War bride

For other uses, see War bride (disambiguation).

War brides are women who married military personnel from other countries in times of war or during military occupations, a practice that occurred in great frequency during World War I and World War II. Allied servicemen married many women in other countries where they were stationed at the end of the war, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, China, Japan,^[1] France, Italy,^[2] Greece, Germany, Poland, Luxembourg, South Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, Korea, and the Soviet Union. Similar marriages also occurred in Korea and Vietnam with the later wars in those countries involving U.S. troops and other anti-communist soldiers.

Australian Flying Officer reunites in Sydney with Canadian bride and daughter in 1945.

The term “war brides” was first used to refer to women who married Canadian servicemen overseas and then later immigrated to Canada after the world wars to join their husbands. This term later became popular during World War 2. It first started when in January 1919, the Canadian government offered to transport all dependents of Canadian servicemen from Britain to Canada. This included free ocean transport (third class) and rail passage. There are currently no official figures for the numbers of “war brides” and their children. By the end of 1946, over forty thousand Canadian serviceman had married women from Europe.^[3]

There is no exact number on the number of World War I European brides married to American soldiers. Research shows that between thousands to tens of thousands immigrated to the United States after World War I as war brides from Belgium, England, Ireland, France, Greece, Russia, Italy and Germany.^[4]

The U.S. embassy does not keep records of marriages between U.S. citizens and citizens of other countries, ^[5] but after the end of World War II the number of women from Europe and Asia who became war brides to American soldiers was estimated in the hundreds of thousands.

There were various factors contributing to the intermarriages between foreign servicemen and native women. After World War II, many women in Japan came to admire the personal attributes and status of American soldiers, while there was also mutual attraction to Japanese women among American servicemen.^[6][7] British women were attracted to American soldiers because they had relatively high incomes, and were perceived as friendly.^[8]

Marriage to Asian war brides had a significant impact on United States immigration law, as well as the public perception of interethnic, interracial, interfaith, and interdenominational couples. The massive migration of Asian wives to the United States was challenged by pre-existing laws against interracial marriage, however there was widespread public sympathy for such couples, due to the high reputation of Japanese immigrant brides in the United States.^[9] This led to widespread defiance of the law by American servicemen, as well as increased tolerance for interethnic and interracial couples in the United States,^[10] and ultimately the repeal of the highly restrictive 1924 Immigration Act in 1952.^[11]

War brides in World War I

There are no official figures for war brides in First World War. One report estimated that 25,000 Canadian servicemen married British women during the First World War.^[12] In the Second World War, approximately 48,000 women married Canadian servicemen overseas. By 31 March 1948, the Canadian government had transported about 43,500 war brides and 21,000 children to Canada.^[13]

There is no exact number but estimates on the number of World War I war European brides married to American soldiers, research shows that between 5,000 and 18,000 have immigrated to the United States after World War I. The brides came from Belgium, England, Ireland, France, Russia, Italy and Germany.^[4]

Asian war brides

After the end of World War 2, 50,000 to 100,000 women from East Asia were married to American soldiers, and in total it is estimated that there were 200,000 Asian migrant war brides in the years that followed.^[14][15][16]

The 1945 War Brides act allowed Asian American serviceman to bring their wives to the United States. Most Japanese, Korean and Filipino women married white American servicemen, but most of the 6,000 Chinese war brides allowed under this act married Chinese American servicemen.^[17]

The estimates for the war brides and military spouses from 1947 to 1975 from Japan totalled 66,681, from Korea 28,205, from the Philippines, 51,747,^[18] from Thailand 11,660, and from Vietnam 8,040.^[19]

Emily Lawsin (1996) estimates that between 1945 and 1975 the number of Filipina war was over 50,000 while the Filipino American National Historical Society (2004) estimates were around 16,000. ^[20]scott Rorher estimated between 30,000 and 50,000 from 1945 to 1960^[21] or between 1945 and 1975, 45,000 Japanese war brides of American serviceman immigrated to the United States^[22] An overwhelming majority (80%) of the 45,000 Japanese immigrants who arrived during this period were women, almost all of them wives of U.S. servicemen.^[23] Between 1950 and 1964, more than 15,000 Koreans were admitted to United States, nearly 40 percent of whom came as wives of American servicemen.^[23] In the mid-20th century, 16,000 Filipino women migrated to the United States, almost all wives of American servicemen.^[23] A sizeable number of American servicemen who married Filipino women were Filipino-American servicemen, and these marriages helped balance the sex ratio of the Filipino-American community, which had previously been heavily male.^[23]

