannorum ducum, the latter account cannot be the source for the identification of Ivar and Ubba as other sons of Lodbrok.[380] According to Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi, Ubba possessed diabolical powers that enabled him to gain victory in battle if he was lifted above his enemies.[381] Magical powers are also attributed to Ubba by La vie seint Edmund le rei.[382] A similar motif is given by Ragnars saga loðbrókar, although this source instead attributes sorcerous abilities to Ivar.[383] Historia Anglorum accords remarkable cunning to Ivar and extraordinary courage to Ubba.[384] At one point, Passio sancti Eadmundi declares that, before the fateful invasion of Anglo-Saxon England, rumours of Edmund's vigour and military prowess reached Ivar. One possibility is that this passage is the origin of the later stories of Lodbrok scorning his sons on account of Edmund's accomplishments.[385] In any case, the earliest source to specifically associate Ragnar Lodbrok's family with the legend of Edmund's martyrdom is Íslendingabók, which attributes Edmund's demise to Ivar, son of Ragnar Lodbrok.[386] The source of this claim is unknown. The earliest account to identify Ivar as a son of someone who seems to equate to Ragnar Lodbrok is Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum.[387]
  45. ^ Over the years this conjecture evolved into local tradition, and the plaque was raised before the end of the nineteenth century. The inscription reads in part: "Stop stranger stop/Near this spot lies buried/King Hubba the Dane/Who was slayed in a bloody retreat/By King Alfred the Great".[389] In 2009, a stone monument was raised in Appledore to commemorate this tradition of Ubba.[390] It is sometimes romanticised that the village of Hubberston in Pembrokeshire is named after Ubba, and that he overwintered in nearby Milford Haven. There is no evidence for this assertion.[391] Rather than being Scandianvian in origin, the name is derived from the Old Germanic personal name Hubert.[392] The name of the town is first recorded in the thirteenth century as Hobertiston[393] and Villa Huberti,[394] meaning "Hubert's Farm",[393] "Hubert's manor",[395] and "Hubert's tūn".[396] The village has only been known as Hubberston since the early seventeenth century.[397] One possibility is that the town's eponym is identical to Hubertus, a man of Pembrokeshire, attested by the 12th-century Pipe Rolls of Henry I, King of England (died 1135).[398]
  46. ^ These 13th-century compositions are the earliest accounts to associate the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok's death with that of Edmund.[403] A similar, but much later story, presented by Historia monasterii sancti Augustini Cantuariensis, relates that Edmund was the killer of a bear that was the father of Ivar and Ubba.[404] A version of the Wendover account is given by Vita et passio cum miraculis sancti Edmundi, preserved by the 14th-century Oxford Bodleian Library Bodley 240. Vita et passio cum miraculis sancti Edmundi is the earliest hagiographic source of Edmund's legend to present the king taking up arms against the Vikings.[405]
  47. ^ According to this version of events, Ælla is a lowly knight who became king after Osberht had been driven from the throne by Björn's relatives.[406] A somewhat similar version of events is presented by Chronicon Joannis Bromton and Eulogium historiarum sive temporis, sources that present Ivar and Ubba as commanding the Danes that came overseas on behalf of Björn to topple Osberht.[407] The mediaeval Prose Brut is another source giving a similar account.[408] In the version of events outlined by the anonymous Narratio de uxore Aernulfi ab Ella rege Deirorum violata, Osberht is not mentioned, and it is Ælla who has committed rape during the invasion of Ivar and Ubba.[409]
  48. ^ According to Ragnars saga loðbrókar, for example, Ragnar was killed by Ælla, who was in turn slain by Ragnar's sons, Ivar, Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye, Björn Ironside, and Hvitserk.[411] Whilst the figures Ivar and Björn are alluded to in the legend of Edmund's martyrdom (under various guises as in the case of Björn), no source associates Sigurd and Hvitserk with the legend.[346]
  49. ^ Similarly, the Northumbrian-focused accounts of the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok, as given by Scandinavian sources, could have originated as a way to white-wash history by relocating the tale of regicide from East Anglia to Northumbria, replacing the saintly Edmund with the obscure Ælla.[416] Ubba appears to be the prototype of a like-named character (Ubbe) who appears in the thirteenth- or 14th-century Middle English Havelok the Dane.[417] Within the tale, Ubba is closely associated with a character (Bernard Brun) who appears to correlate to Björn. Both Ubba and Björn are depicted as loyal and distinguished Danes,[418] and there is reason to suspect that they and other characters were used to add a veneer of historicity to a story exploring the Anglo-Scandinavian contribution to the English identity.[419] Since Ubba was otherwise widely asserted as one of the perpetrators of Edmund's martyrdom, one possibility is that he was inserted into the romance as a way to cast doubt upon any lingering anti-Danish sentiment.[420] Much like the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok the motif of personal revenge plays a prominent role in the tale of Havelok, with revenge used to justify Danish invasions of England.[421]
  50. ^ The illustration depicts Alfred receiving the raven banner captured at Arx Cynuit. The scene is probably derived from the History of England, by Paul de Rapin (died 1725), which portrays the battle—and the death of Ubba—as the decisive turning-point of Alfred's struggle against the Vikings.[424] The raven banner may be borrowed from an engraved portrait of Alfred by George Vertue (died 1756).[425] It was after the publication of Vertue's portrait that the banner came to associated with Alfredian art.[426] For example, it also appears in an engraved portrait of the king by B. Cole, for the New Universal Magazine of 1752; and another image by Samuel Wale (died 1786) in the 1760s. This latter depiction was published in the New History of England of 1764–1769, by John Hamilton Mortimer (died 1779); and in the New and Universal History of England of 1771–1772, by William Henry Mountague; and reused in A New and Complete History of England of 1773, by Temple Sydney; and in A New and Authentic History of England of 1777–1779, by William Augustus Russel.[427]
  51. ^ The play was first presented as The Magick Banner; or, Two Wives in a House, and published later in 1798 as Alfred; or The Magic Banner.[434]

Citations

  1. ^ Hervey (1907) p. 458; Horstmann (1881) p. 402 bk. 2 § 319; Harley MS 2278 (n.d.)
  2. ^ a b Costambeys (2004b).
  3. ^ Barrow (2016); Bartlett (2016); Lewis (2016); Jordan, TRW (2015); McTurk, R (2015); Lapidge (2014); Lazzari (2014); Cammarota (2013); Emons-Nijenhuis (2013); Mills, R (2013); Gigov (2011); Pinner (2010); Finlay (2009); Ridyard (2008); Rowe, EA (2008); McTurk, R (2007); Winstead (2007); McTurk, R (2006); Fjalldal (2003); Schulenburg (2001); Foot (2000); Frederick (2000); Halldórsson (2000); Hayward (1999); Keynes (1999); Pulsiano (1999); Whitelock (1996); Gransden (1995); Townsend (1994); Rowe, E (1993).
  4. ^ Coroban (2017); Barrow (2016); Bartlett (2016); Gore (2016); Lewis (2016); IJssennagger (2015); McGuigan (2015); Pinner (2015); Downham (2013a); McLeod, SH (2011); Pinner (2010); Cawsey (2009); Edwards, ASG (2009); Finlay (2009); Hayward (2009); Ridyard (2008); Woolf (2007); McLeod, S (2006); Adams; Holman (2004); Costambeys (2004b); Crumplin (2004); Kries (2003); Halldórsson (2000); Rigg (1996); Gransden (1995); Abels (1992); Rigg (1992).
  5. ^ Parker, EC (2012); Fornasini (2009).
  6. ^ Barrow (2016); Gore (2016); Parker, E (2016); Roffey; Lavelle (2016); IJssennagger (2015); Parker, E (2014); Reimer (2014); Abels (2013); IJssennagger (2013); Parker, EC (2012); Gigov (2011); Cubitt (2009); Fornasini (2009); Rowe, EA (2008); Cubitt; Costambeys (2004); Keynes; Lapidge (2004); Kleinman (2004); Smyth (2002); Smyth (1998); Frankis (1996); Yorke (1995).
  7. ^ Somerville; McDonald (2014); Emons-Nijenhuis (2013); McLeod, SH (2011); Finlay (2009); Levy (2004); Kries (2003); Davidson; Fisher (1999); Swanton, MJ (1999); Rowe, E (1993).
  8. ^ McTurk, R (2015); IJssennagger (2013); Rowe, EA (2008); McTurk, R (2006).
  9. ^ McTurk, R (2015); McTurk, R (2007).
  10. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 13; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 9, 27 n. 96; Sheldon (2011) p. 12, 12 n. 13; McLeod, S (2013) p. 64, 64 n. 16; Swanton, M (1998) p. 68 § 866; Gomme (1909) p. 58 § 866; Hervey (1907) pp. 2–3 § 866; Plummer; Earle (1892) p. 68 § 866; Thorpe (1861a) p. 130 § 866; Thorpe (1861b) p. 59 § 866.
  11. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 14; Downham (2013b) p. 52; Downham (2012) p. 4; Sheldon (2011) p. 12.
  12. ^ Hadley; Richards; Brown et al. (2016) p. 55; McLeod, S (2013) pp. 75–76, 79 n. 77; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 10, 81–82, 113, 119–120; Budd; Millard; Chenery et al. (2004) pp. 137–138.
  13. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 13; Woolf (2007) p. 71.
  14. ^ McLeod, S (2013) p. 64; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 10, 12–13, 120–121; Woolf (2007) p. 71.
  15. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 13; Downham (2013b) p. 53; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 140; Downham (2007) p. 64; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 21, asser's life of king alfred § 21 n. 44; Smyth (2002) pp. 13 ch. 21, 183, 217–218 n. 61, 224 n. 139; Conybeare (1914) p. 98 § 24 ch. 21; Cook (1906) p. 13 ch. 21; Giles (1906) p. 50; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 19 ch. 21; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 449, 449 n. 6.
  16. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 18; Downham (2013a) p. 13, 13 n. 23; Downham (2007) p. 64; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 21 n. 44; Kirby (2002) p. 173; Swanton, M (1998) p. 68 n. 5; Whitelock (1996) p. 196 n. 5; Ó Corráin (1979) pp. 314–315; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 117 n. 173, 119; Stenton (1963) p. 244 n. 2; Conybeare (1914) p. 156 bk. 4 ch. 2 § 1; Giles (1906) p. 25 bk. 4 ch. 2; The Whole Works of King Alfred the Great (1858) p. 30; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 427 bk. 4 ch. 2.
  17. ^ Gore (2016) pp. 62, 68 n. 70; Downham (2007) p. 64; Woolf (2007) p. 73; Costambeys (2004b); Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 21 n. 44.
  18. ^ Downham (2007) p. 67; Woolf (2007) pp. 71–73.
  19. ^ IJssennagger (2015) pp. 137–138; McLeod, S (2013) pp. 76, 76 n. 67, 83–84, 84 nn. 94–95; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 28, 119–180 ch. 3, 273, 285; Downham (2007) pp. 64–65; Keynes (2001) p. 54; Woolf (2007) p. 71; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 21 n. 44.
  20. ^ Knol; IJssennagger (2017) p. 20; IJssennagger (2015) pp. 137–139; IJssennagger (2013) p. 83; McLeod, S (2013) pp. 76 n. 67, 83–84, 84 n. 95; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 28, 119–180 ch. 3; Woolf (2007) pp. 71–72; Woolf (2004) p. 95; Smyth (1998) pp. 24–25; Bremmer, RH (1981).
  21. ^ Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 210 § 850; Woolf (2007) pp. 71–72; Nelson (1991) p. 69 § 850; Waitz (1883) p. 38 § 850; Pertz (1826) p. 445 § 850.
  22. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 20; IJssennagger (2015) pp. 137, 137 n. 8, 137–138; IJssennagger (2013) p. 83; Bremmer, R (1984) p. 359; van Houts (1984) p. 116, 116 n. 56; Bremmer, RH (1981) pp. 76–77; Whitelock (1969) pp. 223 n. 26, 227; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 83; Pertz (1866) p. 506 § 855.
  23. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 141–142; Woolf (2007) p. 72; Frank (2000) p. 159; Anderson, CE (1999) p. 125; Björkman (1911–1912) p. 132; Arnold (1882) pp. 200 ch. 7, 202 chs. 11–12; Hodgson Hinde (1868) pp. 141, 143; Bense (n.d.) pp. 2–3.
  24. ^ Anderson, CE (2016) pp. 462 n. 5, 470 n. 22; Lewis (2016) pp. 22–23; de Rijke (2011) p. 67; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 142; Gazzoli (2010) p. 36; Woolf (2007) p. 72; Besteman (2004) p. 105; Woolf (2004) p. 95; Frank (2000) p. 159; Van Heeringen (1998) p. 245; Björkman (1911–1912).
  25. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 142; Woolf (2007) p. 72.
  26. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 7; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 143; Woolf (2007) p. 72; Nelson (1991) p. 51; Lund (1989) pp. 47, 49 n. 16; Waitz (1883) p. 26 § 841; Pertz (1826) p. 438 § 841.
  27. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 7; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 144, 177, 177 n. 375, 199; Reuter (1992) p. 30 § 850; Nelson (1991) p. 69 § 850; Pertzii; Kurze (1891) p. 39 § 850; Waitz (1883) p. 38 § 850; Pertz (1826) p. 445 § 850.
  28. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 72.
  29. ^ a b Pinner (2010) pp. 161–163 fig. 53; Harley MS 2278 (n.d.).
  30. ^ Frantzen (2004) pp. 66–70.
  31. ^ Bale (2009) p. 17.
  32. ^ Pinner (2015) p. 79.
  33. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 17; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 866; Gigov (2011) p. 19; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 11, 119; Pinner (2010) p. 28; Ridyard (2008) p. 65; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 69; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. introduction ¶ 11; Pestell (2004) pp. 65–66; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 866; Kirby (2002) p. 173; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 867; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 68–69 § 866; Whitelock (1996) pp. 30, 196 § 866; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 867; Beaven (1918) p. 338; Conybeare (1914) p. 140 § 866; Giles (1914) p. 49 § 866; Gomme (1909) p. 58 § 866; Hervey (1907) pp. 2–3 § 866; Giles (1903) p. 351 § 866; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 68–69 § 866; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 130–131 § 866/867; Thorpe (1861b) p. 59 § 866; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 866.
  34. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 119.
  35. ^ Downham (2007) p. 65; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 69–70.
  36. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 17; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 867; Gigov (2011) p. 19; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 11, 191; Gazzoli (2010) p. 37; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 69–70; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 867; Kirby (2002) p. 173; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 868; Keynes (2001) p. 54; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 68–69 § 867; Whitelock (1996) pp. 30, 196 § 867; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 868; Beaven (1918) p. 338; Conybeare (1914) p. 140 § 867; Giles (1914) p. 49 § 867; Gomme (1909) p. 58 § 867; Hervey (1907) pp. 2–3 § 867; Giles (1903) p. 351 § 867; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 68–69 § 867; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 130–133 § 867/868; Thorpe (1861b) p. 59 § 867; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 867.
  37. ^ a b Gore (2016) p. 61; McGuigan (2015) pp. 21–22 n. 10; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 867; Gigov (2011) pp. 19, 43 n. 73; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 11, 126, 185; Downham (2007) p. 65; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 69–70; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 867; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. introduction ¶ 11; Kries (2003) p. 52; Keynes (2001) p. 54; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 868; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 68–69 § 867; Whitelock (1996) p. 196 § 867; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 868; Beaven (1918) p. 338; Conybeare (1914) p. 140 § 867; Giles (1914) p. 49 § 867; Gomme (1909) p. 58 § 867; Giles (1903) p. 351 § 867; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 68–69 § 867; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 130–133 § 867/868; Thorpe (1861b) p. 59 § 867; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 867.
  38. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 70.
  39. ^ Lewis (2016) pp. 17–18; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 185 n. 23, 192; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 27 n. 54; Kirby (2002) p. 173; Whitelock (1996) p. 196 n. 7; Arnold (1882) pp. 54–55 bk. 2 ch. 6; Stevenson, J (1855) p. 654 ch. 21.
  40. ^ a b Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 27 n. 54; Giles (1849) pp. 189–190; Coxe (1841) pp. 298–299.
  41. ^ Nelson (2001) p. 38.
  42. ^ Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 27 n. 54; Arnold (1882) p. 55 bk. 2 ch. 6; Stevenson, J (1855) p. 654 ch. 21.
  43. ^ Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 27 n. 54; South (2002) p. 85; Arnold (1885) pp. 105–106 ch. 91; Stevenson, J (1855) p. 489.
  44. ^ Lewis (2016) pp. 18–19; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 27 n. 54; Kries (2003) p. 59; South (2002) pp. 50–51 ch. 10, 85; Arnold (1882) pp. 201–202 ch. 10; Hodgson Hinde (1868) p. 142.
  45. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 20; Pertz (1866) p. 506 § 868.
  46. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 20; IJssennagger (2015) p. 137; Kries (2003) p. 60; Bremmer, RH (1981) p. 77; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 83; Pertz (1866) p. 506 § 868.
  47. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 85; Lewis (2016) pp. 18–19; IJssennagger (2015) p. 137; McGuigan (2015) p. 21; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 141; Crumplin (2004) pp. 65, 71 fig. 1; Kries (2003) pp. 59–60; South (2002) pp. 50–51 ch. 10; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 83; Arnold (1882) pp. 201–202 bk. 2 ch. 10; Hodgson Hinde (1868) p. 142.
  48. ^ Lewis (2016) pp. 19–20; IJssennagger (2015) p. 137; Gazzoli (2010) p. 36; Kries (2003) p. 61; South (2002) pp. 52–53 ch. 14; Johnson-South (1991) p. 623; Bremmer, R (1984) pp. 359–360, 366 n. 12; van Houts (1984) p. 116, 116 n. 55; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 104 n. 86, 120 n. 199; Cox (1971) p. 51 n. 19; Whitelock (1969) p. 227; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 185; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 83; Arnold (1882) p. 204 bk. 2 ch. 14; Hodgson Hinde (1868) p. 144.
  49. ^ Kries (2003) p. 55; Arnold (1885) p. 104 ch. 91; Stevenson, J (1855) pp. 487–488.
  50. ^ Bremmer, R (1984) p. 366 n. 12; Arnold (1882) p. 54 bk. 2 ch. 6.
  51. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 143 map. 3.
  52. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 16; Gigov (2011) p. 76; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 140–141; Nelson (1991) p. 130 § 866; Waitz (1883) p. 81 § 866; Pertz (1826) p. 471 § 866.
  53. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 16; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 140–141; Nelson (1991) p. 131 § 866; Waitz (1883) p. 81 § 866; Pertz (1826) p. 471 § 866.
  54. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 16; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 140–141; Nelson (1991) pp. 131–132 § 866, 132 n. 12; Waitz (1883) p. 82 § 866; Pertz (1826) p. 471 § 866.
  55. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 16.
  56. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 141.
  57. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 16; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 141, 165, 176; Nelson (1991) pp. 131–132 § 866, 132 n. 12; Waitz (1883) p. 82 § 866; Pertz (1826) p. 471 § 866.
  58. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 146, 165, 176; Nelson (1991) pp. 139–140 § 867, 132 n. 8; Waitz (1883) p. 87 § 867; Pertz (1826) p. 475 § 867.
  59. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 185–186, 186 n. 28; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 70; Arnold (1885) pp. 105–106 ch. 91; Stevenson, J (1855) p. 489.
  60. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 21; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 185–186, 185 n. 27; Arnold (1882) p. 55 bk. 2 ch. 6; Stevenson, J (1855) pp. 654–655 ch. 21.
  61. ^ Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 868; Downham (2007) p. 65; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 70–71; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 868; Keynes (2001) p. 54; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 869; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 68–71 § 868; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 § 868; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 869; Conybeare (1914) p. 140 § 868; Giles (1914) pp. 49–50 § 868; Gomme (1909) pp. 58–59 § 868; Giles (1903) pp. 351–352 § 868; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 68–71 § 868; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 132–135 § 868/869; Thorpe (1861b) p. 59 § 868; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 868.