Estimates of Korean women married to American soldiers between 1950 and 1989 vary from 90,000 to more than 100,000.^{[24][25][26][27]} While most American husbands who married Korean women were white, some were Koreans and a few were African American.^[28]

According to the Korean government records kept by the city of Seoul, they do not indicate whether a Korean spouse who marries an American citizen is from U.S. military person.^[5] Korean government data recorded the number of Korean women who migrated from 1950 to 1979 totalled just 42,000 with some estimated 95% of them being Korean brides American soldiers while others are from international marriages.^[29]

The number of Korean women who immigrated to the United States (from 1950 to 1959) who were wives of U.S. male citizens was 1,989, of a total 5,529 migrants. The number of Korean women 1960's (from 1960 to 1969) 11,643 were wives of U.S. citizens out of 27,430. From the 1970s (1970 to 1979) the number of Korean immigration was 242,064. Of those 29,621 Korean women came as wives of U.S. male national while 1,369 Korean male came as husbands of U.S. female national. According to statistic from the U.S. immigration and Naturalization. Every year in the 1970s approximately 3,000 Korean women married internationally compared to 100 Korean men who married internationally. Of the 242,064 people, 13% of them were Korean immigrants in international marriage.^[29]

This also had an effect on the interracial marriage between Korean and white population. This had effect of the interracial marriage in the United States. For example, after post-1965 the number of first generation Korean men married 2150 white women, 48,000 Korean women married white men. While native born Korean male married 4720 white women while 7652 native born Korean women married white men.^[30]

Effect of Asian immigrant brides on United States immigration laws

Around 50,000 United States servicemen married Japanese wives at the end of World War 2 and during the occupation period.^[1] 75% of the marriages involved White American soldiers and Japanese brides.^[10] Marriages to Asian women initially faced legal obstacles due to pre-existing laws against interracial marriage.^[10] However, the determination of American servicemen to marry Japanese women resulted in widespread defiance of the law.^[10] The positive reception of Japanese war brides generated sympathy from the general public about the difficulties faced by interracial couples, and promoted increased tolerance for interracial couples.^[9] In 1947, the War Brides Act was amended to give citizenship to the children of American servicemen regardless of race or ethnicity.^[31] Ultimately the effort to normalize interracial marriages to Japanese women led to the passage of the McGarran-Walter act, which repealed the Immigration Act of 1924, thereby loosening restrictions on immigration and citizenship requirements for non-Northwestern European immigrants.^[11]

According to journalist Craft Young, a daughter of a Japanese war bride, an estimated 50,000 Japanese war brides migrated to the United States.^[1]

Philippine–American War

Philippine

After the Philippine–American War, some Filipina women married U.S. servicemen. Those Filipinas were already U.S. nationals and so when they immigrated to the U.S., their legal status was made significantly different from that of previous Asian immigrants to the U.S.^[32]

War brides in World War II

 

A U.S. serviceman and a British girl in Bournemouth, England, 1941.

United States of America

During and immediately after World War II, more than 60,000 U.S. servicemen married women overseas and they were promised that their wives and children would receive free passage to the U.S. The U.S. Army's Operation War Bride, which eventually transported an estimated 70,000 women and children, began in Britain in early 1946. The press dubbed it Operation Diaper Run. The first group of war brides (452 British women and their 173 children, and one bridegroom) left Southampton harbor on SS Argentina on January 26, 1946, and arrived in the U.S. on February 4, 1946.^[33] According to British Post-War Migration, the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service reported 37,553 war brides from the British Isles took advantage of the War Brides Act of 1945 to emigrate to the United States, along with 59 war bridegrooms.^[34] Over the years, an estimated 300,000 foreign war brides moved to the United States following the passage of the War Brides Act and its subsequent amendments, of which 51,747 were Filipinas.^[35]

Other estimates suggest 200,000 women from Continental Europe were married to American soldiers.^[36] An estimated 70,000 G.I. war brides left the United Kingdom,^[37][8] 15,500 from Australia,^[38] 14,000-20,000 from Germany,^[39] and 1,500 from New Zealand, between the years 1942 and 1952, having married American soldiers.^[40]

Australia

 

English war brides who arrived in Brisbane in October 1945

In 1945 and 1946 several bride trains were run in Australia to transport war brides and their children traveling to or from ships.