  62. ^ a b Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 868; Gigov (2011) p. 19; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 9, 121 n. 14, 189; Downham (2007) p. 65; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 70–72; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 868; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 869; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 68–71 § 868; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 § 868; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 869; Conybeare (1914) p. 140 § 868; Giles (1914) pp. 49–50 § 868; Gomme (1909) pp. 58–59 § 868; Giles (1903) pp. 351–352 § 868; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 68–71 § 868; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 132–135 § 868/869; Thorpe (1861b) p. 59 § 868; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 868.
  63. ^ a b Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 30; Smyth (2002) p. 16 ch. 30; Swanton, M (1998) p. 70 n. 1; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 n. 2; Conybeare (1914) pp. 101–102 § 33 ch. 30; Cook (1906) pp. 17–18 ch. 30; Giles (1906) p. 53; Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 24–25 ch. 30; Stevenson, J (1854) pp. 451–452.
  64. ^ Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 869; Gigov (2011) p. 19; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 11, 199; Downham (2007) p. 65; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 72; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 869; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 870; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 70–71 § 869; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 § 869; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 870; Conybeare (1914) p. 140 § 869; Giles (1914) p. 50 § 869; Gomme (1909) p. 59 § 869; Giles (1903) p. 352 § 869; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 70–71 § 869; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 134–135 § 869/870; Thorpe (1861b) p. 60 § 869; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 869.
  65. ^ St Edmund: 2410–2441 (n.d.).
  66. ^ Pinner (2015) p. 80 n. 29; Tuck (1990) p. 4; St Edmund: 2410–2441 (n.d.).
  67. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 84 n. 31; Bartlett (2016) p. 17; Lewis (2016) p. 20; McTurk, R (2015) p. 40.
  68. ^ Lazzari (2014) p. 63; Fornasini (2009) p. 35; Campbell (1984) p. 146.
  69. ^ Mostert (2014).
  70. ^ Jordan, TRW (2015) p. 1; Jordan, TR (2012) pp. 66–67, 67 n. 11; Pinner (2010) p. 28.
  71. ^ Jordan, TR (2012) pp. 66–67; Pestell (2004) p. 66 n. 8; Gransden (2004).
  72. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 21; McGuigan (2015) p. 20; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 870; Mostert (2014); Downham (2013a) p. 15; Jordan, TR (2012) pp. 66–67, 67 n. 11; Gigov (2011) pp. 19–20, 43–44; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 74, 189, 189 n. 53, 197, 197 n. 90; Bale (2009) pp. 1–2; Finlay (2009) pp. 50, 50 n. 18, 51, 51 n. 20; Pinner (2010) p. 28; Fornasini (2009) p. 34; Ridyard (2008) p. 61; Downham (2007) p. 65; Winstead (2007) p. 128; Adams; Holman (2004); Frantzen (2004) p. 55; Gransden (2004); Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 870; Kirby (2002) p. 174; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 871; Keynes (2001) p. 54; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 70–71 § 870; Gransden (1995) p. 59; Gransden (1985) p. 2; Whitelock (1996) pp. 30, 197 § 870; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 871; West (1983) p. 223; Whitelock (1969) p. 217; Stenton (1963) p. 246; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 180; Beaven (1918) p. 336; Conybeare (1914) pp. 140–141 § 870; Giles (1914) p. 50 § 870; Gomme (1909) p. 59 § 870; Hervey (1907) pp. 2–3 § 870; Giles (1903) p. 352 § 870; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 70–71 § 870; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 134–135 § 870; Thorpe (1861b) p. 60 § 870; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 870/871.
  73. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 28 n. 13; Ridyard (2008) pp. 61–62 n. 214; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) chs. asser's life of king alfred § 20 n. 43, notes to introduction and text § the anglo-saxon chronicle 888–900 ¶ 9; Smyth (2002) p. 221 n. 95; Whitelock (1969) p. 217; Beaven (1918).
  74. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 28 n. 13; Ridyard (2008) pp. 61–62 n. 214.
  75. ^ Cross (2018) p. 97, 97 n. 57; McTurk, R (2015) p. 213; Mostert (2014); Gigov (2011) pp. 43–44, 67; Finlay (2009) pp. 50, 50 n. 18, 51, 51 n. 20; Ridyard (2008) p. 61; Adams; Holman (2004); Gransden (2004); Cubitt (2000) p. 63; Gransden (1995) p. 59; Gransden (1985) p. 2; Whitelock (1969) pp. 217, 221; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 86.
  76. ^ Gigov (2011) p. 67; Pinner (2010) pp. 28–29; Bale (2009) pp. 1–2; Fornasini (2009) p. 35; Ridyard (2008) pp. 61–62; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 33; Frantzen (2004) p. 55; Gransden (2004); Smyth (2002) p. 17 ch. 33; Cubitt (2000) p. 63; Gransden (1995) pp. 59–60; Whitelock (1969) p. 217, 217 n. 4; Conybeare (1914) p. 102 § 34 ch. 33; Hervey (1907) pp. 4–5; Cook (1906) p. 18 ch. 33; Giles (1906) p. 54; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 26 ch. 33; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 452.
  77. ^ Bale (2009) p. 2.
  78. ^ Cross (2018) p. 93; Mostert (2014); Ridyard (2008) p. 93, 93 n. 81; Winstead (2007) p. 128; Frantzen (2004) pp. 61–66; Gransden (2004).
  79. ^ Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 870; Downham (2013a) p. 15, 15 n. 30; Pinner (2010) p. 28 n. 15; Ridyard (2008) p. 62 n. 216; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 870; Swanton, M (1998) p. 71 § 870; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 n. 3; Gomme (1909) p. 59 n. 2; Plummer; Earle (1892) p. 71 § 870; Thorpe (1861a) p. 135 § 870;
  80. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 15, 15 n. 30; Pinner (2010) p. 28 n. 15; Finlay (2009) p. 51, 51 n. 20; Ridyard (2008) p. 62 n. 216; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 70–71 n. 6; Thorpe (1861a) p. 135 § 870.
  81. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 15; Finlay (2009) p. 51.
  82. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 15, 15 n. 30; Pinner (2010) p. 28 n. 15; Ridyard (2008) p. 62 n. 216
  83. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 28 n. 15; Ridyard (2008) p. 62 n. 216.
  84. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 104 fig. 12; The Life and Miracles of St. Edmund (n.d.).
  85. ^ a b Cross (2018) p. 91; Jordan, TRW (2015) pp. 15–17; Lazzari (2014) pp. 48–49; Mills, R (2013) p. 37; Pinner (2010) pp. 71–72; Bale (2009) p. 3; Finlay (2009) p. 51; Frantzen (2004) p. 58; Gransden (2004); Mostert (1987) pp. 42–43; Gransden (1995) pp. 29, 54; Mostert (1987) p. 42; Grant (1978) p. 84; Ingham (1973) p. 5; Whitelock (1969) p. 220; Hervey (1907) pp. 32–37 chs. 10–11; Arnold (1890) pp. 15–16 chs. 10–11.
  86. ^ a b Lazzari (2014) pp. 42–44; Finlay (2009) p. 51; Frantzen (2004) p. 58; Gransden (2004); Cavill (2003) p. 31; Dumville (2002) p. 254; Gransden (1995) pp. 36–37; Mostert (1987) p. 42; Grant (1978) p. 84; Ingham (1973) p. 5; Whitelock (1969) p. 220; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 86; Hervey (1907) pp. 34–35 ch. 10; Arnold (1890) p. 15 ch. 10.
  87. ^ Tracy (2012) ch. 1 ¶ 7; Pinner (2010) p. 353; Winstead (2007) p. 128; Frederick (2000) p. 63; Frankis (1996) pp. 233–234; Horstmann (1887) pp. 296–299 § 44.
  88. ^ Tracy (2012) ch. 1 ¶ 7, 1 n. 19.
  89. ^ Tracy (2012) ch. 1 ¶¶ 7–10.
  90. ^ Cross (2018) p. 90; Mills, R (2013) p. 37; Bale (2009) p. 3; Winstead (2007) p. 128; Gransden (1995) pp. 50, 54; Mostert (1987) pp. 42–43; Ingham (1973) pp. 4–5; Whitelock (1969) pp. 219–221; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 180; Hervey (1907) pp. 28–39 chs. 9–11; Arnold (1890) pp. 13–16 chs. 9–11.
  91. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 197 n. 90; Ridyard (2008) pp. 66–67.
  92. ^ Mostert (2014); Frantzen (2004) p. 55; Mostert (1987) pp. 42–43; Whitelock (1969) pp. 221–222.
  93. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 21; Ridyard (2008) p. 66; Gransden (1985) p. 2; Whitelock (1969) pp. 219–221.
  94. ^ Lazzari (2014) p. 61; Ridyard (2008) pp. 92–93, 243; Gransden (2004); Ingham (1973) p. 3.
  95. ^ Finlay (2009) p. 57; Gransden (1985) p. 2 n. 2; Ingham (1973) p. 6.
  96. ^ Mostert (2014); Ridyard (2008) p. 66.
  97. ^ Naismith (2017) p. 290; McGuigan (2015) p. 20; Jordan, TR (2012) p. 67; Gigov (2011) pp. 63–64, 69; Bale (2009) p. 2; Fornasini (2009) p. 34; Ridyard (2008) pp. 214–216; Adams; Holman (2004); Pestell (2004) p. 76; Farmer (2004) § Edmund; Frantzen (2004) pp. 55–56; Pestell (2004) p. 77; Blackburn; Pagan (2002) pp. 1–2; Cubitt (2000) p. 63; Gransden (1995) p. 60; Farmer (1985) p. 39; Gransden (1985) p. 2; Grant (1978) p. 89; Blunt (1969) p. 253; Stenton (1963) p. 246, 246 n. 2.
  98. ^ Gransden (1985) p. 3.
  99. ^ Cross (2018) p. 90; Barrow (2016) pp. 83 n. 28, 84; Lewis (2016) pp. 20–21; Jordan, TRW (2015) p. 2; Lazzari (2014) p. 36; Mills, R (2013) pp. 37–38; Jordan, TR (2012) pp. 69–70; Gigov (2011) pp. 50 n. 82, 62; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 39; Pinner (2010) pp. 64–66; Bale (2009) p. 2; Finlay (2009) p. 52; Fornasini (2009) p. 35; Ridyard (2008) pp. 63–64, 67 n. 239, 224; Winstead (2007) p. 128; Adams; Holman (2004); Frantzen (2004) p. 56; Farmer (2004) § Edmund; Gransden (2004); Cavill (2003) p. 23; Cubitt (2000) p. 63; Whitelock (1996) p. 30; Gransden (1995) pp. 24, 57–58; Mostert (1987) p. 41; Farmer (1985) p. 40; Gransden (1985) p. 3; West (1983) p. 223; Bremmer, RH (1981) p. 77; Hart (1981) p. 267; Grant (1978) p. 82 n. 4; Thomson (1977) p. 25; Whitelock (1969) pp. 218–219; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 86; Hervey (1907) pp. 6–11; Arnold (1890) pp. 3–5.
  100. ^ Gransden (1995) pp. 26, 34 n. 74; Whitelock (1969) p. 220; Beaven (1918) p. 337 n. 34; Hervey (1907) pp. 36–37 ch. 9; Arnold (1890) p. 14 ch. 9.
  101. ^ Beaven (1918) p. 337 n. 34; Hervey (1907) pp. 60–61; Skeat, W (1881) pp. 314–315 ch. 32.
  102. ^ Whitelock (1969) p. 220 n. 13.
  103. ^ Gransden (1995) pp. 56–57.
  104. ^ Mostert (2014); Gigov (2011) pp. 62, 67; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 40; Pinner (2010) p. 64; Finlay (2009) p. 51; Frantzen (2004) p. 56; Farmer (1985) p. 40; West (1983) p. 223; Whitelock (1969) pp. 218–219.
  105. ^ Mostert (2014); Downham (2013a) p. 15; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 40; Whitelock (1969) pp. 218–219, 233.
  106. ^ Jordan, TRW (2015) p. 1; Jordan, TR (2012) p. 69; Mostert (2014); Bale (2009) p. 2; Ridyard (2008) pp. 62–63; Cubitt (2000) p. 63; Farmer (1985) p. 40.
  107. ^ Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. introduction ¶ 49.
  108. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 64; Ridyard (2008) pp. 212–213; Cavill (2003); Smyth (2002) p. 204; Gransden (1985) pp. 7–8.
  109. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 33; Cavill (2003) p. 41; Smyth (2002) pp. 135, 204; Gransden (1985) pp. 7–8.
  110. ^ Cross (2017) p. 168; Barrow (2016) p. 84; Frantzen (2004) p. 61.
  111. ^ Cross (2017) p. 168; Barrow (2016) pp. 84–85; de Certain (1858) pp. 71–76 chs. 33–34.
  112. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 101; Frantzen (2004) pp. 56–57; Hervey (1907) pp. 20–21 ch. 5; Arnold (1890) pp. 9–10 ch. 5.
  113. ^ Cross (2018) pp. 90, 92; Barrow (2016) p. 84; Jordan, TRW (2015) pp. 10–11; Gransden (1995) p. 25; Ingham (1973) pp. 4–5.
  114. ^ Cross (2018) p. 95; Jordan, TRW (2015) p. 11; Lazzari (2014) p. 49; Cammarota (2013) pp. 98, 100 n. 56; Hervey (1907) pp. 62–63; Skeat, W (1881) pp. 316–317 ch. 32.
  115. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 21; Downham (2013a) p. 15 n. 30; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 145, 202; Ridyard (2008) p. 68; McLeod, S (2006) p. 150 n. 57; Mostert (1987) p. 42; Grant (1978) pp. 82–83, 83 n. 11; Whitelock (1969) pp. 219–220, 223; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 180; Hervey (1907) pp. 18–21 ch. 5; Arnold (1890) pp. 8–10 ch. 5.
  116. ^ Grant (1978) p. 83 n. 11.
  117. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 21; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 870; Ridyard (2008) p. 66; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 870; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 58 § 871; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 70–71 § 870; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 § 870; Gransden (1995) p. 58; Taylor (1983) p. 34 § 871; Whitelock (1969) pp. 219–221; Conybeare (1914) p. 140 § 870; Giles (1914) p. 50 § 870; Gomme (1909) p. 59 § 870; Hervey (1907) pp. 2–3 § 870, 18–21 ch. 5; Giles (1903) p. 352 § 870; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 70–71 § 870; Arnold (1890) pp. 8–10 ch. 5; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 134–135 § 870/871; Thorpe (1861b) p. 60 § 870; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 870.
  118. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 202–203, 202–203 n. 124.
  119. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 202.
  120. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 202–203 n. 124.
  121. ^ Levy (2004) p. 273; Freeman (1996) p. 188.
  122. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 202, 202 n. 123; Short (2009) pp. 155–158 §§ 2835–2841; McLeod, S (2006) p. 150 n. 57; Hardy; Martin (1889) pp. 91–92 §§ 2837–2843; Hardy; Martin (1888) p. 117 §§ 2837–2843; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 763; Wright (1850) pp. 155–158 §§ 2837–2843.
  123. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 18; McTurk, R (2015) p. 213; Downham (2013a) p. 15 n. 30; Jordan, TR (2012) p. 67; Gigov (2011) pp. 19–20; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 146; Finlay (2009) p. 51, 51 n. 20; Adams; Holman (2004); Costambeys (2004b); Kries (2003) pp. 52, 60; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 2 p. 156 n. 38; Swanton, M (1998) p. 70 n. 2; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 n. 6; Bremmer, RH (1981) p. 77; Ó Corráin (1979) pp. 315, 319–320; McTurk, RW (1976) p. 119; Whitelock (1969) p. 223; Stenton (1963) p. 244 n. 2; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 180; Gomme (1909) p. 59 n. 3; Mawer (1908–1909) pp. 80, 82–83; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 70–71 n. 6; Thorpe (1861a) p. 135 § 870; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 43 § 870, 43 n. 8.
  124. ^ Finlay (2009) p. 51.
  125. ^ Whitelock (1969) p. 223.
  126. ^ Short (2009) pp. 155–161 §§ 2859–2936; Whitelock (1969) pp. 224–225; Hervey (1907) pp. 126–133 §§ 2861–2938; Stevenson, J (1854) pp. 763–764; Hardy; Martin (1889) pp. 92–94 §§ 2861–2938; Hardy; Martin (1888) pp. 118–122 §§ 2861–2938; Wright (1850) pp. 98–101 §§ 2861–2938.
  127. ^ Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 180; Hervey (1907) pp. 374–375; Edwards, E (1866) p. 10 ch. 5; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 489 ch. 5.
  128. ^ Tretero (1584).
  129. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 22; Pulsiano (1999) pp. 17–18, 18 n. 28.
  130. ^ Thacker (2004); Hunt (1888).
  131. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 22; Schulenburg (2001) p. 169; Anderson, AO (1908) pp. 61–62; Luard (1872) pp. 391–392.
  132. ^ Schulenburg (2001) pp. 146–147, 169; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 61 n. 1; Giles (1849) pp. 191–192; Coxe (1841) pp. 300–302.
  133. ^ Luard (2012) pp. 432–433; Anderson, AO (1908) p. 61 n. 1; Yonge (1853) pp. 409–410.
  134. ^ Cross (2017) p. 169; Skinner (2017) p. 115; Sigurdson (2014) p. 253; Schulenburg (2006); Farmer (2004) § Ebbe the Younger; Schulenburg (2001) pp. 146–147; Pulsiano (1999) pp. 17–18, 18 n. 28; Horner (1994) p. 671; Pistono (1989) p. 38; Hunt (1888).
  135. ^ Pinner (2010) pp. 99, 100 fig. 8, 101; The Life and Miracles of St. Edmund (n.d.).
  136. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 101.
  137. ^ Barrow (2016) pp. 80–81.
  138. ^ Cross (2017) p. 163; Barrow (2016) pp. 84–85.
  139. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 81; Barrow (2009).
  140. ^ Pestell (2004).
  141. ^ Pestell (2004) p. 73.
  142. ^ McLeod, S (2013) p. 67.
  143. ^ Barrow (2016) pp. 91–92.
  144. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 92.
  145. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 92; Pestell (2004) pp. 75–76.
  146. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 92; Gransden (2008) p. 278.
  147. ^ Pestell (2004) p. 76.
  148. ^ a b Barrow (2016) p. 93.
  149. ^ Cross (2017) p. 168; Barrow (2016) p. 93.
  150. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 93; Bartlett (2016) pp. 17–18.
  151. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 17; Hayward (1999) p. 111.
  152. ^ Parker, EC (2012) p. 96; Frankis (1996) pp. 234–235.
  153. ^ Cross (2018) p. 97.
  154. ^ Reeve; Wright (2007) pp. 280 bk. 11 chs. 206–207, 281 bk. 11 ch2. 206–207; Frankis (1996) p. 235.
  155. ^ Frankis (1996) p. 235 n. 15.
  156. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 88; Downham (2013a) p. 15 n. 30; McLeod, S (2013) p. 67; Finlay (2009) p. 50–51, 51 n. 19; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 231 § 870; Irvine (2004) p. 48 § 870; Swanton, M (1998) p. 71 § 870; Whitelock (1996) p. 197 n. 6; Beaven (1918) p. 336; Gomme (1909) p. 59, 59 n. 4; Plummer; Earle (1892) p. 71 § 870; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 135 § 870, 137 § 870.
  157. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 89.
  158. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 89; Gransden (2008) p. 278.
  159. ^ Gorman (2011) p. 117 fig. 2.
  160. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 93; Pestell (2004) p. 72.
  161. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 93; Ridyard (2008) p. 53; Thacker (2004); Sellar (1917) pp. 259–263 bk. 4 ch. 19, 281–284 bk. 4 ch. 25; Giles (1903) pp. 204–207 bk. 4 ch. 19, 220–223 bk. 4 ch. 25; Plummer (1896) pp. 243–246 bk. 4 ch. 17 (19), 262–266 bk. 4 ch. 23 (25).