Robyn Arrowsmith, a historian who spent nine years researching Australia's war brides, said that between 12,000 and 15,000 Australian women had married visiting U.S. servicemen and moved to the U.S. with their husbands.^[41] Significantly, an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 Newfoundland women married American servicemen during the time of Ernest Harmon Air Force Base's existence (1941–1966), in which tens of thousands of U.S. servicemen arrived to defend the island and North America from Nazi Germany during World War II and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. So many of those war brides settled in the U.S. that in 1966, the Newfoundland government created a tourism campaign specifically tailored to provide opportunities for them and their families to reunite.^[42]

United Kingdom

 

The Scots who emigrated as war brides were celebrated in Bud Neill's Lobey Dosser series by the G.I. Bride character (with her baby Ned), forever trying to hitchhike from the fictional Calton Creek in Arizona back to Partick in Scotland. The statue was erected in Partick station in 2011.^[43]

Some war brides came from Australia to Britain aboard HMS Victorious following World War II.^[44] Roughly 70,000 war brides left Britain for America during the 1940s.^[37]

Canada

In Canada, 47,783 British war brides arrived accompanied by some 21,950 children. From 1939, most Canadian soldiers were stationed in Britain, and as such, about 90% of all war brides arriving in Canada were British. Three thousand war brides came from the Netherlands, Belgium, Newfoundland, France, Italy, Ireland, and Scotland.^[45] The first marriage between a Canadian serviceman and a British bride was registered at Farnborough Church in the Aldershot area in December 1939, just 43 days after the first Canadian soldiers arrived.^[45] Many of those war brides emigrated to Canada beginning in 1944 and peaking in 1946.^[46] A special Canadian agency, the Canadian Wives' Bureau was set up by the Canadian Department of Defence to arrange transport and assist war brides in the transition to Canadian life. The majority of Canadian war brides landed at Pier 21 in Halifax, Nova Scotia, most commonly on the following troop and hospital ships: Queen Mary, Lady Nelson, Letitia, Mauretania, Scythia and SS Île de France.^[47]

The Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21 has exhibits and collections dedicated to war brides.^[48] There is a National Historic Site marker located at Pier 21, as well.^[49]

Italy

During the campaign of 1943–1945, there were more than 10,000 marriages between Italian women and American soldiers.^[2][50]

From relationships between Italian women and African American soldiers, "mulattini" were born; many of those children were abandoned in orphanages,^[2] because interracial marriage was then not legal in many US states.^[51][52]

Japan

A Japanese War Bride is a woman who married an American citizen following the post WW II military occupation of their home country. Their spouses were typically GIs or soldiers.^[53]

Japan's post-WWII occupation by America facilitated many interracial marriages between servicemen and Japanese women. Following Japan's defeat and post war food shortages, many women sought employment as a means to provide for their families.  Many were also enamored by the status, power, and prestige these GIs carried with them because of their victory, and sought new economic opportunity through immigration to the United States.^[53][54]

Several thousand Japanese who were sent as colonizers to Manchukuo and Inner Mongolia were left behind in China. Most of the Japanese left behind in China were women, most of whom married Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives" (zanryu fujin).^[55][56] Because they had children fathered by Chinese men, the Japanese women were not allowed to bring their Chinese families back with them to Japan and so most of them stayed. Japanese law allowed only children fathered by Japanese fathers to become Japanese citizens. It was not until 1972 that Sino-Japanese diplomacy was restored, which allowed those survivors the opportunity to visit or emigrate to Japan. Even then, they faced difficulties; many had been missing so long that they had been declared dead at home.^[55]

However, when President Truman signed the Alien Wife Bill, this loosened immigration restrictions by creating the 1945 War Brides Act, which allowed the spouses of servicemen to migrate without breaking the quotas set by the 1924 Immigration Act.^[54] Under the subsequent amendments in the 1946 and 1947 Soldier Brides Act, the time period for immigration was extended by 30 days, all of which led to the immigration of nearly 67,000 Japanese women between the years 1947 and 1975.^[57] However, they were not permitted to naturalize until the passage of the McCarran-Walter Act of 1952, which banned using race as a factor in allowing residents to naturalize.^[53] New immigration legislation profoundly impacted Asian immigration patterns by making Asian War Brides the largest instance of Asian women migrating to the United States. The migration of over 72,000 women over the span of just 15 years grew the Asian American population by 20%, which in turn gave many Japanese women increased attention in the public eye.^[57]