  162. ^ Barrow (2016) pp. 78 n. 3, 93; Fairweather (2005) pp. 40–41 bk. 1 ch. 14; Blake (1962) p. 31 bk. 1 ch. 14.
  163. ^ Cross (2017) p. 169; Venarde (1997) p. 29; Gallia Christiana (1970) p. 201.
  164. ^ Cross (2017) pp. 166–167; Barrow (2016) p. 93.
  165. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 91; Reid (1987) pp. 123, 197; Smith, AH (1968) pp. 10–11 n. 4; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 189; Atkinson (1879) pp. xxvii, 1 ch. 1.
  166. ^ Bartlett (2016); p. 18; Forester (1854) pp. 111–112; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 253; Thorpe (1848) pp. 152–153.
  167. ^ Barrow (2016) pp. 77–78, 89; Bartlett (2016) p. 18; Ridyard (2008) p. 184, 184 n. 39; Blake (1962) p. 53–56 ch. 39–41.
  168. ^ Ridyard (2008) p. 182, 182 n. 29; Fairweather (2005) pp. 71–72 ch. 39; Blake (1962) pp. 53–54 bk. 1 ch. 39.
  169. ^ Cross (2017) pp. 165–166; Barrow (2016) p. 77, 77 n. 2; Fairweather (2005) p. 487 ch. 1; Pestell (2004) p. 72; Blake (1962) p. 396 ch. 1.
  170. ^ Barrow (2016) pp. 77, 89.
  171. ^ Barrow (2016) pp. 77–78, 89; Blake (1962) p. 53 n. 1.
  172. ^ Licence (2004); Historiæ Anglicanæ (1652) p. 913.
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  174. ^ Pulsiano (1999) p. 17.
  175. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 90, 90 n. 69; Campbell (1984) pp. 147–148; Bethell (1970) pp. 88, 120; Toulmin Smith (1910) p. 168; Hunt (1895).
  176. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 90 n. 69; Barrow (2007); Russell; Zatta; Wogan-Browne (2005) p. 317 n. 27; Zatta (1999) p. 376 n. 27; Barrow (1987) pp. 178, 185.
  177. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 90 n. 69; Bartlett (2016) p. 22; Russell; Zatta; Wogan-Browne (2005) pp. 384–389 §§ 762–839; Frankis (1996) pp. 233–234; Bethell (1970) p. 88; Baker (1911) pp. 480, 491–492 §§ 761–838.
  178. ^ Russell; Zatta; Wogan-Browne (2005) pp. 384–389 §§ 762–777, 385 n. 31; Baker (1911) pp. 480, 491 §§ 761–776.
  179. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 90 n. 69; Barrow (2007); Russell; Zatta; Wogan-Browne (2005) pp. 304 n. 1, 307 n. 5; Zatta (1999) p. 368 n. 5; Barrow (1987) p. 177; Bethell (1970) pp. 75–76, 76–77 n. 1; Baker (1911) p. 478; Toulmin Smith (1910) pp. 167–172; Hunt (1895).
  180. ^ Rigg (1996) pp. 13, 15, 31 §§ 552–561.
  181. ^ Rigg (1996) pp. 15, 40–41.
  182. ^ Hadley (2009) p. 119; Rigg (1996) pp. 15, 40; Robinson (1921) p. 19; Newell (1903) p. 481; Migne (1899) p. 1546; Hamilton (1870) p. 198 bk. 2 ch. 91.
  183. ^ Rigg (1996) pp. 15, 40–41; Robinson (1921) pp. 19, 37; Newell (1903) p. 481; Migne (1899) p. 1693.
  184. ^ Sims-Williams (1990) pp. 224–229.
  185. ^ Hayward (1999) p. 138 n. 282; Horstmann (1901) p. 268.
  186. ^ Foot (2000) p. 72 n. 46; Hayward (1999) p. 138 n. 282; Raine (n.d.) pp. 1–59.
  187. ^ Hayward (1999) pp. 111 n. 138, 137, 138 n. 282.
  188. ^ Foot (2000) p. 72, 72 n. 46; Hayward (1999) pp. 111, 111 n. 138, 138 n. 282; Luard (2012) pp. 582–583; Luard (1872) p. 531; Yonge (1853) pp. 548–549; Giles (1849) p. 319; Coxe (1841) pp. 504–505.
  189. ^ Foot (2000) p. 72 n. 46; Hayward (1999) p. 137 n. 277.
  190. ^ Foot (2000) p. 72 n. 46; Hearnii (1774) p. 114.
  191. ^ a b Emons-Nijenhuis (2013) p. 101.
  192. ^ Pinner (2015) p. 105; Emons-Nijenhuis (2013) p. 99; Pinner (2010) p. 164; Farmer (2004) § Fremund; Townsend (1994) p. 2; Rigg (1992) p. 182.
  193. ^ Emons-Nijenhuis (2013) p. 99; Townsend (1994) p. 2.
  194. ^ Pinner (2015) p. 107; Emons-Nijenhuis (2013) p. 100, 100 n. 10; Pinner (2010) p. 167; Townsend (1994) p. 3; Horstmann (1901) pp. 689–698.
  195. ^ Emons-Nijenhuis (2013) pp. 100–101; Horstmann (1881) pp. 376–440; Hardy (1862b) pp. 523–524 § 1094.
  196. ^ Pinner (2015) p. 108; Emons-Nijenhuis (2013) p. 101.
  197. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 18; Hardy (1862a) pp. 360–361 § 845.
  198. ^ Keary; Poole (1887) p. 119 § 431, pl. 18 fig. 1.
  199. ^ Naismith (2017) p. 292; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 153–154, 154 n. 229; Grierson; Blackburn (2006) p. 319; Smart (1979) p. 22; Keary; Poole (1887) p. 97.
  200. ^ Naismith (2017) p. 292; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 154; Grierson; Blackburn (2006) p. 319.
  201. ^ Keary; Poole (1887) p. 97.
  202. ^ a b Cross (2018) p. 98.
  203. ^ Cross (2018) p. 111; McGuigan (2015) p. 20; Jordan, TR (2012) p. 69; Pinner (2010) p. 31; Bale (2009) p. 2; Finlay (2009) p. 55; Ridyard (2008) pp. 216–217; Adams; Holman (2004); Pestell (2004) pp. 78–79; Blackburn; Pagan (2002) p. 2.
  204. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 20; Mostert (2014); Jordan, TR (2012) p. 69; Parker, EC (2012) p. 21; Gigov (2011) p. 64; Pinner (2010) p. 30; Bale (2009) p. 25; Ridyard (2008) pp. 216–217, 223; Frantzen (2004) p. 275 n. 20; Abels (1992) p. 32.
  205. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 31; Finlay (2009) p. 54; Ridyard (2008) pp. 213–214; Pestell (2004) pp. 78–79.
  206. ^ Ridyard (2008) pp. 216–217, 223; Pestell (2004) pp. 78–79.
  207. ^ Cross (2018) pp. 98, 111; Naismith (2017) p. 284; Pinner (2010) p. 31; Ridyard (2008) pp. 215–216, 223; Grierson; Blackburn (2006) pp. 319–320; Frantzen (2004) p. 275 n. 20; Pestell (2004) p. 77; Abels (1992) p. 32.
  208. ^ Mostert (2014); Pinner (2010) p. 25; Finlay (2009) p. 57; Adams; Holman (2004); Pestell (2004) p. 79 n. 80.
  209. ^ Ridyard (2008) p. 211.
  210. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 197; Ridyard (2008) pp. 66, 68–69, 94; McLeod, S (2006) pp. 150–151; Kirby (2002) p. 174; Gransden (1995) p. 26.
  211. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 21; Abels (2013) p. 125; Costambeys (2004a); Abels (1992) p. 33 n. 48.
  212. ^ Abels (2013) p. 125; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 74; Keynes (2001) p. 54; Abels (1992) p. 33 n. 48.
  213. ^ Naismith (2017) pp. 147, 150 tab. 10, 164 287; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 188–189, 194–195; Pestell (2004) pp. 66 n. 7, 78; Kirby (2002) p. 174; Keynes (2001) p. 54.
  214. ^ Abels (2013) p. 125; Downham (2007) p. 66; Stenton (1963) p. 247.
  215. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 22; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 42, 46–47, 213; Downham (2013a) p. 16 n. 33; Downham (2011) p. 192; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 127; Downham (2007) p. 66; McTurk, R (2006) p. 681; Costambeys (2004b); Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 33 n. 61; Ó Corráin (1979) pp. 315, 319; McTurk, RW (1976) p. 117 n. 174; Whitelock (1969) pp. 223, 227 n. 49; Barker (1967) p. 82; Giles (1906) p. 26 bk. 4 ch. 2; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 428 bk. 4 ch. 2.
  216. ^ Downham (2007) p. 66; Costambeys (2004b).
  217. ^ Downham (2018) p. 109; Lewis (2016) p. 22; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 42, 46, 49; Downham (2013a) p. 16, 16 n. 33; Downham (2011) p. 192; Gigov (2011) pp. 24–25; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 127–128; Downham (2007) p. 66; McTurk, R (2006) p. 681; Costambeys (2004b); Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 21 n. 44; Keynes (2001) p. 54; Jaski (1995) p. 318 n. 29; Brooks (1979) p. 6, 6 n. 22; Ó Corráin (1979); McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 93, 117–119; Whitelock (1969) p. 227; Stenton (1963) pp. 247–248.
  218. ^ Downham (2018) p. 109; Downham (2011) p. 192; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 127–128; Downham (2007) p. 66; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 21 n. 44; Keynes (2001) p. 54; Jaski (1995) p. 318 n. 29; Ó Corráin (1979); McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 93, 118; Whitelock (1969) p. 227; Stenton (1963) p. 248.
  219. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 142, 146.
  220. ^ Lewis (2016); Reuter (1992) p. 72 § 873; Nelson (1991) p. 184 § 873; De Simon (1909) p. 32 § 873; Pertzii; Kurze (1891) p. 80 § 873; Waitz (1883) p. 124 § 873; Pertz (1826) p. 496 § 873.
  221. ^ Holm (2015); Abels (2013) p. 125; Yorke (1995) p. 109.
  222. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 123; Ó Corráin (1979) p. 316.
  223. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 73.
  224. ^ Kulovesi (2017) p. 10, 10 n. 35; The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 837.9; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 837.9; Woolf (2007) p. 73 n. 12.
  225. ^ Kulovesi (2017) p. 10, 10 n. 36; The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 845.8; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 845.8; Woolf (2007) p. 73 n. 12.
  226. ^ Kulovesi (2017) p. 10, 10 n. 36; The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 847.4; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 847.4; Anderson (1922) p. 278, 278 n. 1.
  227. ^ Kulovesi (2017) p. 10; The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 848.5; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 848.5; Woolf (2007) p. 73 n. 12; Anderson (1922) p. 278, 278 n. 5.
  228. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2017) § 852.3; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 852.3; Woolf (2007) p. 73 n. 12.
  229. ^ King; Young; Clarke; Cain; Dimbleby (1966) p. 82.
  230. ^ a b Burl (2013); Burl (2002) p. 107; Hoare (1975) pt. 1 pp. 99–100; King; Young; Clarke; Cain; Dimbleby (1966) p. 73; Keiller; Piggott; Passmore; Cave (1938) p. 123 fig. 1; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 265, 265 n. 2; Daniell (1894) p. 6; Jackson (1862) p. 74 n. 1; Thurnam (1857) pp. 67, 71.
  231. ^ Costambeys (2008); Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 72–73; Costambeys (2004a).
  232. ^ Costambeys (2008); Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 73–74; Costambeys (2004a).
  233. ^ Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 74–75.
  234. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 20; Downham (2013a) p. 22; Costambeys (2008); Ridyard (2008) p. 211; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 75; Costambeys (2004a); Keynes (2001) p. 54.
  235. ^ Downham (2013a) pp. 22–23; Costambeys (2008); Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 75–76.
  236. ^ Costambeys (2008); Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 76.
  237. ^ a b Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 76.
  238. ^ Higham (2014); Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 76.
  239. ^ Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 233 § 878; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 76; Irvine (2004) p. 50 § 878; Kirby (2002) p. 175; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 61 § 879; Williams, A (1999) p. 70; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 74–75 § 878; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 § 878; Taylor (1983) pp. 36–37 § 879; Conybeare (1914) p. 143 § 878; Giles (1914) p. 54 § 878; Gomme (1909) p. 63 § 878; Giles (1903) p. 356 § 878; Plummer; Earle (1892) p. 74 § 878; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 146–147 § 878/879; Thorpe (1861b) p. 64 § 878; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 46 § 878.
  240. ^ Baker; Brookes (2013) pp. 217, 240; Downham (2013a) p. 23; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 52; Smyth (2002) pp. 25 ch. 52; 185–187, 225 nn. 146–147; Swanton, M (1998) p. 75 n. 9; Conybeare (1914) p. 109 § 52 ch. 52; Cook (1906) pp. 26–27 ch. 52; Giles (1906) pp. 59–60; Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 40 ch. 52, 25; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 457.
  241. ^ Corèdon; Williams (2004) p. 290.
  242. ^ Baker; Brookes (2013) p. 240.
  243. ^ a b Gore (2016) pp. 62–64; Abels (2013) p. 154; Downham (2013a) pp. 23–24; Haslam (2011) p. 202; Downham (2007) p. 204; McLeod, S (2006) pp. 153 n. 72, 154, 154 n. 77; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 76; Gore (2004) p. 37; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) chs. introduction ¶ 11, asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; Smyth (2002) p. 227 n. 164; Kirby (2002) pp. 175, 178; Yorke (1995) p. 111; Kirby (1979).
  244. ^ Gore (2016) p. 62; Gore (2004) p. 37; Riley; Wilson-North (2003) p. 86.
  245. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 32; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 233 § 878; Gigov (2011) p. 77; Smith, JJ (2009) p. 130; Gore (2004) p. 37; Irvine (2004) p. 50 § 878; Smyth (2002) p. 226 n. 157; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 74–77 § 878; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 § 878; McTurk, RW (1976) p. 119; Conybeare (1914) p. 143 § 878; Giles (1914) p. 54 § 878; Gomme (1909) p. 63 § 878; Giles (1903) p. 356 § 878; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 74–77 § 878; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 146–147 § 878/879; Thorpe (1861b) p. 64 § 878; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 46 § 878.
  246. ^ O'Keeffe (2001) pp. 61–62 § 879; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 15; Thorpe (1861a) p. 146 § 878/879.
  247. ^ Stone (2017) p. 19; Gore (2016) p. 62; Lavelle (2016) p. 124; Lewis (2016) p. 32; Baker; Brookes (2013) pp. 59 n. 15, 65, 206–207, 332; Haslam (2011) p. 202; Townsend (2008) pp. 66, 73 n. 31; Haslam (2005) p. 138; Gore (2004) p. 37; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54; Mills, AD (2003) § countisbury; Kirby (2002) p. 175; Smyth (2002) pp. 26 ch. 54, 106, 117, 122, 226 n. 161; Williams, A (1999) p. 77; Swanton, M (1998) p. 76 n. 1; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 16; Yorke (1995) p. 111; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 93; Karlström (1929) p. 68; Conybeare (1914) p. 110 § 58 ch. 54; Cook (1906) p. 27 ch. 54; Giles (1906) p. 61; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 43 ch. 54; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 458.
  248. ^ Stone (2017) p. 19; Bartlett (2016) p. 18 n. 22; Gore (2016) p. 62; Lewis (2016) p. 32; Baker; Brookes (2013) p. 138 fig. 28, 332, 372 n. 38; Abels (2013) p. 154; Downham (2013a) p. 24; Haslam (2011) p. 202; Downham (2007) p. 71; McLeod, S (2006) p. 154 n. 77; Haslam (2005) pp. 133, 138; Gore (2004) p. 37; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54, asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 101; Hart, CR (2003) p. 160 n. 3; Mills, AD (2003) § countisbury; Riley; Wilson-North (2003) p. 86; Kirby (2002) p. 175; Smyth (2002) pp. 122, 226 n. 164; Williams, A (1999) p. 77; Swanton, M (1998) p. 76 n. 1; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 16; Yorke (1995) p. 111; Lukman (1958) p. 140; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 93.
  249. ^ a b Stone (2017) p. 19.
  250. ^ Gore (2016) p. 62; Haslam (2011) p. 202.
  251. ^ Gore (2016) p. 62.
  252. ^ Baker; Brookes (2013) p. 206.
  253. ^ Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 263, 263–264 n. 5, 264 n. 6; Westcote (1845) p. 342 bk. 4 ch. 28.
  254. ^ Thurnam (1857) p. 84; Risdon (1811) pp. 424–425.
  255. ^ Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 264; Some Account of Biddeford (1755) p. 446.
  256. ^ Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 264, 264 n. 5; Risdon (1811) pp. 424–425; Moore (n.d.) p. 104.
  257. ^ Gore (2016) p. 62; Lewis (2016) p. 32; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 125; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54; Kirby (2002) p. 175; Smyth (2002) p. 26 ch. 54; Swanton, M (1998) p. 76 n. 1; Davies (1997) p. 397; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 16; Conybeare (1914) p. 110 § 58 ch. 58; Cook (1906) p. 27 ch. 54; Giles (1906) p. 61; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 43 ch. 54; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 458.
  258. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 83, 125; Downham (2007) p. 71.
  259. ^ Hart, CR (2003) p. 160 n. 3; Smyth (2002) p. 226 n. 157; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 262 n. 54; Wright (1850) p. 108 n. 3148.
  260. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 32; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 9, 41, 43–44; Parker, E (2014) p. 488; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 233 § 878; Parker, EC (2012) p. 94; Gigov (2011) pp. 20–21, 24, 76–77; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 123, 125, 127, 127–128 n. 63; Smith, JJ (2009) p. 130; Downham (2007) pp. 68 n. 25, 71, 204; McTurk, R (2007) p. 60; Woolf (2007) p. 73; McLeod, S (2006) p. 153 n. 72; McTurk, R (2006) p. 681; Irvine (2004) p. 50 § 878; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; Kries (2003) p. 71 n. 32; Smyth (2002) pp. 226 nn. 157–159, 227 n. 165; O'Keeffe (2001) pp. 61–62 § 879; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 74–77 § 878; Whitelock (1996) pp. 200 § 878; Gransden (1995) p. 58; Rowe, E (1993); Brooks (1979) p. 4; Ó Corráin (1979) pp. 315–316, 322; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 96 n. 22, 117 n. 173, 119–123; Whitelock (1969) pp. 223, 227; Stenton (1963) p. 244 n. 2; Lukman (1958) p. 58; Bell (1938) p. 193; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 176, 178; Conybeare (1914) p. 143 § 878; Giles (1914) p. 54 § 878; Gomme (1909) p. 63 § 878; Mawer (1908–1909) pp. 78, 80 n. 1; Giles (1903) p. 356 § 878; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 74–77 § 878; Thorpe (1861a) p. 146–147 § 878/879; Thorpe (1861b) p. 64 § 878; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 46 § 878.
  261. ^ Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54; Smyth (2002) pp. 26 ch. 54, 124, 187, 226 n. 159; Yorke (1995) p. 111; Conybeare (1914) p. 110 § 58 ch. 54; Mawer (1908–1909) pp. 78, 85; Cook (1906) p. 27 ch. 54; Giles (1906) p. 61; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 43 ch. 54; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 458.