These women came from a diverse array of backgrounds ranging from poverty to upper-class, but all were devastated by the destruction and bombings wrought by the war. They often struggled to provide for themselves and their families due to post far food, fuel, and employment shortages.  Many met servicemen through jobs working on military bases as waiters, clerks, and secretaries. They often chose to venture to the States in hopes of forging a new life.^[54]

Japanese women who had immigrated over post WWII as “War Brides” were used to help construct the Asian model minority stereotype. For example, the American Red Cross Brides’ School in Japan advised them on how to correctly assimilate into mainstream American society. Their classes offered textbooks in home economics, U.S. History, housekeeping, child raising, and ultimately shaped the modern Japanese woman 's beliefs so that these actions were in accordance with mainstream American views on gender roles[6]. Some of these classes even taught women how to bake or to properly wear heels.^[57] The ideal wife was taught to be a good mother, homemaker and companion to her husband. Thus, by conforming to an idealized concept of how a good housewife behaved, these Japanese women often became model minorities promoted as what others should strive to personify, held up as examples of what an assimilated immigrant should look like.  Further, with the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, immigration could no longer be lawfully restricted by race, ethnicity, nationality or creed.^[54]

In spite of these language and behavioral classes, many Japanese women struggled to find a community, especially after the internment of hundreds of thousands of Japanese Americans left them feeling displaced and unsure of their racial status in the context of segregation and post war xenophobia.^[57]

Vietnam

Some Japanese soldiers married Vietnamese women like Nguyễn Thị Xuân^[58] and Nguyễn Thị Thu and fathered multiple children with the Vietnamese women who remained behind in Vietnam, and the Japanese soldiers themselves returned to Japan in 1955.^[why?] The official Vietnamese historical narrative views them as children of rape and prostitution.^[59][60] The Japanese forced Vietnamese women to become comfort women and along with Burmese, Indonesian, Thai and Filipina women, and they made up a notable portion of Asian comfort women in general.^[61] Japanese use of Malayan and Vietnamese women as comfort women was corroborated by testimonies.^{[62][63][64][65][66][67][68]} There were comfort women stations in areas that make up present-day Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, North Korea, and South Korea.^[69][70] A Korean comfort woman named Kim Ch'un-hui stayed behind in Vietnam and died there when she was 44 in 1963, owning a dairy farm, cafe, U.S. cash, and diamonds worth 200,000 U.S. dollars.^[71]

A number of Japanese soldiers stayed behind immediately after the war to stay with their war brides, but in 1954 they were ordered to return to Japan by the Vietnamese government and were "encouraged" to abandon their wives and children.^[72]

The now abandoned Vietnamese war brides who had mothered children would be forced to raise them by themselves and often faced harsh criticism for having relations with members of an enemy army that had occupied Vietnam.^[72]

Korea

Korean War Brides were those who married American GI's and immigrated to the United States to pursue opportunities for freedom and economic advancement. Many Korean women followed a similar path as the Japanese war brides above after Korea became an independent nation following Japan's defeat in WWII. After the decolonization of Japan's territories, concerns about the spread of communism and Cold War containment policies, in addition to the Korean War, brought many American soldiers to Korea. These war brides often met American servicemen in military bases through gambling halls, prostitution, or other illicit businesses. Much like their Japanese counterparts, many were convinced that Korea offered them little economic opportunity and success. They therefore saw marriage as a gateway into a new country full of wealth and prosperity.