  262. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 18 n. 22; Gore (2016) p. 62; Lewis (2016) p. 33; Parker, E (2016) pp. 437–438; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 45, 246–247; Downham (2013a) p. 24 n. 75; Gigov (2011) pp. 21, 24; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 146; Short (2009) p. 172–173 §§ 3144–3156; Downham (2007) p. 68 n. 25; McTurk, R (2007) p. 60; Woolf (2007) p. 73 n. 11; Swanton, M (1998) p. 75 n. 12; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 14; Ó Corráin (1979) p. 316; McTurk, RW (1976) p. 119 n. 192; Whitelock (1969) p. 227; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 93; Lukman (1958) pp. 141–142; Conybeare (1914) p. 209; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 83; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 265 n. 1; Hardy; Martin (1889) p. 101 §§ 3146–3158; Hardy; Martin (1888) p. 132 §§ 3146–3158; Thurnam (1857) p. 83; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 767; Wright (1850) p. 108 §§ 3146–3158.
  263. ^ a b Lewis (2016) pp. 33–34; Downham (2013a) p. 24 n. 75; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 146; Downham (2007) p. 68 n. 25; Woolf (2007) p. 73 n. 11; Hart, CR (2003) p. 160 n. 3; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 14; Ó Corráin (1979) p. 316.
  264. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 34; McTurk, R (2015) p. 45; Spence (2013) p. 9; Gigov (2011) pp. 20–21; Woolf (2007) p. 72 n. 8.
  265. ^ Lavelle (2016) p. 137 n. 31; Lewis (2016) p. 33; Short (2009) p. 172–173 §§ 3144–3156; Hardy; Martin (1889) p. 101 §§ 3146–3158; Hardy; Martin (1888) p. 132 §§ 3146–3158; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 767; Wright (1850) p. 108 §§ 3146–3158.
  266. ^ McTurk, R (2015) pp. 246–247; Short (2009) pp. 172–173 §§ 3144–3156; Hart, CR (2003) p. 160 n. 3; Swanton, M (1998) p. 75 n. 12; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 93; Bell (1938) pp. 193–195; Conybeare (1914) p. 209; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 83; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 265, 265 n. 1; Hardy; Martin (1889) p. 101 §§ 3146–3158; Hardy; Martin (1888) p. 132 §§ 3146–3158; Thurnam (1857) p. 83; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 767; Wright (1850) p. 108 §§ 3146–3158.
  267. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 247.
  268. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 18; Parker, E (2016) pp. 437–438; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 246–247; Parker, EC (2012) p. 100; Short (2009) pp. 172–173 §§ 3144–3156; Hart, CR (2003) p. 160 n. 3; Swanton, M (1998) p. 75 n. 12; Whitelock (1969) p. 228 n. 58; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 93; Lukman (1958) pp. 141–142; Bell (1938) pp. 193–194; Conybeare (1914) p. 209; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 83; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 265, 265 n. 1; Hardy; Martin (1889) p. 101 §§ 3146–3158; Hardy; Martin (1888) p. 132 §§ 3146–3158; Thurnam (1857) p. 83; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 767; Wright (1850) p. 108 §§ 3146–3158.
  269. ^ Parker, E (2016) p. 438; Parker, EC (2012) p. 100.
  270. ^ Parker, E (2016) p. 438; McTurk, R (2015) p. 246; Parker, EC (2012) pp. 100–101; Olsen (1906–1908) p. 169 ch. 18/19; Rafn (1829) p. 294 ch. 19.
  271. ^ Faulkes (2016) pp. 34, 42; Parker, E (2016) p. 438 n. 40; Parker, EC (2012) p. 101; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 82.
  272. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 246; Reeve; Wright (2007) pp. 132 bk. 6 ch. 102, 133 bk. 6 ch. 102.
  273. ^ Williamson (2017) p. 1103; Whitelock (1969) p. 228; James, MR (1905) p. 71; Swan; Roberson (n.d.).
  274. ^ Bell (1938) p. 195; Hervey (1907) pp. 162–165.
  275. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 18, 18 n. 21; Whitelock (1969) p. 228 n. 58; Hervey (1907) pp. 374–375; Edwards, E (1866) p. 10 ch. 5; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 487 ch. 5.
  276. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 18.
  277. ^ Parker, EC (2012) p. 102 n. 259; van Houts (1984) pp. 113, 113 n. 39, 116; Marx (1914) p. 17 bk. 1 ch. 10/11.
  278. ^ Bell (1938) p. 194; Thurnam (1857) pp. 81–82, 82 n. 4; Historiæ Anglicanæ (1652) p. 809.
  279. ^ Bell (1938) pp. 194–195; Haydon (1863) pp. 7–8 ch. 82.
  280. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 18; Fairweather (2005) p. 72 bk. 1 ch. 39; Blake (1962) p. 54 bk. 1 ch. 39.
  281. ^ Wormald (2006); Riley; Wilson-North (2003) p. 86.
  282. ^ Gore (2016) p. 62; Lavelle (2016) p. 124; Lewis (2016) p. 32; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54; Smyth (2002) pp. 26 ch. 54; Conybeare (1914) p. 110 § 58 ch. 54; Cook (1906) p. 27 ch. 54; Giles (1906) p. 61; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 43 ch. 54; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 458.
  283. ^ Gore (2016) p. 62; Lavelle (2016) pp. 124–125, 136 n. 18; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; Hart, CR (2003) p. 160 n. 3; Smyth (2002) p. 227 n. 164; Swanton, M (1998) p. 76 n. 1; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 16; Conybeare (1914) p. 161 bk. 4 ch. 3 § 8; Giles (1906) p. 31 bk. 4 ch. 3; The Whole Works of King Alfred the Great (1858) p. 68; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 432 bk. 4 ch. 3.
  284. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 32; Gigov (2011) p. 77; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 18, 18 n. 50, 20, 123; Smith, JJ (2009) p. 130; Downham (2007) p. 71; McLeod, S (2006) p. 154 n. 77; Nelson (2001) p. 39; O'Keeffe (2001) pp. 61–62 § 879; Swanton, M (1998) p. 76 § 878; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 § 878; Brooks (1979) p. 4; Ó Corráin (1979) p. 316; Conybeare (1914) p. 143 § 878; Giles (1914) p. 54 § 878; Gomme (1909) p. 63 § 878; Giles (1903) p. 356 § 878; Plummer; Earle (1892) p. 76 § 878; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 146–147 § 878/879; Thorpe (1861b) p. 64 § 878; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 46 § 878, 46 n. 10.
  285. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 32; McTurk, R (2015) p. 43; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 233 § 878; Downham (2013a) p. 24; Gigov (2011) p. 77; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 18, 18 n. 50, 20; Smith, JJ (2009) p. 130; Downham (2007) p. 71; McLeod, S (2006) p. 154 n. 77; Irvine (2004) p. 50 § 878; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; Smyth (2002) pp. 187, 226 n. 162; Nelson (2001) p. 39; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 76–77 § 878; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 § 878, 200 nn. 17–18; Brooks (1979) p. 4; Conybeare (1914) p. 143 § 878; Giles (1914) p. 54 § 878; Gomme (1909) p. 63 § 878; Giles (1903) p. 356 § 878; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 76–77 § 878; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 146–147 § 878; Thorpe (1861b) p. 64 § 878; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 46 § 878, 46 n. 11.
  286. ^ Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 233 § 878; Irvine (2004) p. 50 § 878; Swanton, M (1998) p. 77 § 878; Bately (1991) p. 60; Plummer; Earle (1892) p. 77 § 878; Thorpe (1861a) p. 147 § 878; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 46 n. 10.
  287. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 24; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; Smyth (2002) pp. 187, 226 n. 162; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 62 § 879; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 nn. 17–18; Bately (1991) p. 60; Brooks (1979) p. 4; Thorpe (1861a) p. 146 § 878/879; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 46 n. 11.
  288. ^ Smyth (2002) p. 187.
  289. ^ Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 18.
  290. ^ Smith, JJ (2009) pp. 131 n. 1, 162–163; Swanton, M (1998) p. 76 n. 2; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 18.
  291. ^ Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99.
  292. ^ a b McLeod, SH (2011) p. 20.
  293. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 24; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54; Smyth (2002) pp. 26 ch. 54, 187; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 n. 18; Bately (1991) p. 97; Conybeare (1914) p. 110 § 58 ch. 54; Cook (1906) p. 27 ch. 54; Giles (1906) p. 61; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 43 ch. 54; Stevenson, J (1854) p. 458.
  294. ^ Lavelle (2016) pp. 124–125; Lewis (2016) p. 32; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 43–44, 46; Downham (2013a) p. 22 n. 67; McLeod, SH (2011) pp. 127–128 n. 63; McTurk, R (2006) p. 681; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; Smyth (2002) p. 227 n. 165; Swanton, M (1998) p. 76 n. 1; Ó Corráin (1979) p. 322; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 96 n. 22, 120–122, 120 n. 196; Whitelock (1996) p. 200 nn. 16, 18; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 178 n. 11; Conybeare (1914) pp. 160–161 bk. 4 ch. 3 § 8; Giles (1906) p. 31 bk. 4 ch. 3; The Whole Works of King Alfred the Great (1858) p. 68; Stevenson, J (1854) pp. 431–432 bk. 4 ch. 3.
  295. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 33; Arnold (1879) p. 147 bk. 5 ch. 8; Forester (1853) p. 156 bk. 5.
  296. ^ Lewis (2016) pp. 32–33; Arnold (1885) pp. 83 ch. 76, 111–112 ch. 95; Stevenson, J (1855) pp. 475–476, 493.
  297. ^ Abels (2013) p. 154.
  298. ^ Downham (2007) p. 204.
  299. ^ Downham (2007) pp. 204–205.
  300. ^ Lewis (2016) pp. 19–20; Crumplin (2004) pp. 44, 44 n. 44, 71 fig. 1; South (2002) pp. 52–53 ch. 14; Johnson-South (1991) p. 623; Arnold (1882) p. 204 bk. 2 ch. 14; Hodgson Hinde (1868) p. 144.
  301. ^ Kirby (2002) p. 175.
  302. ^ Somerville; McDonald (2014) pp. 233–234 § 878; Gigov (2011) p. 77; Smith, JJ (2009) pp. 130–131; Downham (2007) p. 71; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 76; Irvine (2004) pp. 50–51 § 878; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. introduction ¶ 18; Kirby (2002) p. 175; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 62 § 879; Williams, A (1999) pp. 70–71; Swanton, M (1998) pp. 76–77 § 878; Whitelock (1996) p. 201 § 878; Conybeare (1914) pp. 143–144 § 878; Giles (1914) p. 54 § 878; Gomme (1909) pp. 63–64 § 878; Giles (1903) p. 356 § 878; Plummer; Earle (1892) pp. 74–77 § 878; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 146–149 § 878/879; Thorpe (1861b) pp. 64–65 § 878; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 47 § 878.
  303. ^ Downham (2013a) p. 24; Hadley (2009) p. 112; Costambeys (2008); Ridyard (2008) pp. 211–212; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) pp. 76–77; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. introduction ¶¶ 18–19; Keynes (2001) p. 57; Sawyer (2001) p. 276; Williams, A (1999) p. 71.
  304. ^ Costambeys (2008); Williams, A (1999) p. 71.
  305. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 21, 21 n. 6; Roffey; Lavelle (2016) p. 8; Lapidge (2014); McLeod, S (2013) p. 84 n. 96; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 282; Cubitt (2009) p. 403; Costambeys (2004b); Cubitt; Costambeys (2004); Gransden (1995) p. 58; Clark (1983) p. 13, 13 n. 86; Hart, C (1982) p. 571; Whitelock (1945) p. 169.
  306. ^ Cubitt (2009) p. 403; Costambeys (2004b); Gransden (1995) p. 58; Clark (1983) p. 13, 13 n. 86; Hart, C (1982) p. 571; Raine (1879) p. 404.
  307. ^ Pinner (2010) pp. 156 fig. 50, 157, 161–163 fig. 53; Harley MS 2278 (n.d.).
  308. ^ Cawsey (2009) pp. 382–383.
  309. ^ Pinner (2010) p. 157.
  310. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 146; Finlay (2009) p. 48; Rowe, EA (2008) p. 355 n. 9; Fjalldal (2003) p. 101 n. 3; Halldórsson (2000) pp. 58–59; Whitelock (1969) p. 227.
  311. ^ Finlay (2009) p. 48.
  312. ^ IJssennagger (2015) p. 137 n. 8; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 9, 45, 106; Parker, EC (2012) pp. 94, 98; Gigov (2011) pp. 20–21, 24, 60; Finlay (2009) p. 48; Hayward (2009) p. 72 n. 36; McTurk, R (2007) p. 60; McTurk, R (2006) p. 681; Kries (2003) p. 60; van Houts (1984) p. 115, 115 n. 46; McTurk, RW (1976) p. 108; Whitelock (1969) pp. 224, 228; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 93; Lukman (1958) p. 141; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 176, 178; Mawer (1908–1909) pp. 78, 83; Stevenson, WH (1904) p. 138; Gale (1691) p. 167.
  313. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 9; Britt (2014) p. 140; Parker, E (2014) pp. 488–489; Parker, EC (2012) pp. 94, 98; Gigov (2011) pp. 20–21, 24, 39; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 253; Hayward (2009) p. 72 n. 36; Orchard (2001) p. 168; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 2 p. 156 n. 38; Swanton, M (1998) p. 77 n. 14; Whitelock (1996) p. 201 n. 19; Bately (1991) p. 38; Dumville; Lapidge (1985) p. 78; van Houts (1984) p. 115, 115 n. 46; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 2 p. 156 n. 38; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 108, 108 n. 113, 119 n. 191; Whitelock (1969) pp. 227–228; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 93; Lukman (1958) p. 141; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 176; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 83; Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 138, 266; Gale (1691) p. 167.
  314. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 9; Britt (2014) pp. 139–140; Parker, E (2014) p. 488; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 233 § 878; McLeod, S (2013) p. 65; Parker, EC (2012) p. 94; Gigov (2011) p. 20; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 253; Wild (2008a) p. 209; Wild (2008b) p. 42; Halsall (2007) p. 200; Irvine (2004) p. 50 § 878; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; Hudson (2002) p. 249; Smyth (2002) p. 227 n. 165; O'Keeffe (2001) p. 62 § 879; Orchard (2001) p. 168; Hart, C (2000) p. 141; Williams, A (1999) p. 86; Swanton, M (1998) p. 77 § 878; Whitelock (1996) p. 201, 201 n. 19; Bately (1991) p. 38; McTurk, RW (1976) p. 119 n. 191; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 93; Lukman (1958) p. 140; Bell (1938) p. 195; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 175; Conybeare (1914) p. 143 § 878; Giles (1914) p. 54 § 878; Gomme (1909) p. 63 § 878, 63 n. 2; Giles (1903) p. 356 § 878; Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 265–266; Plummer; Earle (1892) p. 77 § 878; Cleasby; Vigfusson (1874) p. 281 § hrafn; Thorpe (1861a) pp. 146–147 § 878/879; Thorpe (1861b) p. 64 § 878; Stevenson, J (1853) pp. 46–47 § 878, 46 n. 12.
  315. ^ Barrow (2016) p. 84 n. 31.
  316. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 33 n. 11; McTurk, R (2015) p. 9; McLeod, S (2013) p. 65 n. 20; Parker, EC (2012) p. 94, 94 n. 227; Keynes; Lapidge (2004) ch. asser's life of king alfred § 54 n. 99; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 253; Smyth (2002) p. 227 n. 165; Whitelock (1996) p. 201 n. 19; Bately (1991) pp. 38, 52; Gomme (1909) p. 63 n. 2; Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 265–266; Stevenson, J (1853) p. 46 n. 12.
  317. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 33 n. 11; McLeod, SH (2011) p. 253; Halsall (2007) p. 290 n. 117; Smyth (2002) pp. 174, 227 n. 165; Whitelock (1996) p. 201 n. 19; Bately (1991) pp. 52, 60; Plummer; Earle (1965) p. 93; Lukman (1958) p. 140; Bell (1938) p. 195; Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 265–266.
  318. ^ Whitelock (1996) p. 201 n. 19; Lukman (1958) p. 140.
  319. ^ Smyth (2002) pp. 174, 227 n. 165, 249 n. 127; Whitelock (1996) p. 201 n. 19; Bately (1991) p. 60.
  320. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 253; Smyth (2002) p. 227 n. 165; Whitelock (1996) p. 201 n. 19; Bately (1991) pp. 52, 60.
  321. ^ McLeod, SH (2011) p. 253.
  322. ^ Kries (2003) p. 73 n. 68; Bately (1991) p. 38; Dumville; Lapidge (1985) p. 78 n. 26; Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 265–266.
  323. ^ Bately (1991) pp. 38–39.
  324. ^ Hart, C (2000) p. 141.
  325. ^ Parker, E (2014) p. 488; Parker, EC (2012) p. 94.
  326. ^ Parker, EC (2012) pp. 93–99.
  327. ^ Pinner (2010) pp. 161–163 fig. 53; Yates Thompson MS 47 (n.d.).
  328. ^ Whitelock (1996) p. 228; van Houts (1993).
  329. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 1; Schulte (2015); Rowe, EA (2008) p. 347; Rowe, E (1993); McTurk, RW (1976) p. 111.
  330. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 7.
  331. ^ Cross (2018) p. 147 n. 86; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 1, 6–7; Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 298; Gigov (2011) pp. 38–39, 55; Finlay (2009) p. 45; Grønlie (2006) p. 3 ch. 1; McTurk, R (2006) pp. 682–683; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 309; van Houts (1993); van Houts (1984) p. 115; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 95, 108; Íslendingabók Sögur (1843) p. 4 ch. 1.
  332. ^ McTurk, RW (1976) p. 95.
  333. ^ McTurk, R (2015) pp. 1, 4, 47–49; Schulte (2015); Gigov (2011) pp. 28–36; Grønlie (2006) p. 16 n. 10; McTurk, R (2007) p. 57; McTurk, R (2006) pp. 681, 683; McTurk, R (1993); Rowe, E (1993); van Houts (1984) p. 114; Ó Corráin (1979) pp. 287–288; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 93–97, 111.
  334. ^ Kries (2003) p. 73 n. 68.
  335. ^ a b c d McTurk, R (2015) p. 106.
  336. ^ McTurk, R (2015) pp. 1, 6, 14, 35; McTurk, R (2007) pp. 60–61; van Houts (1993); van Houts (1984) p. 114.
  337. ^ McTurk, R (2015) pp. 1, 6.
  338. ^ McTurk, R (2015) pp. 1, 14–15, 35, 45, 96, 247; Parker, EC (2012) p. 102 n. 259; Gigov (2011) pp. 38–39; McTurk, R (2007) pp. 60–61; van Houts (1984) pp. 112–113, 112–113 n. 33, 113 n. 34; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 107, 107 n. 103, 108; Marx (1914) pp. 5–6 bk. 1 ch. 1/2, 8 bk. 1 ch. 4/5.
  339. ^ McTurk, R (2015) pp. 1, 11, 15, 35, 40, 45, 105; Finlay (2009) p. 47 n. 8; McTurk, R (2007) p. 60; McTurk, R (2006) p. 682; van Houts (1984) pp. 114, 115, 115 n. 45; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 104 n. 86, 120–121; Schmeidler (1917) pp. 39–40.
  340. ^ McTurk, R (2015) pp. 9, 15, 35, 45–46, 48–50, 247; Schulte (2015); Gigov (2011) pp. 36–39, 60–61; McTurk, R (2007); Pernille; Schjødt; Kristensen (2007) p. x; McTurk, R (2006); McTurk, R (1993); McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 94 n. 14, 103–104.
  341. ^ Whitelock (1969) p. 226.
  342. ^ Mawer (1908–1909) p. 84.
  343. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 224; McTurk, R (2006) p. 682.
  344. ^ McTurk, R (2006) p. 682.
  345. ^ IJssennagger (2015) p. 137 n. 8; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 40, 78, 154, 226; Gigov (2011) p. 17; McTurk, R (2007) p. 60; McTurk, R (2006) p. 682; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 1 pp. 285–287 bk. 9; McTurk, RW (1976) p. 95 n. 21; Whitelock (1969) p. 227; McKeehan (1933) p. 990; Mawer (1908–1909) pp. 69–71, 82–83; Holder (1886) pp. 306–310 bk. 9; Elton; Powell; Anderson; Buel (n.d.) pp. 550–556 bk. 9.
  346. ^ a b Whitelock (1969) p. 227.
  347. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 83; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 1 pp. 287–289 bk. 9; Mawer (1908–1909) pp. 69–71, 82–84; Holder (1886) pp. 309–312 bk. 9; Elton; Powell; Anderson; Buel (n.d.) pp. 556–560 bk. 9.
  348. ^ McTurk, R (2007) p. 60; McTurk, R (2006) p. 682; McTurk, RW (1976) p. 95 n. 21.
  349. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 30; McTurk, R (2015) pp. 105–106; Gigov (2011) p. 57; Finlay (2009) p. 48 n. 10; Olrik (1898) pp. 10–11.
  350. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 105.
  351. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 106; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 2 p. 130 n. 37; Rafn (1829) pp. 382–383 chs. 8–9.
  352. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 106; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 1 p. 240 bk. 8, vol. 2 p. 130 n. 37; Holder (1886) p. 260 bk. 8; Elton (n.d.) p. 476 bk. 8.
  353. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 106; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 2 p. 130 n. 37.
  354. ^ Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 2 p. 130 n. 37.
  355. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 106; Gigov (2011) p. 17; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 1 p. 285 bk. 9; Holder (1886) p. 306 bk. 9; Elton (n.d.) p. 550 bk. 9.
  356. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 106; Gigov (2011) pp. 16, 18, 26–27, 58–59; Waggoner (2009) pp. 70 ch. 3, 111 n. 14; Rowe, EA (2008) p. 355, 355 n. 9; Fjalldal (2003) p. 78; Halldórsson (2000) pp. 54, 58–59; Smith, AH (1928–1936a) p. 230; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 175, 181–183, 185; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 74, 84; Rafn (1829) p. 354 ch. 3.
  357. ^ Waggoner (2009) p. 111 n. 14; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 175, 183.
  358. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 106; Gigov (2011) pp. 16, 26–27, 57–59; Rowe, EA (2008) p. 355 n. 9; Halldórsson (2000) pp. 58–59; Smith, AH (1928–1936a) p. 230; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 175, 182–183; Jónsson (1923) p. 828; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 84.
  359. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 106; Gigov (2011) pp. 57–59; Waggoner (2009) p. 111 n. 14; Rowe, EA (2008) p. 355; Halldórsson (2000) p. 59; Smith, AH (1928–1936a) pp. 230–231; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 182–183; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 84.
  360. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 106; Rowe, EA (2008) p. 355 n. 9; Mawer (1908–1909) p. 84.
  361. ^ a b Rowe, EA (2008) p. 355.
  362. ^ Lewis (2016) p. 30; McTurk, R (2015) p. 106; Gigov (2011) pp. 57–59; Olrik (1898) pp. 10–11.
  363. ^ Rowe, EA (2008) p. 355 n. 9.
  364. ^ Gigov (2011) p. 57.
  365. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 105; Inde ab Anno (1892) p. 197 § 856.
  366. ^ Pinner (2010) pp. 51–52, 137; Sisk (2010) p. 350 n. 4; Edwards, ASG (2009) p. 134.
  367. ^ Reimer (2014) pp. 148–149; Edwards, ASG (2009) pp. 139, 141; Winstead (2007) p. 126; Manion (2005) pp. 105–108 Frantzen (2004) p. 70; Horstmann (1881) pp. 376–440.
  368. ^ Manion (2005) pp. 105–107; Horstmann (1881) pp. 376–440.
  369. ^ Whitelock (1969) pp. 225–226; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 183–184.
  370. ^ Whitelock (1969) p. 228.
  371. ^ a b Frantzen (2004) p. 64.
  372. ^ McTurk, R (2015) p. 8; Pinner (2015) p. 76; Parker, E (2014) p. 489; Jordan, TR (2012) p. 87; Parker, EC (2012) pp. 96–97, 102; Gigov (2011) pp. 10–11, 42–44; Pinner (2010) p. 123; Hayward (2009) p. 69; Frantzen (2004) p. 64; Thomson (1977) pp. 41–42; Whitelock (1969) p. 228; Hervey (1907) pp. 156–161; Arnold (1890) pp. 102–103.
  373. ^ Levy (2004) pp. 279–280; Frankis (1996) p. 233; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 176, 188; Hervey (1907) pp. 224–359; Ravenel (1906) pp. 8, 10, 55–174; Arnold (1892) pp. 137–250.
  374. ^ Pinner (2015) p. 81; Levy (2004) p. 279.
  375. ^ Pinner (2015) p. 81.
  376. ^ De Wilde (2016).
  377. ^ Frankis (1996) p. 233.
  378. ^ Kibler (1980).
  379. ^ Frankis (1996) pp. 233–234.
  380. ^ Hayward (2009) p. 72, 72 n. 35.
  381. ^ Bartlett (2016) p. 18; Gigov (2011) p. 55; Hayward (2009) pp. 84–85, 85 n. 83; Davidson; Fisher (1999) vol. 2 p. 156 n. 38; Thomson (1977) p. 41; Hervey (1907) pp. 156–157; Arnold (1890) p. 102.
  382. ^ Levy (2004) pp. 279–280, 280 n. 32; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 176; Hervey (1907) p. 288 §§ 1932–1933; Ravenel (1906) p. 113 §§ 1933–1934; Arnold (1892) p. 191 §§ 1931–1932.
  383. ^ Gigov (2011) p. 55; Olsen (1906–1908) p. 131 ch. 8/7; Rafn (1829) p. 253 ch. 7.
  384. ^ Parker, EC (2012) p. 97, 97 n. 241; Bartlett (2016) p. 18, 18 n. 18; Arnold (1879) p. 143 bk. 5 ch. 5; Forester (1853) p. 152 bk. 5.
  385. ^ Mostert (1987) p. 173; Whitelock (1969) p. 220; Hervey (1907) pp. 20–21 ch. 6; Arnold (1890) p. 10 ch. 6.
  386. ^ Somerville; McDonald (2014) p. 298; Finlay (2009) p. 45; Grønlie (2006) p. 3 ch. 1; Forte; Oram; Pedersen (2005) p. 309; Whitelock (1969) pp. 227–228; Íslendingabók Sögur (1843) p. 4 ch. 1.
  387. ^ Gigov (2011) pp. 38–39; Finlay (2009) p. 47 n. 8.
  388. ^ Stevenson, WH (1904) pp. 262–263, 262 n. 3; Thurnam (1857) p. 85; Vidal (1806) p. 207.
  389. ^ Bradt (2015) p. 44.
  390. ^ Bradt (2015) p. 44; Appledore History set in Stone (2009).
  391. ^ Hrdina (2011) p. 108; Jones (1980) p. 134; Charles (1934) pp. 8–9.
  392. ^ Hrdina (2011) p. 108; James, H (2007) p. 57; Mills, AD (2003) § hubberston; Jones (1980) p. 134; Loyn (1976) p. 9; Charles (1934) p. 9.
  393. ^ a b Hrdina (2011) p. 108; Charles (1934) p. 9.
  394. ^ Mills, AD (2003) § hubberston; James, H (2007) p. 57; Charles (1934) p. 9.
  395. ^ Mills, AD (2003) § hubberston.
  396. ^ Jones (1980) p. 134; Loyn (1976) p. 9.
  397. ^ Charles (1934) p. 9.
  398. ^ Lloyd (1912) p. 424 n. 75.
  399. ^ Reinhard (1941) p. 58; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 183–185; Luard (1872) pp. 393–399.
  400. ^ Parker, E (2016) p. 433; Parker, E (2014) p. 489; Parker, EC (2012) pp. 97, 102, 102 n. 258, 206; Gigov (2011) pp. 41–42, 44; Pestell (2004) p. 78, 78 n. 74; Whitelock (1969) pp. 229–230; Reinhard (1941) p. 58; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 183–186; Hervey (1907) pp. 170–191; Giles (1849) pp. 193–199; Coxe (1841) pp. 303–312.
  401. ^ Luard (2012) pp. 433–440; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 183–185; Reinhard (1941) p. 58; Yonge (1853) pp. 409–418.
  402. ^ Parker, E (2016) p. 433; Pinner (2015) p. 86; Parker, E (2014) p. 489; Jordan, TR (2012) pp. 98–99; Parker, EC (2012) pp. 97, 102, 102 n. 258, 206; Gigov (2011) pp. 11, 41–42, 44; Pinner (2010) pp. 134–135; Finlay (2009) p. 56; Pestell (2004) p. 78 n. 74; Fjalldal (2003) p. 101 n. 3; Whitelock (1969) pp. 229–230; Reinhard (1941) p. 58; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 183–186; Hervey (1907) pp. 170–191; Giles (1849) pp. 193–199; Coxe (1841) pp. 303–312.
  403. ^ Kries (2003) p. 69 n. 9.
  404. ^ Parker, E (2016) p. 433, 433 n. 22; Hardwick (1858) p. 221 ch. 29.
  405. ^ Pinner (2015) p. 86; Hervey (1907) pp. 390–402.
  406. ^ a b Parker, E (2016) pp. 432–433; McTurk, R (2015) p. 215; Parker, E (2014) p. 489; Parker, EC (2012) pp. 97, 102, 168, 206; Kries (2003) p. 67; Whitelock (1969) pp. 229–230; Short (2009) pp. 142–149 §§ 2595–2722; Sayers (2003) p. 305; Freeman (1996) p. 199; Bell (1932) pp. 169–170; Hardy; Martin (1889) pp. 84–88 §§ 2597–2724; Hardy; Martin (1888) pp. 104–112 §§ 2597–2724; Stevenson, J (1854) pp. 760–761; Wright (1850) pp. 89–93 §§ 2597–2724.
  407. ^ Parker, E (2016) p. 433 n. 20; Parker, EC (2012) p. 97 n. 239; Bell (1932) pp. 169–170; Haydon (1863) pp. 3–4 chs. 80–81; The Whole Works of King Alfred the Great (1858) p. 36; Historiæ Anglicanæ (1652) pp. 802–802.
  408. ^ Matheson (2008) pp. 230–231, 243; Brie (1906) pp. 103–105.
  409. ^ McTurk, R (2015) pp. 215–217; Hardy; Martin (1888) pp. 328–338.
  410. ^ Whitelock (1969) pp. 229–230; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) pp. 186–187.
  411. ^ Gigov (2011) pp. 15–16; Whitelock (1969) p. 226; Smith, AH (1928–1936b) p. 184; Olsen (1906–1908) pp. 167–168 ch. 17; Rafn (1829) p. 292 ch. 18.
  412. ^ Gigov (2011) pp. 48–49; Frantzen (2004) pp. 65–66.
  413. ^ Parker, E (2014) pp. 489–490; Pestell (2004) p. 78, 78 n. 74.
  414. ^ Parker, EC (2012) p. 96; Gigov (2011) pp. 53, 62.
  415. ^ Parker, E (2014) pp. 489–490.
  416. ^ Gigov (2011) pp. 59–60; McTurk, RW (1976) pp. 108–109.
  417. ^ Parker, E (2016) p. 432; Parker, EC (2012) p. 178 n. 478; Kleinman (2004) pp. 318–319; Frankis (1996) p. 241; Lukman (1958) p. 142; Skeat, WW (1902); Hardy; Martin (1888) pp. 290–327.
  418. ^ Parker, E (2016) p. 433.
  419. ^ Parker, E (2016) pp. 433–434, 446–447.
  420. ^ Parker, EC (2012) p. 178 n. 478; Frankis (1996) p. 241.
  421. ^ Parker, EC (2012) pp. 206–207.
  422. ^ Gigov (2011) pp. 53–54.
  423. ^ Keynes (1999) pp. 246–247 pl. 9a, 295.
  424. ^ Keynes (1999) pp. 273, 295, 295 n. 311.
  425. ^ Keynes (1999) pp. 246–247 pl. 8b.
  426. ^ Keynes (1999) pp. 271–272, 295.
  427. ^ Keynes (1999) pp. 295, 295 n. 312, 307, 307 n. 383.
  428. ^ Wood (2015) p. 121; Griffel (2013) p. 11; Parker, J (2013) p. 139; Wehlau (2011) p. 802; Pratt (2000) p. 147; Henderson (1950) p. 31; Adams (1904) p. 34; Miles (1902) pp. 58–62; Alfred: A Masque (1751); Alfred: A Masque (1740).
  429. ^ Henderson (1950) p. 31.
  430. ^ Henderson (1950) p. 36; Miles (1902) pp. 63 n. 2, 64.
  431. ^ Wood (2015) p. 141; Henderson (1950) p. 36; Adams (1904) p. 34.
  432. ^ Wehlau (2011) p. 810; Henderson (1950) pp. 84–89; Miles (1902) p. 75 n. 1; O'Keeffe, J (1798) pp. 195–267.
  433. ^ Wehlau (2011) p. 810; Henderson (1950) p. 81; Adams (1904) p. 34; Miles (1902) p. 74 n. 3.
  434. ^ Wehlau (2011) p. 815 n. 1; Hogan (1968) p. 1872.
  435. ^ Henderson (1950) p. 91; Miles (1902) p. 76 n. 1; Sketch of Alfred the Great (1798).
  436. ^ Keynes (1999) pp. 289–290; Henderson (1950) p. 91; Miles (1902) pp. 76–77, 77 n. 1; Sketch of Alfred the Great (1798).
  437. ^ Miles (1902) p. 97; Pye (1801).
  438. ^ Miles (1902) p. 96, 96 n. 1.
  439. ^ Miles (1902) p. 100; Cottle (1800).
  440. ^ Pratt (2000) p. 138.
  441. ^ Pratt (2000) p. 138; Miles (1902) p. 100, 100 n. 1.
  442. ^ Miles (1902) p. 78 n. 2.
  443. ^ Adams (1904) p. 34; Miles (1902) pp. 76, 78, 78 n. 1.
  444. ^ Adams (1904) p. 34; Miles (1902) p. 78.
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March 11, 2023
ubba, swedish, band, ubba, norse, ubbi, died, century, viking, commanders, great, heathen, army, that, invaded, anglo, saxon, england, 860s, note, great, army, appears, have, been, coalition, warbands, drawn, from, scandinavia, ireland, irish, region, continen. For the Swedish band see UBBA Ubba Old Norse Ubbi died 878 was a 9th century Viking and one of the commanders of the Great Heathen Army that invaded Anglo Saxon England in the 860s note 1 The Great Army appears to have been a coalition of warbands drawn from Scandinavia Ireland the Irish Sea region and Continental Europe There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the Viking forces specifically originated in Frisia where some Viking commanders are known to have held fiefdoms on behalf of the Franks Some sources describe Ubba as dux of the Frisians which could be evidence that he also associated with a Frisian benefice Ubba s name as it appears on folio 48v of British Library Harley 2278 Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund Vbba 1 In 865 the Great Army apparently led by Ivar the Boneless overwintered in the Kingdom of East Anglia before invading and destroying the Kingdom of Northumbria In 869 having been bought off by the Mercians the Vikings conquered the East Angles and in the process killed their king Edmund a man who was later regarded as a saint and martyr While near contemporary sources do not specifically associate Ubba with the latter campaign some later less reliable sources associate him with the legend of Edmund s martyrdom In time Ivar and Ubba came to be regarded as archetypal Viking invaders and opponents of Christianity As such Ubba features in several dubious hagiographical accounts of Anglo Saxon saints and ecclesiastical sites Non contemporary sources also associate Ivar and Ubba with the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok a figure of dubious historicity Whilst there is reason to suspect that Edmund s cult was partly promoted to integrate Scandinavian settlers in Anglo Saxon England the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok may have originated in attempts to explain why they came to settle Ubba is largely non existent in the Icelandic traditions of Ragnar Lodbrok After the fall of the East Anglian kingdom leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to Bagsecg and Halfdan who campaigned against the Mercians and West Saxons In 873 the Great Army is recorded to have split Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria the army under Guthrum Oscytel and Anwend struck out southwards and campaigned against the West Saxons In the winter of 877 878 Guthrum launched a lightning attack deep into Wessex There is reason to suspect that this strike was coordinated with the campaigning of a separate Viking force in Devon This latter army is reported to have been destroyed at Arx Cynuit in 878 According to a near contemporary source this force was led by a brother of Ivar and Halfdan and some later sources identify this man as Ubba himself Contents 1 Origins of Ubba and the Great Army 2 Viking invasion of Anglo Saxon England 3 Hagiographic association with Edmund 4 Hagiographic association with AEbbe and Osyth 5 The Great Army after Ivar 6 Battle of Arx Cynuit 7 Medieval legend of Ragnar Lodbrok 8 In popular culture 9 Notes 10 Citations 11 References 11 1 Primary sources 11 2 Secondary sources 12 External linksOrigins of Ubba and the Great Army EditIn the mid 9th century an invading Viking army coalesced in Anglo Saxon England The earliest version of the 9th to 12th century Anglo Saxon Chronicle variously describes the invading host as micel here 10 an Old English term that can translate as big army 11 or great army Archaeological evidence and documentary sources suggest that this Great Army was not a single unified force but more of a composite collection of warbands drawn from different regions 12 The exact origins of the Great Army are obscure 13 The Anglo Saxon Chronicle sometimes identifies the Vikings as Danes 14 The 10th century Vita Alfredi seems to allege that the invaders came from Denmark 15 A Scandinavian origin may be evinced by the 10th century Chronicon AEthelweardi which states that the fleets of the tyrant Ivar arrived in Anglo Saxon England from the north 16 By the mid 9th century this Ivar died 870 873 17 was one of the foremost Viking leaders in Britain and Ireland 18 The Great Army may have included Vikings already active in Anglo Saxon England as well as men directly from Scandinavia Ireland the Irish Sea region and the Continent 19 There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the army specifically originated in Frisia 20 For example the 9th century Annales Bertiniani reveals that Danish Vikings devastated Frisia in 850 21 and the 12th century Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses states that a Viking force of Danes and Frisians made landfall on the Isle of Sheppey in 855 22 The same source and the 10th or 11th century Historia de sancto Cuthberto describe Ubba as dux of the Frisians Whilst the Old English Anglo Saxon Chronicle calls the Viking army micel here the Latin Historia de sancto Cuthberto instead gives Scaldingi 23 a term of uncertain meaning that is employed three times in reference to the leadership of the Viking forces One possibility is that the word means people from the River Scheldt 24 This could indicate that Ubba was from Walcheren an island in the mouth of the Scheldt 25 Walcheren is known to have been occupied by Danish Vikings over two decades before For example the Annales Bertiniani reports that Lothair I King of Middle Francia died 855 granted the island to a Viking named Herioldus in 841 26 Another possibility is that this term simply refers to Scyldings an ancient lineage from which Danish monarchs of the time claimed descent According to the same source and the 9th century Annales Fuldenses another Viking named Roricus was granted a large part of Frisia as a benefice or fief from Lothair in 850 27 As men who held military and judicial authority on behalf of the Franks Herioldus and Roricus can also be regarded as Frisian duces Although it is uncertain whether Ubba was a native Frisian or a Scandinavian expatriate if he was indeed involved with a Frisian benefice his forces would have probably been partly composed of Frisians If his troops were drawn from the Scandinavian settlement started by Herioldus over two decades before many of Ubba s men might well have been born in Frisia 28 In fact the length of Scandinavian occupation suggests that some of the Vikings from Frisia would have been native Franks and Frisians The considerable time that members of the Great Army appear to have spent in Ireland and on the Continent suggests that these men were well accustomed to Christian society which in turn may partly explain their successes in Anglo Saxon England Viking invasion of Anglo Saxon England Edit A 15th century depiction of Ivar and Ubba ravaging the countryside as it appears on folio 48r of British Library Harley 2278 29 The Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund presents 9th century events in a chivalric context 30 note 2 In the autumn of 865 the Anglo Saxon Chronicle records that the Great Army invaded the Kingdom of East Anglia where they afterwards made peace with the East Anglians and overwintered 33 The terminology employed by this source suggests the Vikings attacked by sea 34 The invaders evidently gained valuable intelligence during the stay 35 as the Great Army is next stated to have left on horses gained from the subordinated population striking deep into the Kingdom of Northumbria a fractured realm in the midst of a bitter civil war between two competing kings AElla died 867 and Osberht died 867 36 Late in 866 the Vikings seized York 37 one of only two archiepiscopal sees in Anglo Saxon England and one of the richest trading centres in Britain 38 Although AElla and Osberht responded to this attack by joining forces against the Vikings the chronicle indicates that their assault on York was a disaster that resulted in both their deaths 37 note 3 According to Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses 46 and Historia de sancto Cuthberto the Northumbrians and their kings were crushed by Ubba himself 47 note 4 The 9th century Frisian fiefdom of Roricus appears to have encompassed a region around Dorestad Walcheren and Wieringen 51 Also that year Annales Bertiniani reports that Charles II King of West Francia died 877 paid off a Viking fleet stationed on the Seine 52 After proceeding down the Seine towards the sea where they repaired and rebuilt their fleet 53 a portion of the force is reported to have left for the district of IJssel 54 either Hollandse IJssel or Gelderse IJssel 55 Although the destination of the rest of the fleet is unrecorded one possibility is that it participated in the sack of York The fact that the Great Army remained in East Anglia for about a year before it attacked Northumbria could mean that it had been reinforced from the Continent during the layover 56 The part of the fleet that went to Frisia is later stated to have been unable to secure an alliance with Lothair This statement seems to suggest that these Vikings had intended to acquire a grant of lands in the region which could mean that they thereafter took part in the Great Army s campaigning across the Channel 57 Furthermore Annales Bertiniani notes that Roricus was forced from Frisia the following year This ejection could also account for the evidence of a Frisian dimension to the Great Army and for the attestations of Ubba himself 58 With the collapse of the Northumbrian kingdom and the destruction of its regime the 12th century Historia regum Anglorum 59 and Libellus de exordio reveal that a certain Ecgberht died 873 was installed by the Vikings as client king over a northern region of Northumbria 60 In the following year the Anglo Saxon Chronicle records that the Great Army attacked Mercia after which the Vikings seized Nottingham and overwintered there 61 Although the Mercian and West Saxon kings Burgred died 874 and AEthelred died 871 responded by joining forces and besieging the occupied town both the chronicle 62 and Vita Alfredi report that this combined Anglo Saxon force was unable to dislodge the army 63 According to both sources the Mercians made peace with the Vikings 62 63 It was probably on account of this seemingly purchased peace that the Great Army relocated to York as reported by the chronicle where it evidently renewed its strength for future forays 64 Hagiographic association with Edmund Edit A 13th or 14th century depiction of Edmund King of East Anglia being brought bound before Ivar as it appears on folio 28r of John Rylands Library French 142 65 note 5 The earliest source to make specific note of Ubba is Passio sancti Eadmundi which includes him in its account of the downfall of Edmund King of East Anglia died 869 67 Almost nothing is known of this king s career 68 and all that remains of his reign are a few coins 69 The first 70 contemporary documentary source to cast any light upon his reign is the Anglo Saxon Chronicle 71 According to this account the Great Army invaded East Anglia in the autumn of 