Like their Japanese counterparts, many Korean War Brides struggled to assimilate into American society, unsure of which side of white or black they belonged to. However, war brides generally saw greater economic opportunity in their new life than if they had stayed in their homeland. 6,423 Korean women married U.S. military personnel as war brides during and immediately after the Korean War.^[73]

Vietnam War

8,040 Vietnamese women came to the U.S. as war brides between 1964 and 1975.^[74]

Iraq War

War brides from wars subsequent to Vietnam became less common due to differences in religion and culture, shorter durations of wars, direct orders, and a change in immigration laws. As of 2006, about 1,500 visa requests had been made by US military personnel for Iraqi spouses and fiancées.^[75] There have been several well-publicized cases of American soldiers marrying Iraqi women.^[76][77]

See also

• War Brides Act
• Eswyn Lyster (1923–2009), a British-born Canadian author best known for writing extensively on the Canadian war bride experience
• War children
• Brides of ISIL
• GI Brides, a narrative non-fiction book about British war brides of World War II
• War Brides, a 1916 silent film by Herbert Brenon and starring Alla Nazimova
• I Was a Male War Bride, a screwball comedy film featuring Cary Grant as a male war bride
  • Roger Charlier (1921–2018), inspiration for the film
• Japanese War Bride, a 1952 film by King Vidor featuring Shirley Yamaguchi and Don Taylor
• Madame Butterfly, a 1904 opera by Giacomo Puccini about a Japanese child bride who is abandoned by her husband, a US Navy lieutenant, redone in 1989 as Miss Saigon