869 before setting up winter quarters at Thetford The chronicle relates that the kingdom was conquered and Edmund was amongst the slain 72 note 6 Although the specific wording employed by most versions of the chronicle suggests that Edmund was killed in battle 75 and Vita Alfredi certainly states as much 76 with neither source making note of a martyrdom ordeal 77 later hagiographical accounts portray the king in an idealised light and depict his death in the context of a peace loving Christian monarch who willingly suffered martyrdom after refusing to shed blood in defence of himself 78 note 7 A 12th century depiction of the killing of Edmund King of East Anglia as depicted on folio 14r of Pierpont Morgan Library M 736 84 note 8 One such account is Passio sancti Eadmundi 90 a source that makes no mention of a battle 91 Whilst this source s claim that Edmund was martyred after being captured is not implausible 92 the fact that he came to regarded as a martyr does not negate the possibility that he was slain in battle as suggested by the Anglo Saxon Chronicle 93 note 9 The apparent contradictory accounts of Edmund s demise given by these sources may stem from the telescoping of events surrounding an East Anglian military defeat and the subsequent arrest and execution of the king 96 In any case surviving numismatic evidence of coins bearing Edmund s name the so called St Edmund memorial coinage reveals that he was certainly regarded as a saint about twenty years after his death 97 note 10 The reliability of Passio sancti Eadmundi is nevertheless uncertain 103 Although this source was composed over a century after the event 104 it may convey some credible material as the latest useful source 105 note 11 Nevertheless there is also reason to suspect that the account is little more than a collection of well known hagiographical elements 108 and that the composer knew little to nothing of Edmund s demise and early cult 109 The lurid depictions of Viking invaders presented by Passio sancti Eadmundi appears to owe much to the author s otherwise known association with Fleury 110 and specifically to the account of the Viking invasion of the Loire Valley detailed by Miracula sancti Benedicti a 9th century work composed by the Fleurian monk Adrevaldus fl 860s 111 Boys and men old and young whom he encountered in the streets of the city were killed and he paid no respect to the chastity of wife or maid Husband and wife lay dead or dying together on their thresholds the babe snatched from its mother s breast was in order to multiply the cries of grief slaughtered before her eyes An impious soldiery scoured the town in fury athirst for every crime by which pleasure could be given to the tyrant who from sheer love of cruelty had given orders for the massacre of the innocent excerpt from Passio sancti Eadmundi depicting Ivar s invasion of East Anglia 112 note 12 In specific regard to Ubba Passio sancti Eadmundi states that Ivar left him in Northumbria before launching his assault upon the East Angles in 869 115 note 13 If this source is to be believed it could indicate that Ubba stayed behind to ensure the cooperation of the conquered Northumbrians 118 Although Vita Alfredi and the Anglo Saxon Chronicle fail to note any Viking garrisons in the conquered Anglo Saxon kingdoms this may merely be a consequence of their otherwise perceptible West Saxon bias 119 note 14 In contrast to Passio sancti Eadmundi the 12th century F version of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle specifically identifies Ubba and Ivar as the chiefs of the men who killed the king 123 Whilst this identification could be derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi or the 10th century Lives of the Saints 124 it could merely be a mistake on the chronicler s part In any case later and less reliable literature covering the martyrdom associates both men with the event revealing that this version of events was current as early as the 12th century 125 note 15 Hagiographic association with AEbbe and Osyth Edit A 16th century depiction of AEbbe and the nuns of Coldingham disfiguring themselves whilst pursued by Vikings 128 Ubba is associated with the martyrdom of AEbbe an alleged abbess of Coldingham said to have been slain by Vikings in 870 129 The historicity of this woman is nevertheless uncertain 130 The earliest accounts of the alleged events at Coldingham date to the 13th century They include Chronica majora 131 and both the Wendover 132 and Paris versions of Flores historiarum 133 According to these sources AEbbe compelled the nuns of Coldingham to disfigure themselves to preserve their virginity from an incoming horde of Vikings Leading by example AEbbe is said to have cut off her nose and upper lip with a razor When the Viking arrived the following morning the sight of the mutilated and bloody women repelled the raiders Nevertheless Ivar and Ubba are stated to have ordered the razing of the monastery burning to death AEbbe and her faithful nuns 134 A 12th century depiction of Vikings attacking a town killing men women and children as depicted on folio 10r of Pierpont Morgan Library M 736 135 note 16 Despite many lurid 12th century tales of ecclesiastical devastation wrought by Vikings the principal contemporary source for this period the 9th or 10th century A version of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle fails to note the destruction of a single Anglo Saxon church by Scandinavians during the 8th and 9th centuries 137 Although Passio sancti Eadmundi presents the invasion of East Anglia by Ubba and Ivar as a campaign of wanton rape and murder the account does not depict the destruction of the kingdom s monasteries 138 In fact there is reason to suspect that most Anglo Saxon monastic sites probably survived the Viking invasions of the era 139 and that the East Anglian Church withstood the Viking invasions and occupation 140 note 17 Whilst Viking depredations of monasteries tend not to feature in sources intended for royal audiences religious desecrations appear in sources composed for ecclesiastical audiences 143 There are several reasons why 12th century sources associate the Vikings with seemingly unhistorical atrocities against particular monasteries For example such depredations could explain changes in monastic observance or the switch from monastic to clerical observance 144 Stories of Viking attacks could be used as evidence of the former possession of property claimed by religious houses centuries after the fact 145 The 9th century Viking onslaught may have also been a way in which 12th century commentators sought to explain what was regarded as monastic decay in 10th century Anglo Saxon England 146 This imagined or exaggerated religious extirpation could well have been a convenient way of accounting for the scarcity of documentary evidence concerning early religious institutions 147 Twelfth century ecclesiastical historians availed themselves of sources such as the Anglo Saxon Chronicle 148 and Passio sancti Eadmundi 149 The fact that the latter was particularly influential to mediaeval historians is evidenced by the frequent occurrences of Ivar and Ubba in reports of religious atrocities 150 To medieval hagiographers and historians these two figures were archetypal Viking invaders 151 and emblematic opponents of Christianity 152 note 18 A 13th or 14th century depiction of Osyth as it appears on folio 134v of British Library Additional 70513 159 The accounts of AEbbe could be an example of such a constructed tale The story appears be ultimately derived from the account of Coldingham preserved by the eighth century Historia ecclesiastica 160 According to this source AEthelthryth died 679 wife of Ecgfrith King of Northumbria died 685 entered the monastery under the tutelage of an abbess named AEbbe died 683 At some point after AEthelthryth left Coldingham to found a monastery at Ely Historia ecclesiastica reports that the monastery of Coldingham burned to the ground 161 This account of Coldingham s burning was later incorporated into Liber Eliensis a 12th century chronicle covering the history of AEthelthryth s establishment at Ely 162 The account of the burning given by Historia ecclesiastica may well be the inspiration behind the tale of facial mutilation and fiery martyrdom first associated with Coldingham by the Wendover version of Flores historiarum 148 note 19 To 12th century ecclesiasts invented tales of 9th century violence particularly violence inflicted by Ivar and Ubba may have been intended to validate the refoundation of certain religious communities 164 note 20 The earliest Anglo Saxon virgin martyr is Osyth 174 A now lost 12th century vita of this woman associated Ivar and Ubba with her seventh century martyrdom According to this source Ivar and Ubba commanded the pirates who beheaded her after she refused to worship their pagan idols 175 This work may have been the inspiration behind the Anglo Norman hagiography Vie seinte Osith 176 a composition that also attributes Osyth s killing to Ivar and Ubba and their followers 177 note 21 The Great Army after Ivar Edit The obverse and reverse of an Edmund memorial coin 198 Although some of the moneyers names that appear on these coins are Anglo Saxon many more are foreign 199 The names suggest that there was a significant influx of Continental emigration into Anglo Scandinavian controlled regions 200 note 22 The history of East Anglia immediately after Edmund s demise is extremely obscure 209 The account of events presented by Passio sancti Eadmundi seems to show that Edmund was killed in the context of the Great Army attempting to impose authority over him and his realm 210 Such an accommodation appears to have been gained by the Vikings in Northumbria 211 and Mercia 212 In any case numismatic evidence appears to indicate that two client kings a certain AEthelred and Oswald thereafter ruled over the East Angles on behalf of the Viking conquerors 213 It is at about this point that Ivar disappears from English history 214 According to Chronicon AEthelweardi he died in the same year as Edmund 215 However this record may partly stem from the fact that he did not take part in the subsequent war against the Kingdom of Wessex 216 beginning in the autumn or winter of 870 2 note 23 In any case the leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to kings Bagsecg died 871 and Halfdan died 877 221 the first principal Viking leaders attested by all versions of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle after the army s recorded arrival 222 note 24 The prehistoric barrow at Lanhill near Chippenham and Avebury probably dates to about the third millennium BC 229 Nevertheless it was associated with Ubba in the 17th century 230 note 25 For about a year the Great Army campaigned against the West Saxons before overwintering in London 231 Late in 872 after spending nearly a year in London the Vikings were drawn back to Northumbria and afterwards to Mercia 232 By the end of 874 the kingdoms of East Anglia Mercia and Northumbria were finally broken 233 At this point the Great Army split Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria the army under Guthrum died 890 Oscytel fl 875 and Anwend fl 875 struck out southwards and based itself at Cambridge 234 In 875 the Vikings invaded Wessex and seized Wareham Although Alfred King of Wessex died 899 sued for peace in 876 the Vikings broke the truce the following year seized Exeter and were finally forced to withdraw back to Mercia 235 Although much of Guthrum s army started to settle in Mercia 236 note 26 the Anglo Saxon Chronicle 239 and Vita Alfredi reveal that Guthrum launched a surprise attack against the West Saxons in the winter of 877 878 Setting off from their base in Gloucester the latter source specifies that the Vikings drove deep into Wessex and sacked the royal vill of Chippenham 240 note 27 It is possible that this operation was coordinated with another Viking attack in Devon that culminated in the Battle of Arx Cynuit in 878 243 Battle of Arx Cynuit EditFurther information Battle of Cynwit Wind Hill near Countisbury Devon possibly the site of the Viking defeat at the hands of local men in 878 244 Some mediaeval sources claim that Ubba led the vanquished army and that he was among those slain Most versions of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle locate the battle to Devon 245 note 28 Vita Alfredi specifies that it was fought at a fortress called Arx Cynuit 247 a name which appears to equate to what is today Countisbury in North Devon 248 note 29 This source also states that the Vikings made landfall in Devon from a base in Dyfed where they had previously overwintered 257 As such the Viking army could have arrived in Dyfed from Ireland and overwintered in Wales before striking forth into Devon 258 note 30 The Anglo Saxon Chronicle does not identify the army s commander by name It merely describes him as a brother of Ivar and Halfdan and observes that he was slain in the encounter 260 note 31 Although Ubba is identified as the slain commander by the 12th century Estoire des Engleis 262 it is unknown whether this identification is merely an inference by its author or if it is derived from an earlier source 263 note 32 For example this identification could have been influenced by the earlier association of Ubba and Ivar in the legends surrounding Edmund s martyrdom 263 In any case Estoire des Engleis further specifies that Ubba was slain at bois de Pene 266 which may refer to Penselwood near the Somerset Wiltshire border 267 and buried in Devon within a mound called Ubbelawe 268 note 33 The remains of the Gokstad ship a 9th century Viking ship unearthed in Norway The clash at Arx Cynuit culminated in a West Saxon victory 281 Whilst Vita Alfredi attributes the outcome to unnamed thegns of Alfred 282 Chronicon AEthelweardi identifies the victorious commander as Odda Ealdorman of Devon fl 878 283 Most versions of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle number the Viking fleet at twenty three ships 284 and most versions number the Viking casualties at eight hundred and forty dead 285 note 34 These numbers roughly give about thirty six and a half men per ship which is comparable to the 32 oared Gokstad ship a 9th century Viking ship unearthed in Norway 292 On one hand it is possible that the Viking commander at Arx Cynuit seized upon Guthrum s simultaneous campaigning against the West Saxons to launch a Viking foray of his from Dyfed 297 On the other hand the location and timing of the engagement at Arx Cynuit may indicate that the slain commander was cooperating with Guthrum As such there is reason to suspect that the two Viking armies coordinated their efforts in an attempt to corner Alfred in a pincer movement after his defeat at Chippenham and subsequent withdrawal into the wetlands of Somerset 243 If the Vikings at Arx Cynuit were indeed working in cooperation with those at Chippenham the record of their presence in Dyfed could also have been related to Guthrum s campaign against Alfred As such they could have been campaigning against Hyfaidd ap Bleddri King of Dyfed died 892 893 before their attack at Arx Cynuit 298 note 35 Old Burrow near Countisbury the site of a ruined Roman fortress is another possible site of Arx Cynuit 249 It is possible that the defeat at Arx Cynuit left Guthrum overextended in Wessex allowing Alfred s forces to assail Guthrum s exposed lines of communication 301 Although Alfred s position may have been still perilous in the aftermath with his contracted kingdom close to collapse 237 the victory at Arx Cynuit certainly foreshadowed a turn of events for the West Saxons A few weeks later in May the Anglo Saxon Chronicle records that Alfred was able to assemble his troops and launch a successful attack against Guthrum at Edington 302 Following Guthrum s crushing defeat the Vikings were forced to accept Alfred s terms for peace Guthrum was baptised as a Christian and led the remainder of his forces into East Anglia where they dispersed and settled 303 Guthrum thereafter kept peace with the West Saxons and ruled as a Christian king for more than a decade until his death in 890 304 note 36 Medieval legend of Ragnar Lodbrok Edit A depiction of Lodbrok Lothbrok and his sons Ivar and Ubba worshipping pagan idols as it appears on folio 39r of British Library Harley 2278 307 This illustration depicts the pagan Danes as elaborately dressed Muslim Saracens wearing tall turban like headdresses and forked beards Other illustrations in the manuscript depicting Ivar and Ubba show Vikings armed with curved swords 308 note 37 Although Ubba and Ivar are associated with each other by Passio sancti Eadmundi the men are not stated to be related in any way 310 The earliest source claiming kinship between the two is the Annals of St Neots 311 an 11th or 12th century account stating that they were brothers of three daughters of Lodbrok Lodebrochus 312 This source further states that these three sisters wove a magical banner named Reafan that was captured at the Arx Cynuit conflict 313 Although certain versions of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle also note the capture of a raven banner named Hraefn Raven they do not mention any magical attributes or refer to Lodbrok and his progeny 314 note 38 A 15th century depiction of Lodbrok s murder by Bjorn as it appears on folio 34r of British Library Yates Thompson 47 Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund 327 Lodbrok appears to be an early reference to Ragnar Lodbrok 328 a saga character of dubious historicity who could be an amalgam of several historical 9th century figures 329 note 39 According to Scandinavian sources Ragnar Lodbrok was a Scandinavian of royal stock whose death at the hands of AElla in Northumbria was the catalyst of the invasion of Anglo Saxon England and AElla s own destruction by Ragnar Lodbrok s vengeful sons 341 None of the saga sources for the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok accord him a son that corresponds to Ubba 342 The latter is only specifically attested by sources dealing with the East Scandinavian tradition 343 One of these sources is the 13th century Gesta Danorum 344 According to this text Ubba was the son of Ragnar Lodbrok and an unnamed daughter of a certain Hesbernus 345 Gesta Danorum does not associate Ubba with Anglo Saxon England in any way 346 note 40 According to the 13th or 14th century Ragnarssona thattr a source that forms part of the West Scandinavian tradition Ivar had two bastard brothers Yngvar and Husto who tortured Edmund on Ivar s instructions 356 No other source mentions these sons 357 It is possible that these figures represent Ivar and Ubba 358 and that the composer of Ragnarssona thattr failed to recognise the names of Ivar 359 and Ubba in English sources concerned with the legend of Edmund s martyrdom 360 note 41 A depiction of Ivar and Ubba setting forth to avenge their father Lodbrok as it appears on folio 47v of British Library Harley 2278 29 note 42 Whilst Scandinavian sources such as the 13th century Ragnars saga lodbrokar tend to locate the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok in a Northumbrian context English sources tend to place them in an East Anglian setting 369 The earliest source to specifically associate the legend with East Anglia is Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi 370 a 12th century account depicting the Viking invasion of East Anglia in the context of a dynastic dispute 371 According to this source Lodbrok Lodebrok was extremely envious of Edmund s fame As such it is Lodbrok s taunts that provoke his sons Ivar Ubba and Bjorn Bern to slay Edmund and destroy his kingdom 372 note 43 Although this text is heavily dependent upon Passio sancti Eadmundi for its depiction of Edmund s death it appears to be the first source to meld the martyrdom with the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok 371 note 44 An inscribed plaque at Bloody Corner between Appledore and Northam In the early 19th century it was imagined that this spot may have marked the site of Ubba s demise 388 note 45 By the 13th century an alternate rendition of the story appears in sources such as Chronica majora 399 and both the Wendover 400 and Paris versions of Flores historiarum 401 For example the Wendover account states that Lodbrok Lothbrocus washed ashore in East Anglia where he was honourably received by Edmund but afterwards murdered by Bjorn Berno an envious huntsman Although the latter is expelled from the realm he convinces Lodbrok s sons Ivar and Ubba that the killer of their father was Edmund As such East Anglia is invaded by these two sons and Edmund is killed in a case of misplaced vengeance 402 note 46 A slightly different version of events is offered by Estoire des Engleis which states that the Vikings invaded Northumbria on behalf of Bjorn Buern Bucecarle who sought vengeance for the rape of his wife by the Northumbrian king Osberht 406 note 47 On one hand it is possible that the theme of vengeance directed at Edmund is derived from the tradition of AElla s demise in Northumbria at the hands of Ragnar s progeny 410 note 48 On the other hand the revenge motifs and miraculous maritime journeys presented in the accounts of Edmund are well known elements commonly found in contemporaneous chivalric romances 412 There is reason to suspect that the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok originated from attempts to explain why the Vikings came to settle in Anglo Saxon England The core of the tradition may have been constructed as a way to rationalise their arrival without assigning blame to either side as illustrated by the sympathetic Wendover account 413 As such the legend could have been intended to justify Edmund s violent demise 414 The tales may have evolved at an early stage of Viking