References

1. Lucy Alexander (October 5, 2014). "Daughters tell stories of 'war brides' despised back home and in the U.S." The Japan Times.
2. Francesco Conversano; Nené Grignaffini. "Italiani: spose di guerra. Storie d'amore e di emigrazione della seconda guerra mondiale". RAI Storia (in Italian).
3. War Brides https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/war-brides
4. War Brides of the Great War
5. Beyond the Shadow of Camptown Korean Military Brides in America By Ji-Yeon Yuh · 2004 [1]
6. Lubin, Alex (July 2009). Romance and Rights: The Politics of Interracial Intimacy, 1945-1954. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-60473-247-4.
7. "From Hiroko to Susie: The untold stories of Japanese war brides". Washington Post. 2016-09-22. Retrieved 2023-09-27.
8. Lyons, J. (2013). America in the British Imagination: 1945 to the Present. EBL-Schweitzer. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-137-37680-0. Retrieved 2023-09-27.
9. Kovner, S. (2012). Occupying Power: Sex Workers and Servicemen in Postwar Japan. Studies of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute, Columbia University. Stanford University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8047-8346-0. Retrieved 2023-09-27.
10. Zeiger, S. (2010). Entangling Alliances: Foreign War Brides and American Soldiers in the Twentieth Century. NYU Press. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-8147-9725-9. Retrieved 2023-09-27.
11. Simpson, C.C. (2002). An Absent Presence: Japanese Americans in Postwar American Culture, 1945–1960. New Americanists. Duke University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8223-8083-2. Retrieved 2023-09-27.
12. "War Brides".
13. War Brides
14. Keller, R.S.; Ruether, R.R.; Cantlon, M. (2006). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America, Set. Indiana University Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-253-34685-8. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
15. . Archived from the original on 2008-01-05. Retrieved 2015-05-27.
16. Courtwright, David T. (1 June 2009). Violent Land: Single Men and Social Disorder from the Frontier to the Inner City. Harvard University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-674-02989-7. ...wives and family of American military personnel were permitted to enter the country under the War Brides Act of 1945. As a result, 200,000 Asian women immigrated to the United States from the Philippines, Korea, and Japan...
17. Dong 2016, p. 695.
18. Nadal, K.L.Y.; Tintiangco-Cubales, A.; David, E.J.R. (2022). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Filipina/x/o American Studies. SAGE Publications. p. 1886. ISBN 978-1-0718-2901-1. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
19. Mohl, R.A.; Van Sant, J.E.; Saeki, C. (2016). Far East, Down South: Asians in the American South. The Modern South. University of Alabama Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-8173-1914-4. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
20. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Filipina/x/o American Studies 2022 [2]
21. Other Immigrants The Global Origins of the American People[Scott Rorher Japanese warbrides]
22. China and the Chinese in Popular Film From Fu Manchu to Charlie Chan By Jeffrey Richards · 2020 [3]
23. Wu, J.Y.S.; Song, M. (2000). Asian American Studies: A Reader. Rutgers University Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-8135-2726-0. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
24. Lee, Erika (2015). The Making of Asian America. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. p. 248.
25. Johnson-Powell, G.; Yamamoto, J. (1997). Transcultural Child Development: Psychological Assessment and Treatment. Wiley. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-471-17479-0. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
26. Dong, Lan (14 March 2016). Asian American Culture [2 volumes]: From Anime to Tiger Moms [2 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 422. ISBN 979-8-216-05005-6.
27. Lee, J.H.X. (2015). History of Asian Americans: Exploring Diverse Roots. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-313-38459-2. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
28. Segal, U.A. (2002). A Framework for Immigration: Asians in the United States. Columbia University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-231-12082-1. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
29. 국제결혼 여성
30. Second-Generation Korean Experiences in the United States and Canada By Neha Ahmed, Angie Y. Chung, Miliann Kang, Trivina Kang, ChangHwan Kim, Chigon Kim, Dae Young Kim · 2014 [4]
31. Zhao, X.; D, E.J.W.P.P. (2013). Asian Americans [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History [3 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 1187. ISBN 978-1-59884-240-1. Retrieved 2023-09-27.
32. Uma Anand Segal (2002). A Framework for Immigration: Asians in the United States. Columbia University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-231-12082-1.
33. Miller, Donald L. (2006-10-10). Masters of the Air: America's Bomber Boys Who Fought the Air War Against Nazi Germany. Simon and Schuster. pp. 518, 519. ISBN 9780743298322.
34. Isaac, Julius (1954). British Post-War Migration. Cambridge University Press. p. 60.
35. Michael Lim Ubac (July 2012). "Whatever happened to Filipino war brides in the US". Philippine Daily Inquirer.
36. Martone, Eric (12 December 2016). Italian Americans: The History and Culture of a People. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-61069-995-2.
37. "British war brides faced own battles during 1940s". Los Angeles Times. 20 October 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
38. Mitchell, Peter (2007-04-26). . The Daily Telegraph (Sydney). Archived from the original on December 25, 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-06.
39. . Archived from the original on 25 December 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
40. Fortune, Dr Gabrielle; Pine, Madison (2021-11-08). "Love in Wartime: War Weddings". Auckland War Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
41. Ellis, Scott (18 April 2010). "Here come the war brides: a love story 65 years on" – via The Sydney Morning Herald.
42. "Marriage Between Americans and Newfoundlanders". Heritage.nf.ca.
43. "Home at last! – Corporate Information – Strathclyde Partnership for Transport". SPT. 1 February 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
44. "Australian Brides In England". Britishpathe.com. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
45. "About the Canadian War Brides of WWII". Canadianwarbrides.com.
46. Archived at Ghostarchive and the : "British War Brides Arrive In Canada (1944)". YouTube.
47. Raska, Jan. . Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21. Archived from the original on 2016-07-13. Retrieved 2016-07-03.
48. "War Brides | Pier 21". Pier21.ca. Retrieved 2016-04-02.
49. "Pier 21 Museum". Pier 21. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
50. Silvia Cassamagnaghi (26 February 2014). Operazione Spose di guerra: Storie d'amore e di emigrazione (in Italian). Milan: Feltrinelli. p. 319. ISBN 9788858817216.
51. . libereta.it. 2014-06-10. Archived from the original on 2016-10-10. Retrieved 2016-10-10.
52. Giorgio Boatti. . Storiainrete.com. Archived from the original on 2018-08-29. Retrieved 2016-10-10.
53. Herbison, Chico. Schultz, Jerry. "Quiet Passages: The Japanese War Bride American Experience." The Center for East Asian Studies: The University of Kansas
54. Lee, Erika (2015). The Making of Asian America. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.
55. Journal, The Asia Pacific. "Left Behind: Japan's Wartime Defeat and the Stranded Women of Manchukuo – The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus". japanfocus.org.
56. Mackerras 2003, p. 59.
57. Simpson, Caroline Chung (1998). ""Out of an obscure place": Japanese War Brides and Cultural Pluralism in the 1950s". Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies. 10 (3): 47–81. doi:10.1215/10407391-10-3-47. ISSN 1527-1986.
58. Tran Thi, Minh Ha (24 February 2017). "60 years after Japan army husband fled, Vietnam war bride clings to love". AFP.
59. indomemoires (2016-07-20). "Ben Valentine : Photographing the Forgotten Vietnamese Widows of Japanese WWII Soldiers". doi:10.58079/q5o2.
60. Valentine, Ben (July 19, 2016). "Photographing the Forgotten Vietnamese Widows of Japanese WWII Soldiers". Hyperallergic.
61. Min, Pyong Gap (2021). Korean "Comfort Women": Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-1978814981.
62. Tanaka, Yuki (2003). Japan's Comfort Women. Routledge. p. 60. ISBN 1134650124.
63. Lee, Morgan Pōmaika'i [@Mepaynl] (April 29, 2015). "Comfort women..." (Tweet) – via Twitter.
64. Stetz, Margaret D.; Oh, Bonnie B. C. (12 February 2015). Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 126. ISBN 978-1317466253.
65. Quinones, C. Kenneth (2021). Imperial Japan's Allied Prisoners of War in the South Pacific: Surviving Paradise. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 230. ISBN 978-1527575462.
66. Min, Pyong Gap (2021). Korean "Comfort Women": Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement. Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-1978814981.
67. Double Agency: Acts of Impersonation in Asian American Literature and Culture. Stanford University Press. 2005. p. 209. ISBN 0804751862.
68. THOMA, PAMELA (2004). "Cultural Autobiography, Testimonial, and Asian American Transnational Feminist Coalition in the "Comfort Women of World War II" Conference". In Vo, Linda Trinh; Sciachitano, Marian (eds.). Asian American Women: The Frontiers Reader (illustrated, reprint ed.). U of Nebraska Press. p. 175. ISBN 0803296274.
69. Yoon, Bang-Soon L. (2015). "CHAPTER 20 Sexualized Racism, Gender and Nationalism: The Case of Japan's Sexual Enslavement of Korean "Comfort Women"". In Kowner, Rotem; Demel, Walter (eds.). Race and Racism in Modern East Asia: Interactions, Nationalism, Gender and Lineage. Brill's Series on Modern East Asia in a Global Historical Perspective (reprint ed.). BRILL. p. 464. ISBN 978-9004292932.
70. Qiu, Peipei; Su, Zhiliang; Chen, Lifei (2014). Chinese Comfort Women: Testimonies from Imperial Japan's Sex Slaves. Oxford oral history series (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0199373895.
71. Soh, C. Sarah (2020). The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan. Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture. University of Chicago Press. pp. 159, 279. ISBN 978-0226768045.
72. Ian Harvey (6 March 2017). "Japan's Emperor and Empress Meet With Children Abandoned by Japanese Soldiers After WWII". War History Online (The place for military history news and views). Retrieved 6 September 2022.
73. Eui-Young Yu and Earl H. Phillips, Korean women in transition: at home and abroad, Center for Korean-American and Korean Studies, California State University, Los Angeles, 1987, p185.
74. Linda Trinh Võ and Marian Sciachitano, Asian American women: the Frontiers reader, University of Nebraska Press, 2004, p144.
75. "In love AND WAR". Colorado Gazette. 2006-08-13.
76. . Indian Express. 2003-08-28. Archived from the original on 2011-03-05. Retrieved 2011-02-03.
77. . Newsweek. 2007-10-13. Archived from the original on January 19, 2011.