settlement and may have functioned as an origin myth of the emerging Anglo Scandinavian culture 415 note 49 The shared kinship assigned to Ivar and Ubba within the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok may stem from their combined part in Edmund s downfall as opposed to any historical familial connection 422 In popular culture Edit Alfred in the Isle of Athelney receiving news of a Victory over the Danes an 18th century depiction of Alfred King of Wessex learning of the Viking defeat at Arx Cynuit 423 note 50 Ubba appears as a character in modern historical fiction For example the unnamed Danish king that appears in Alfred A Masque a musical play with a libretto by James Thomson died 1748 and David Mallet died 1765 first presented in 1740 428 may be a composite of Ubba Guthrum Ivar and Halfdan 429 Ubba certainly appears in Alfred the Great Deliverer of His Country 430 an anonymous play that first appears on record in 1753 431 and The Magick Banner or Two Wives in a House 432 a play by John O Keeffe died 1833 first presented in 1796 433 note 51 He also appears in the Sketch of Alfred the Great Or the Danish Invasion 435 a ballet by Mark Lonsdale first performed in 1798 436 and Alfred An Epic Poem 437 a long piece of epic poetry by Henry James Pye died 1813 published in 1801 438 and the similarly named Alfred an Epic Poem by Joseph Cottle died 1853 439 a poem almost twice as long as Pye s 440 first published in 1800 441 Ubba later appears in Alfred the Great Or The Enchanted Standard a musical drama by Isaac Pocock died 1835 442 based upon O Keeffe s play 443 and first performed in 1827 444 and Alfred the Great a play by James Magnus dating to 1838 445 He further appears in Alfred of Wessex an epic poem by Richard Kelsey published in 1852 446 and in the 1899 novel King Alfred s Viking by Charles Whistler died 1913 447 and the 2004 novel The Last Kingdom by Bernard Cornwell 448 Ubba is also a character in Vikings a television series first aired on the History network in 2013 His name was changed to Ubbe and he was portrayed by Jordan Patrick Smith from season 4B through the end 449 In 2015 BBC Two released The Last Kingdom 450 a fictional television series based upon Cornwell s The Saxon Chronicles series of novels 451 It was later aired on Netflix Although the series and many of its characters were based on real events and people the series also contains fictional events 452 The character was portrayed a little differently than the real life Ubba 453 Ubba is played by actor Rune Temte 454 Ubba Halfdan and Ivar the Boneless appear in the Ubisoft video game Assassin s Creed Valhalla as brothers sharing significant roles in the story of Viking conquests of England during the 9th century 455 Notes Edit Since the 1990s academics have accorded Ubba various personal names in English secondary sources Huba 2 Hubba 3 Ubba 4 Ubbe Ragnarsson 5 Ubbe 6 Ubbi 7 Ubbo 8 and Ube 9 The Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund may be the high point of the late medieval cult devoted to Edmund The work draws from Passio sancti Eadmundi 31 The Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund represents the first significant augmentation of Edmund s legend after Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi 32 The Great Army s seizure of York is dated to 1 November All Saints Day by the 12th century Libellus de exordio 39 and the 13th century Wendover version of Flores historiarum 40 Preying upon a populated site on a feast day was a noted tactic of the Vikings Such celebrations offered attackers easy access to potential captives who could be ransomed or sold into slavery 41 According to Libellus de exordio 42 and the 12th century Historia regum Anglorum the Anglo Saxons attempt to recapture York took place on 21 March 43 The Wendover version of Flores historiarum 40 and Historia de sancto Cuthberto date this attack to 23 March Palm Sunday 44 Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses states that Ubba crushed the Northumbrians not long after Palm Sunday 45 At one point after its account of Ubba s stated victory over the Northumbrians Historia de sancto Cuthberto expands upon the Vikings successful campaigning across Anglo Saxon England and specifically identifies the Viking commanders as Ubba dux of the Frisians and Halfdan rex of the Danes 48 Historia regum Anglorum identifies the commanders of the Vikings in 866 as Ivar Ubba and Halfdan 49 Libellus de exordio states that the Vikings who ravaged Northumbria were composed of Danes and Frisians 50 This manuscript preserves a copy of the 12th century La vie seint Edmund le rei 66 During this period the compilers of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle began the year during the autumn in September 73 As such whilst most versions of the chronicle assign Edmund s demise to the year 870 it is evident that he actually died in the autumn of 869 74 In contrast to earlier versions of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle the 12th century E 79 and F versions make note of the king s sanctity 80 However there is reason to suspect that these entries are influenced by hagiographical accounts of Edmund 81 and may stem from late textual additions into the chronicle 82 As such these entries may not be evidence of the king s cult in the years immediately after his death 83 The account of Edmund s martyrdom preserved by Passio sancti Eadmundi likens him to Jesus Christ 85 and St Sebastian 86 Specifically Edmund is mocked and scourged like Christ 85 and later tied to a tree and shot like St Sebastian 86 Ubba and Ivar feature in the account of Edmund preserved by the 13th century South English Legendary 87 a source steeped in anti Danish sentiment 88 This source appears to depict the tortures inflicted upon Edmund as a way to define the English national identity in contrast to the barbarian Other 89 For example Oswald King of Northumbria died 642 was venerated as a martyr after he was slain battling seventh century heathens 94 olafr Haraldsson King of Norway died 1030 was also slain in battle and later remembered as a martyr 95 The fact that Passio sancti Eadmundi was commissioned and later spawned the account of Edmund presented by the 10th century Lives of the Saints reveals that the king s cult was recognised into the late 10th and 11th centuries 98 The composer of Passio sancti Eadmundi claimed that his version of events was mainly derived from a story he had heard told by the elderly Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury died 988 The source relates that Dunstan heard this tale as a young man from a very old man who claimed to have been Edmund s armour bearer on the day of his death 99 Passio sancti Eadmundi 100 and the Lives of the Saints specify that Edmund was killed on 20 November 101 This date was certainly commemorated by the 11th century 102 Passio sancti Eadmundi is the earliest hagiographical account of Edmund 106 and Vita Alfredi is the earliest biography of an Anglo Saxon king 107 This source portrays Ivar and Ubba as agents of the Devil 113 as does the derivative Lives of the Saints 114 This is the last time Passio sancti Eadmundi mentions Ubba 116 Whilst this source depicts the Vikings arriving in East Anglia by sea from Northumbria the Anglo Saxon Chronicle depicts them marching across Mercia into East Anglia 117 There does not appear to be any hagiographical reason why the composer of Passio sancti Eadmundi would have constructed a narrative in which Ubba was left behind in Northumbria 120 Certainly the 12th century Estoire des Engleis the earliest surviving Anglo Norman history 121 notes that the Vikings left a garrison at York when the struck out at Nottingham in 867 122 One such source is Estoire des Engleis which implies that Ubba and Ivar described as kings led the invasion of East Anglia and further states how the apprehended Edmund was kept prisoner until their arrival 126 The fourteenth to 15th century Liber monasterii de Hyda also assigns the killing of Edmund to Ivar and Ubba 127 This miniature depicts several scenes Whereas the first scene shows the Vikings battling against armed defenders of a burning town the second shows mainly slaughtered unarmed inhabitants Some of the latter are naked which reflects the language employed by Passio sancti Eadmundi 136 Supposed ecclesiastic devastation wrought by the Vikings has not been established by archaeology 141 The only ecclesiastical site proven to have suffered a detrimental effect from the Vikings is St Wystan s Church at Repton where the Vikings are otherwise known to have overwintered in 873 874 142 In comparison to hagiographies like Passio sancti Eadmundi and Lives of Saints the Anglo Saxon Chronicle gives a much less dramatic and detailed depiction of the 9th century As a result the authors of later mediaeval histories relied upon these hagiographies for their narratives Even today Lives of Saints is one of the most read Old English texts and historians views of the past are still shaped by it 153 The reputation of Ivar and Ubba may lay behind the similarly named Yvor and Yni noted by the 12th century Historia regum Britanniae According to this source Yvor and Yni were closely related Britons who failed to eject the Anglo Saxons from Britain after launching a series of maritime invasions of the island As a result of their failure Historia regum Britanniae declares that the British people thereafter became known as the Welsh 154 Whilst Yvor seems to correspond to the Old Norse Ivarr the form Yni may be a garbled attempt at Ubba s name 155 The 12th century E version of Anglo Saxon Chronicle claims that Ivar and Ubba destroyed all monasteries they encountered and specifies that they burned the monastery of Medeshamstede Peterborough and killed its abbot and monks 156 The 12th century chronicle of Hugh Candidus died c 1160 also relates that Ivar and Ubba were responsible for the annihilation of churches throughout Anglo Saxon England and specifies that they destroyed the monastery and monks of Medeshamstede 157 According to this source which is heavily influenced by Passio sancti Eadmundi some of the monasteries ravaged by Ivar and Ubba remained deserted and in ruins until his own time 158 The story of nuns self mutilating to avoid rape at the hands of roving Vikings is not confined to Coldingham it is also attributed to the 9th century nuns of Fecamp across the Channel in Normandy 163 For example the 13th century Whitby cartulary preserves a 12th century account of how the knight Reinfrid came to Streoneshalc a place that had been laid to waste in a ferocious devastation by Ivar and Ubba the most cruel pirates As a result of this carnage the accounts relates that the religious services of monks and nuns had ceased for over two centuries and that Reinfrid was struck with compunction having observed the desolation for himself 165 Another example is given by the 12th century Chronicon ex chronicis which states that the invasions of Ivar and Ubba were responsible for the flight of the Cuthbertine community of Lindisfarne 166 Ivar and Ubba are also woven into the account of the monastery of Ely preserved by Liber Eliensis If this source is to be believed the Vikings destruction of this religious house in a blazing fire that consumed all of its nuns were the reason why this formerly flourishing ecclesiastical site became a secular community by the end of the 10th century 167 According to this account the monastery s annihilation occurred in the context of Ivar and Ubba s campaigning at the time of Edmund s downfall 168 Whilst this tale of fiery destruction appears to be derived from the 12th century Libellus AEthelwoldi 169 the portrayal of marauding Vikings is borrowed from sources such as Chronicon ex chronicis 170 and Passio sancti Eadmundi 171 The latter account also seems to be the source for the appearance of Ivar and Ubba in the account of the hermit Suneman and the destruction of St Benet s Abbey given by the 14th century Chronicon Joannis Bromton 172 According to the 13th century Chronica Johannis de Oxenedes Suneman was martyred by invading Vikings 173 This source also associates Ivar and Ubba with Edmund s martyrdom 178 The lost vita can be reconstructed from notes dating to the sixteenth century 179 Ivar and Ubba play a role in an hagiographical account of Hild a seventh century Anglo Saxon saint According to an hagiographical poem preserved by the 15th century manuscript Cambridge Trinity College 0 9 38 T the campaigning of Ivar and Ubba forced a certain Titus to remove Hild s relics to Glastonbury Abbey where he became abbot 180 This account appears to conflate two incompatible accounts presented by the author of the 12th century texts Gesta pontificum Anglorum and De antiquitate Glastonie ecclesie 181 Whilst the former composition states that the relics were donated to Glastonbury by Edmund himself 182 the latter relates that the relics were brought to Glastonbury in the eighth century by Tica a man who became Abbot of Glastonbury 183 Tica appears to be identical to Tyccea an historical eighth century ecclesiast attested in the western Anglo Saxon England 184 The rampaging of Ivar and Ubba is also noted by De sancto Oswino an account of Oswine King of Deira died 651 that forms part of the 14th century Sanctilogium Angliae Walliae Scotiae et Hiberniae 185 This hagiography of Oswine appears to derive its account from Vita tertia sancti Oswini Although the latter text fails to include Ivar and Ubba in its version of events 186 the manuscript of this source British Library Cotton Julius A x contains a lacuna between folios 9 and 10 where at least one leaf has been lost 187 There is reason to suspect that the missing content has been preserved by Chronica majora and the Wendover and Paris versions of Flores historiarum sources which state that Ivar and Ubba destroyed the monastery of Tynemouth and thereby massacred the nuns of Hild s convent who cared for Oswine s shrine 188 An hagiographical account of Oswine could be the source behind the account of the monastery s burning given by the sixteenth century Collectanea of John Leland died 1552 189 Although this source attributes the monastic destruction to Ivar and Ubba the fate of the nuns is not mentioned 190 Ivar and Ubba also feature in the legend of the martyrdom of Fremund 191 a 9th century saint whose historicity is also uncertain 192 Accounts of Fremund are not found in any Anglo Saxon historical sources and are preserved in later hagiographical compositions 193 The earliest source of the legend is a 13th century manuscript Dublin Trinity College 172 B 2 7 194 The best known version of the legend is given by the 15th century Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund 195 All versions of Fremund s vitae tell a similar tale 196 According to these sources Ivar and Ubba invaded Anglo Saxon England and slew Edmund after which Fremund orchestrated a miraculous avenging victory over the Vikings and was treacherously slain afterwards 191 Ivar and Ubba also play a part in the legend of Sexburga died 674 Specifically according to the 12th century Vita beate Sexburge regine this seventh century East Anglian saint had a premonition of future calamities that were proved true through the invasion of Ivar and Ubba 197 The moneyer of this particular coin was a man named Hlodovicus whose name is inscribed on the reverse which could be evidence that he was a Frank 201 The coins that bear Edmund s name the so called St Edmund memorial coinage are the earliest evidence of a religious cult devoted to the king 202 There is reason to suspect that the cult was advanced by later Anglo Scandinavians as a way to retain authority in East Anglia 203 as a way to repent for his death at the hands of their Viking predecessors 204 It is also possible that the cult was originally promoted as a way the surviving East Anglian aristocracy attempted to oppose Anglo Scandinavian overlordship 205 and that the Anglo Scandinavian regime thereafter adopted the cult and capitalised upon it 206 Conversely it is possible that the cult was originally more focused upon Edmund s royal standing than his death and only acquired anti Anglo Scandinavian connotations in a later period 202 In any case the memorial coinage seems to have been minted under the auspices of the Anglo Scandinavian leadership 207 and his cult certainly spread into the Scandinavia later in the Middle Ages 208 Whilst there is reason to suspect that Ivar is identical to Imar died 873 a Viking king later active in Ireland and northern Britain 217 such an identification is uncertain 218 Nevertheless if Ivar is indeed identical to Imar and therefore commanded Vikings settled in the Irish Sea region before the coalescence of the Great Army in Anglo Saxon England it is possible that he and Halfdan led the troops identified as Danes and that Ubba led those identified as Frisians 219 It is also possible that Ubba is identical to Rodulfus died 878 a Viking attested on the Continent in the 860s and 870s Rodulfus is recorded to have been slain in an attack on Oostergo in 873 220 Many of the earliest Vikings attested by the Anglo Saxon Chronicle are those that lost recorded battles or died in them 223 Such is certainly the case in Irish sources The fifteenth to sixteenth century Annals of Ulster for example reports the deaths of Saxolfr died 837 224 THorgisl died 845 225 Hakon died 847 226 and THorir died 848 in the 830s and 840s 227 before naming the first living Viking Steinn fl 852 in the 850s 228 Specifically John Aubrey died 1697 called it Hubbaslow and Hubba s Low and stated that it was the site where they say that one Hubba lies buried 230 This region of settlement came to be known as Five Boroughs 237 Derby Leicester Lincoln Nottingham and Stamford 238 A vill was an administration unit roughly equating to a modern parish 241 Chippenham appears to have been a significant settlement during the period and might well have been a seat of the West Saxon monarchy 242 The B and C versions of this source do not locate the conflict to any specific place 246 Other locations have been suggested One such place is Old Burrow grid reference SS 7874 4928 the site of a nearby Roman fortlet 249 Another possible location is Castle Hill near Beaford and Great Torrington 250 Another is Kenwith Castle 251 and another is Congresbury 252 The seventeenth century Devonian topographer Thomas Westcote fl 1624 1636 remarked that as many places in this county claim the honour of this victory as cities in Greece for the birth of Homer Westcote himself located the battle to place near Appledore where he claimed that a cairn called Whibbestow sat on the site before it was lost to the encroaching sea 253 A close contemporary of Westcote Tristram Risdon died 1640 also located the site near Appledore stating that the Danes buried Ubba on the shore in a mound called Hubba stone According to Risdon although the mound of stones had washed away by the time of his writing a form of the site s name existed near Appledore as Wibblestone in the parish of Northam 254 By the eighteenth century it was claimed that Ubba s burial was located near Bideford and was called Hubblestone and Hubble s Stone because of a large stone that marked the grave 255 The site came to be called Whibblestone by the nineteenth century 256 Nevertheless the attack on Dyfed and the actual siege of Arx Cynuit is not noted by the Anglo Saxon Chronicle 259 Vita Alfredi similarly identifies the slain commander as a brother of Ivar and Halfdan 261 Estoire des Engleis is otherwise known to have been partly derived from a now non existent early version of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle 264 The source nevertheless attributes the victory to Alfred himself 265 Estoire des Engleis is the only source to assign the burial site to Ubba 269 The 13th century Ragnars saga lodbrokar states that Ivar was also buried in a mound According to this source Harald Hardrada died 1066 was defeated by the English near the mound and when William II Duke of Normandy died 1087 arrived on the scene he had the mound destroyed and thereby conquered the English 270 A somewhat similar tale concerning Ivar s mound is given by the 13th century Hemings thattr 271 The tale of Ivar s burial is paralleled by one given by Historia regum Britanniae which in turn seems to be derived from a tale presented by Historia Brittonum that recounts how the Briton Vortimer son of Vortigern asked to be buried in a mound along the British coast to deter the Saxon invasions 272 According to the Distich on the Sons of Lothebrok a series of notes preserved by the twelfth to 13th century Cambridge Pembroke College 82 Ubba was slain at Ubbelaw in Yorkshire This source further relates that Bjorn Beorn a brother of Ubba destroyed a church at Sheppey violated the nuns and was miraculously killed in an act of divine retribution as he was swallowed alive by the ground at Frindsbury near Rochester 273 A similar story is given by the 13th century British Library Arundel 69 274 According to Liber monasterii de Hyda Ubba met his end the same way 275 One possibility is that this version of events is connected to the tale of the burial mound given by Estoire des Engleis 276 Whilst Ubba is specifically associated with Frisia and Frisans by sources such as Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses and Historia de sancto Cuthberto Bjorn is specifically associated with Frisia by the 11th century Gesta Normannorum ducum which remarks that he Bier Costae ferreae went there and died 277 The later Chronicon Joannis Bromton gives a confused account of Ubba Ivar and Bjorn Bruern Bocard This source seems to associate the demise of these men with the Anglo Saxon victory at the Battle of Chippenham but states that the surviving Danes came across Ubba s body amongst the slain and buried him