Further reading

• Lonnie D. Story (March 2004). The Meeting of Anni Adams: The Butterfly of Luxembourg. ISBN 1932124268.
• Carol Fallows (2002). Love & War: stories of war brides from the Great War to Vietnam. ISBN 1863252673.
• Keiko Tamura (2003). Michi's memories: the story of a Japanese war bride. ISBN 1740760018.
• Herbison, Chico. Schultz, Jerry. "Quiet Passages: The Japanese War Bride American Experience." The Center for East Asian Studies: The University of Kansas

External links

• "American War Bride Experience; Fact, Stories about American War Brides"; American War World II GI Brides. website
• Luxembourg War Brides; "The Meeting of Anni Adams: The Butterfly of Luxembourg"; American War Brides. website 2014-05-17 at the Wayback Machine
• Canadian War Brides of WW II website
• Newfoundland & Labrador War Brides website
• Canadian War Brides from Veterans' Affairs Canada website
• CBC Digital Archives – Love and War: Canadian War Brides
• Yankee boys, Kiwi girls history webpage
• Marriages from Problems of the 2NZEF (eText of Official History of New Zealand in WW II)
• New Zealand servicemen and their war brides, 1946 (photo)
• Eswyn Lyster's Canadian War Bride page – the book "Most Excellent Citizens"
• Canadian War Brides of the First World War website