in a mound called Hubbelow in Devon 278 A similar account associating Ubba with the same battle and a burial mound named after him is given by the 14th century Eulogium historiarum sive temporis 279 Another unreliable depiction of Ubba s demise is given by Liber Eliensis which states that he was one of the slain Viking leaders at the Battle of Ashdown 280 The D and E versions of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle do not number the ships 286 The B and C versions state that the Vikings suffered eight hundred and sixty dead 287 The discrepancy can be accounted for by the similarity to the tallies when presented in roman numerals dccc xl 840 compared to dccc lx 860 288 All versions of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle number the Viking casualties in a complex manner stating that eight hundred men with him and a further forty or sixty men of his army were killed 289 The Old English heres generally taken to mean army in this passage may be an error for hiredes a term for a personal retinue 290 As such numbers forty and sixty in these sources may well refer to Ubba s personal retinue 291 The Anglo Saxon Chronicle does not employ the term micel great in its depiction of the army 292 Vita Alfredi numbers the Viking dead at one thousand two hundred 293 Chronicon AEthelweardi numbers the dead at eight hundred and the fleet at thirty ships This source specifically identifies the slain Viking commander as Halfdan describing him as the brother of Ivar and unlike other accounts states that the Vikings were victorious in the affair 294 The 12th century Historia Anglorum partly derived from the Anglo Saxon Chronicle does not name the Viking commander but describes him as a brother of Halfdan 295 Historia regum Anglorum makes no mention of any brother and merely states that it was Ivar and Halfdan who fought and died in Devon 296 Although Hyfaidd s political alignment in 877 is unknown he was certainly an ally of Alfred by 885 299 The version of events given by Historia de sancto Cuthberto has it that after the destruction of the Northumbrian kingdom and the devastation of northern and southern England the forces of Ubba and Halfdan split in three Whilst one part settled and rebuilt in the region of York another part positioned itself in Mercia Another part is stated to have commenced a campaigned against the South Saxons and forced Alfred to seek refuge in a Glastonbury marsh in great want 300 The father of Oda Archbishop of Canterbury died 958 was a Viking who settled in Anglo Saxon England with the army of Ubba and Ivar 305 as evidenced by Vita Oswaldi 306 This depiction of the Danes in this illustration contrasts the depictions of Edmund elsewhere in the manuscript where he is presented engaging in royal activities 309 It is possible that the association of Ubba with Ivar given by the Annals of St Neots is derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi 315 The capture of the raven banner is noted by the B C D and E versions of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle 316 It is not noted by the A 317 and F versions 318 or either by Vita Alfredi 319 and Chronicon AEthelweardi 320 As such it is uncertain whether the reports of a raven banner represent an historical event 321 The source from which the author of the Annals of St Neots drew these details is unknown 322 Whilst it is possible that its story is derived from the B C D and E versions of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle it is unknown why the earliest version of the chronicle fails to include this material 323 The notice of the banner preserved by the 10th century B version of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle is the earliest attestation of a guthfana war banner in Anglo Saxon England Nevertheless this version of the chronicle dates at least a century after the event which could mean that the banner s classification as a guthfana is anachronistic 324 This entry is also the earliest record of a raven banner 325 It is possible that the motif of the raven banner associated with figures such as Cnute the Great died 1035 Siward Earl of Northumbria died 1055 and Sigurd the Stout died 1014 is derived from traditions concerning the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok and his asserted his family 326 Forms of the names Ragnarr and Lodbrok are only used together for this character by Scandinavian sources 330 and are first used by the 12th century Islendingabok 331 As such there is no evidence of a figure named Ragnarr lodbrok before the twelfth century 332 One possible historical prototype for this literary character is Reginheri a Viking commander recorded to have raided Paris in 845 333 The earliest record of a form of the name Lodbrok in English sources 334 and the first source to assign Ubba and Ivar as sons of this figure is the account of the raven banner given by Annals of St Neots 335 Forms of the name Lodbrok are first attested by the 11th century texts Gesta Normannorum ducum 336 and Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum 337 Whilst the former makes note of a king named Lodbrok Lotbrocus the father of a Viking named Bjorn Bier Costae ferreae 338 the latter source makes note of a man named Lodbrok Lodparchus the father of a Viking king named Ivar 339 There is also reason to suspect that the character Ragnar Lodbrok is partly derived from a woman named Lodbroka 340 According to this account at one point Ubba revolted againstRagnar Lodbrok at the behest of Hesbernus and afterwards Ragnar Lodbrok slew Hesbernus overcame the rebellion and reconciled himself with Ubba 347 Halfdan is not identified as a son of Ragnar Lodbrok in any Scandinavian source 348 The first Scandinavian source to claim kinship between Ubba Ivar and Lodbrok is the 12th century Chronicon Roskildense 349 This source is also the earliest Danish source to make note of Lodbrok and his sons 350 According to Sǫgubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum Ubbi friski slew Rǫgnvaldr hai at Bravellir a man also known as Radbardr hnefi 351 This slain figure equates to Rǫgnvaldr Regnaldus a figure attested by Gesta Danorum who is described as a nephew or grandson of Radbardr Rathbartus 352 The Old Norse hnefi can either mean fist or refer to a piece in a board game 353 On one hand it is possible that the compiler of Gesta Danorum transformed this epithet into the Latin nepos meaning nephew or grandson 354 On the other hand the epithet given by Sǫgubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum may merely be a corruption of nepos 335 In any case Gesta Danorum also accords Ragnar Lodbrok sons with the names Rǫgnvaldr Regnaldus and Radbardr Rathbartus 355 In some cases the Old Norse personal names Ingvarr 335 and Yngvarr represent Ivarr 361 It is possible that Husto is a corrupt form of Hubbo and therefore stems from a Latin source 335 Chronicon Roskildense seems to suffer a problem similar to that of Ragnarssona thattr since it accords Lodbrok with sons bearing forms of the same two names 362 This suggests that Ragnarssona thattr may be partly derived from Chronicon Roskildense 363 or that both texts were influenced from English sources pertaining to the legend of Edmund 364 The 13th century Annales Lundenses likewise accords Lodbrok with sons bearing forms of these names 365 The bastardy accorded to Yngvarr and Husto by Ragnarssona thattr may be a device to help explain the cruelty that they inflicted upon the saintly Edmund 361 The Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund consists of over three thousand lines of poetry and is the most elaborate version of the legend of Edmund 366 It portrays the invasion of Ivar and Ubba as an act motivated by envy of Edmund and by the misplaced need to avenge their father s murder upon him 367 Whilst Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi portrays their mocking father Lodbrok as a foil to Edmund the Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund portrays Lodbrok as a virtuous pagan who disdained the rapine of his sons and admired the generosity and nobility of Edmund 368 A similar account is given by the 12th century La vie seint Edmund le rei which gives the same tale of Lodbrok s Lothebrok taunts and of his jealous sons Ivar Ubba and Bjorn Bern 373 La vie seint Edmund le rei is probably derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi Estoire des Engleis 374 and the 12th century Roman de Brut 375 La vie seint Edmund le rei is the first extended account of Edmund s legend in French 376 Another French text making note of Ivarr and Ubba and their part in the legend of Edmund is the 13th century Passiun de Seint Edmund 377 a source mainly derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi 378 Passiun de Seint Edmund also states that Ivar and Ubba were responsible for the martyrdom of the seventh century Northumbrian king Oswald 379 Whilst Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi may owe its information on Lodbrok and Bjorn to Gesta Normannorum ducum the latter account cannot be the source for the identification of Ivar and Ubba as other sons of Lodbrok 380 According to Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi Ubba possessed diabolical powers that enabled him to gain victory in battle if he was lifted above his enemies 381 Magical powers are also attributed to Ubba by La vie seint Edmund le rei 382 A similar motif is given by Ragnars saga lodbrokar although this source instead attributes sorcerous abilities to Ivar 383 Historia Anglorum accords remarkable cunning to Ivar and extraordinary courage to Ubba 384 At one point Passio sancti Eadmundi declares that before the fateful invasion of Anglo Saxon England rumours of Edmund s vigour and military prowess reached Ivar One possibility is that this passage is the origin of the later stories of Lodbrok scorning his sons on account of Edmund s accomplishments 385 In any case the earliest source to specifically associate Ragnar Lodbrok s family with the legend of Edmund s martyrdom is Islendingabok which attributes Edmund s demise to Ivar son of Ragnar Lodbrok 386 The source of this claim is unknown The earliest account to identify Ivar as a son of someone who seems to equate to Ragnar Lodbrok is Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum 387 Over the years this conjecture evolved into local tradition and the plaque was raised before the end of the nineteenth century The inscription reads in part Stop stranger stop Near this spot lies buried King Hubba the Dane Who was slayed in a bloody retreat By King Alfred the Great 389 In 2009 a stone monument was raised in Appledore to commemorate this tradition of Ubba 390 It is sometimes romanticised that the village of Hubberston in Pembrokeshire is named after Ubba and that he overwintered in nearby Milford Haven There is no evidence for this assertion 391 Rather than being Scandianvian in origin the name is derived from the Old Germanic personal name Hubert 392 The name of the town is first recorded in the thirteenth century as Hobertiston 393 and Villa Huberti 394 meaning Hubert s Farm 393 Hubert s manor 395 and Hubert s tun 396 The village has only been known as Hubberston since the early seventeenth century 397 One possibility is that the town s eponym is identical to Hubertus a man of Pembrokeshire attested by the 12th century Pipe Rolls of Henry I King of England died 1135 398 These 13th century compositions are the earliest accounts to associate the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok s death with that of Edmund 403 A similar but much later story presented by Historia monasterii sancti Augustini Cantuariensis relates that Edmund was the killer of a bear that was the father of Ivar and Ubba 404 A version of the Wendover account is given by Vita et passio cum miraculis sancti Edmundi preserved by the 14th century Oxford Bodleian Library Bodley 240 Vita et passio cum miraculis sancti Edmundi is the earliest hagiographic source of Edmund s legend to present the king taking up arms against the Vikings 405 According to this version of events AElla is a lowly knight who became king after Osberht had been driven from the throne by Bjorn s relatives 406 A somewhat similar version of events is presented by Chronicon Joannis Bromton and Eulogium historiarum sive temporis sources that present Ivar and Ubba as commanding the Danes that came overseas on behalf of Bjorn to topple Osberht 407 The mediaeval Prose Brut is another source giving a similar account 408 In the version of events outlined by the anonymous Narratio de uxore Aernulfi ab Ella rege Deirorum violata Osberht is not mentioned and it is AElla who has committed rape during the invasion of Ivar and Ubba 409 According to Ragnars saga lodbrokar for example Ragnar was killed by AElla who was in turn slain by Ragnar s sons Ivar Sigurd Snake in the Eye Bjorn Ironside and Hvitserk 411 Whilst the figures Ivar and Bjorn are alluded to in the legend of Edmund s martyrdom under various guises as in the case of Bjorn no source associates Sigurd and Hvitserk with the legend 346 Similarly the Northumbrian focused accounts of the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok as given by Scandinavian sources could have originated as a way to white wash history by relocating the tale of regicide from East Anglia to Northumbria replacing the saintly Edmund with the obscure AElla 416 Ubba appears to be the prototype of a like named character Ubbe who appears in the thirteenth or 14th century Middle English Havelok the Dane 417 Within the tale Ubba is closely associated with a character Bernard Brun who appears to correlate to Bjorn Both Ubba and Bjorn are depicted as loyal and distinguished Danes 418 and there is reason to suspect that they and other characters were used to add a veneer of historicity to a story exploring the Anglo Scandinavian contribution to the English identity 419 Since Ubba was otherwise widely asserted as one of the perpetrators of Edmund s martyrdom one possibility is that he was inserted into the romance as a way to cast doubt upon any lingering anti Danish sentiment 420 Much like the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok the motif of personal revenge plays a prominent role in the tale of Havelok with revenge used to justify Danish invasions of England 421 The illustration depicts Alfred receiving the raven banner captured at Arx Cynuit The scene is probably derived from the History of England by Paul de Rapin died 1725 which portrays the battle and the death of Ubba as the decisive turning point of Alfred s struggle against the Vikings 424 The raven banner may be borrowed from an engraved portrait of Alfred by George Vertue died 1756 425 It was after the publication of Vertue s portrait that the banner came to associated with Alfredian art 426 For example it also appears in an engraved portrait of the king by B Cole for the New Universal Magazine of 1752 and another image by Samuel Wale died 1786 in the 1760s This latter depiction was published in the New History of England of 1764 1769 by John Hamilton Mortimer died 1779 and in the New and Universal History of England of 1771 1772 by William Henry Mountague and reused in A New and Complete History of England of 1773 by Temple Sydney and in A New and Authentic History of England of 1777 1779 by William Augustus Russel 427 The play was first presented as The Magick Banner or Two Wives in a House and published later in 1798 as Alfred or The Magic Banner 434 Citations Edit Hervey 1907 p 458 Horstmann 1881 p 402 bk 2 319 Harley MS 2278 n d a b Costambeys 2004b Barrow 2016 Bartlett 2016 Lewis 2016 Jordan TRW 2015 McTurk R 2015 Lapidge 2014 Lazzari 2014 Cammarota 2013 Emons Nijenhuis 2013 Mills R 2013 Gigov 2011 Pinner 2010 Finlay 2009 Ridyard 2008 Rowe EA 2008 McTurk R 2007 Winstead 2007 McTurk R 2006 Fjalldal 2003 Schulenburg 2001 Foot 2000 Frederick 2000 Halldorsson 2000 Hayward 1999 Keynes 1999 Pulsiano 1999 Whitelock 1996 Gransden 1995 Townsend 1994 Rowe E 1993 Coroban 2017 Barrow 2016 Bartlett 2016 Gore 2016 Lewis 2016 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2468 Thorpe B ed 1848 Florentii Wigorniensis Monachi Chronicon ex Chronicis Vol 1 London English Historical Society OL 24871544M Thorpe B ed 1861a The Anglo Saxon Chronicle Rerum Britannicarum Medii AEvi Scriptores Vol 1 London Longman Green Longman and Roberts Thorpe B ed 1861b The Anglo Saxon Chronicle Rerum Britannicarum Medii AEvi Scriptores Vol 2 London Longman Green Longman and Roberts OL 25477209M Toulmin Smith L ed 1910 The Itinerary of John Leland in or About the Years 1535 1543 Vol 5 London George Bell and Sons OL 7129370M Tretero T 1584 Ecclesiae Anglicanae Trophaea Rome Bartholomaei Grassi Waggoner B ed 2009 The Sagas of Ragnar Lodbrok New Haven CT Troth Publications ISBN 978 0 578 02138 6 Waitz G ed 1883 Annales Bertiniani Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum in Usum Scholarum Ex Monumentis Germaniae Historicus Recusi Monumenta Germaniae Historica Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum in Usum Scholarum Separatim Editi Hanover Hahn ISSN 0343 0820 Westcote T 1845 Oliver G Jones P eds A 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St Edmund s Medieval Lives In Bale A ed St Edmund King and Martyr Changing Images of a Medieval Saint Woodbridge Boydell amp Brewer pp 1 25 ISBN 978 1 903153 26 0 Barrow J 1987 A Twelfth Century Bishop and Literary Patron William de Vere Viator 18 175 190 doi 10 1484 J VIATOR 2 301390 eISSN 2031 0234 ISSN 0083 5897 Barrow J 2007 Vere William de d 1198 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography October 2007 ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 95042 Retrieved 8 April 2018 Subscription or UK public library membership required Barrow J 2009 2000 Survival and Mutation Ecclesiastical Institutions in the Danelaw in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries In Hadley DM Richards JD eds Cultures in Contact Scandinavian Settlement in England in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries Studies in the Early Middle Ages Tumhout Brepols Publishers pp 155 176 doi 10 1484 M SEM EB 3 1265 ISBN 978 2 503 50978 5 Barrow J 2016 2015 Danish Ferocity and Abandoned Monasteries The Twelfth Century View In Brett M Woodman 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978 1 84162 865 3 Bremmer R 1984 Friesland and its Inhabitants in Middle English Literature In Arhammar NR Breuker PH Dam F Dykstra A Steenmeijer Wielenga TJ eds Miscellanea Frisica A New Collection of Frisian Studies Assen Van Gorcum pp 357 370 hdl 1887 15012 Bremmer RH 1981 Frisians in Anglo Saxon England A Historical and Toponymical Investigation Fryske Nammen 3 45 94 hdl 1887 20850 Britt HE 2014 The Beasts of Battle Associative Connections of the Wolf Raven and Eagle in Old English Poetry PhD thesis The University of Melbourne hdl 11343 43159 Brooks NP 1979 England in the Ninth Century The Crucible of Defeat Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 29 1 20 doi 10 2307 3679110 eISSN 1474 0648 ISSN 0080 4401 JSTOR 3679110 S2CID 159670976 Budd P Millard A Chenery C Lucy S Roberts C 2004 Investigating Population Movement by Stable Isotope Analysis A Report From Britain Antiquity 78 299 127 141 doi 10 1017 S0003598X0009298X eISSN 1745 1744 ISSN 0003 598X S2CID 35663561 Burl A 2002 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Subscription or UK public library membership required Costambeys M 2008 Guthrum d 890 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography May 2008 ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 11793 Retrieved 4 May 2014 Subscription or UK public library membership required Cox B 1971 The Place Names of Leicestershire and Rutland PhD thesis University of Nottingham Cross K 2017 But That Will Not Be the End of the Calamity Why Emphasize Viking Disruption In Bintley MDJ Locker M Symons V Wellesley M eds Stasis in the Medieval West Questioning Change and Continuity The New Middle Ages Palgrave Macmillan pp 155 178 doi 10 1057 978 1 137 56199 2 9 ISBN 978 1 137 56199 2 Cross K 2018 Heirs of the Vikings History and Identity in Normandy and England c 950 c 1015 York York Medieval Press ISBN 978 1 903153 79 6 Crumplin S 2004 Rewriting History in the Cult of St Cuthbert From the Ninth to the Twelfth Centuries PhD thesis University of St Andrews hdl 10023 406 Cubitt C 2000 Sites and Sanctity Revisiting the Cult of Murdered and Martyred Anglo Saxon Royal Saints Early Medieval Europe 9 1 53 83 doi 10 1111 1468 0254 00059 eISSN 1468 0254 S2CID 154743054 Cubitt C 2009 Pastoral Care and Religious Belief In Stafford P ed A Companion to the Early Middle Ages Britain and Ireland c 500 c 1100 Blackwell Companions to British History Chichester Blackwell Publishing pp 395 413 ISBN 978 1 405 10628 3 Cubitt C Costambeys M 2004 Oda St Oda Odo d 958 Archbishop of Canterbury Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 20541 Retrieved 1 March 2018 Subscription or UK public library membership required Daniell JJ 1894 The History of Chippenham PDF Chippenham R F Houlston Archived from the original PDF on 4 September 2014 Davies JR 1997 Church Property and Conflict in Wales AD 600 1100 The Welsh History Review 18 3 387 406 eISSN 0083 792X hdl 10107 1082967 ISSN 0043 2431 de Rijke PM 2011 Freebooters Yachts and Pickle Herrings Dutch Nautical Maritime and Naval Loanwords in English MA thesis University of Bergen hdl 1956 5368 De Wilde G 2016 Review of DW Russell La Vie seint Edmund le rei French Studies 70 2 248 249 doi 10 1093 fs knw068 eISSN 1468 2931 ISSN 0016 1128 Downham C 2007 Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland The Dynasty of Ivarr to A D 1014 Edinburgh Dunedin Academic Press ISBN 978 1 903765 89 0 span, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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