fbpx
Wikipedia

Turkish occupation of northern Syria

February 16, 2024

Not to be confused with the Northern Syria Buffer Zone.

The Turkish Armed Forces and its ally the Syrian National Army have occupied[10][11] areas of northern Syria since August 2016, during the Syrian Civil War. Though these areas nominally acknowledge a government affiliated with the Syrian opposition, in practice they constitute a separate proto-state[12] under the dual authority of decentralized native local councils and Turkish military administration.

Turkish occupation zone of northern Syria
The Syrian Independence flag and the Turkish flag; both are widely used in the zone.[1][2][3][4]
  Operation Euphrates Shield (2016) area
  Operation Olive Branch (2018) area
  Operation Peace Spring (2019) area
CapitalAzaz[5]
Official languages
GovernmentProvisional government (dual authority of decentralized local councils and military administration)
• President
Salem al-Meslet
• Prime Minister
Abdurrahman Mustafa
• Minister of Defence
Salim Idris
Self-governance under military occupation
24 August 2016
20 January 2018
9 October 2019
Area
• Total
8,835[7][8][9] km2 (3,411 sq mi)
CurrencySyrian pound, Turkish lira,[2] United States dollar

Turkish-controlled areas of Syria comprise a 8,835-square-kilometre area encompassing over 1000 settlements, including towns such as al-Bab, Azaz, Jarabulus, Rajo, Tal Abyad and Ras al-Ayn. The majority of these settlements had been captured from the Islamic State (IS) and the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) groups, both of which have been designated as terrorist organisations by the Turkish government, although some towns, including Azaz, were under the control of the Syrian opposition before Turkish intervention. The Syrian Interim Government moved into the Turkish-controlled territories and began to extend partial authority there, including providing documents to Syrian citizens. These areas are referred to as "safe zones" by Turkish authorities.[13] The occupation has allegedly led to human rights abuses in some areas, including ethnic cleansing.[14][15][16][17]

Background edit

Further information: Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war and Islamic State-related terrorist attacks in Turkey

Turkey's proposals for its "Safe Zone" edit

 
Situation in 2014. Turkey proposed to establish a safe zone in Syria between Kobane (pink) and Afrin (light blue) for several years.

Turkey and the Syrian opposition proposed the creation of a safe zone, that includes some regions of northern Syria as early as May 2011.[18] However the United States and the other western states were not willing to accept these plans.[19][20] After the 2014 advancements of ISIL in Iraq, Turkey and United States negotiated a 'safe zone', while USA accepted 'ISIL-free zone', US officials were reluctant to accept a no fly zone.[21][22]

European comments edit

After the attacks of ISIL in Syria, tens of thousands of Syrians fled to Turkey. In the beginning of 2015, refugees began to cross the Greece–Turkey border, escaping to European countries in large numbers. The huge refugee flow resulted in reconsidering the creation of a safe zone for civilians in Syria.[23] In February 2016, Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel said, "In the current situation it would be helpful if there could be such an area where none of the parties are allowed to launch aerial attacks – that is to say, a kind of no-fly zone".[24]

U.S.-Turkish negotiations edit

Further information: Northern Syria Buffer Zone

The creation of the safe zone failed in early 2016 due to disagreements between the United States and Turkish governments, primarily on which actor is to be eliminated first. While Turkey wanted the Syrian government to be overthrown as soon as possible, the US prioritised the war against ISIL. The US also feared that the Syrian Air Force would bomb the area, which would make the idea of a safe zone impracticable. The government rejected the safe zone for being a safe haven for both civilians and rebels.[citation needed]

 
Turkish soldiers and Syrian National Army fighters at the building in Afrin that had hosted the PYD-led government of Afrin Region, 18 March 2018

The outline of the safe zone was another reason for the disagreement. According to Turkey, the safe zone should include a no fly zone, whereas the US rejected establishing a no-fly zone, which would bring a conflict with the Syrian government.[25]

Turkey designates the Kurdish YPG to be a threat, due to its strong ties with the PKK. On the other hand, the US said that although they deem the PKK as a terrorist organisation, the YPG is a distinct actor, constituting one of the main allies of the US in its war against ISIL.[26]

Another debate was about the name of the safe zone. While Turkey called the zone a 'safe zone from ISIS, the Syrian regime and YPG,' the US, however, declared that they will only accept an 'ISIS-free zone'.[27]

Turkish military offensives edit

Third offensive edit

Main article: 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria

On March 30, 2018, Turkey's president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated that Turkey had started preparations to clear northern Syria's "Ayn al-Arab" (Kobane), Ras al-Ain, Tell Abyad and Al-Hasakah regions from militants (referring to the mainly Kurdish YPG forces) up to the Iraqi border, adding that it would also clear militants from Iraq (this time referring to the Kurdish armed organisation, PKK).[28]

On October 7, 2019, the President of the United States ordered the withdrawal of US military troops stationed on the Syria–Turkey border. This withdrawal of military support was ordered by President Trump with the disapproval of the Pentagon and the US Intelligence community.[29][30] The US president ordered the withdrawal of military troops under the premise that Turkey would not invade the region being held by Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF);[29] however Turkey attacked the SDF within two days of US military withdrawal from the region.[31]

Idlib offensive edit

Main article: Operation Spring Shield

A cross-border military operation began on 27 February 2020 by the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) against the Syrian Armed Forces and allied militias in the Idlib Governorate of northwestern Syria[32] in response to the Balyun airstrikes which lead to the deaths of 34 Turkish military servicemen.[33][34] Turkish Defense Minister Hulusi Akar said that the purpose of the operation had been within the framework of the Astana talks, to ensure a ceasefire agreement in the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone and to prevent migration from Idlib towards the Turkish border. On 5 March, Turkey and Russia signed a ceasefire agreement in Moscow.[35]

Possible fourth offensive edit

In May 2022 Turkish and opposition Syrian officials said that Turkey's Armed Forces and the Syrian National Army are planning a new operation against the SDF, composed mostly of the YPG/YPJ.[36][37] The new operation is set to resume efforts to create 30-kilometer (18.6-mile) wide "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, President Erdoğan said in a statement.[38] The operation aims at the Tal Rifaat and Manbij regions west of the Euphrates and other areas further east. Meanwhile, Ankara is in talks with Moscow over the operation. President Erdoğan reiterated his determination for the operation on August 8, 2022.[39][needs update]

Geography edit

The territory of the Turkish-occupied region is located within the northern areas of Aleppo, Raqqa and Hasakah governorates. On 26 February 2018, the territory connected with the mostly rebel-held Idlib Governorate.[40]

The Syrian National Army captured an area of 2,225 square kilometres during Operation Euphrates Shield.[41] Areas captured during the operation included villages between Azaz and al-Rai, such as Kafr Kalbin; Kafrah; Sawran; Ihtaimlat; Dabiq; Turkman Bareh; Kafr Elward; Ghoz; Ghaytun; Akhtarin; Baruza; Tall Tanah; Kaljibrin; Qebbet al-Turkmen; Ghandoura; Arab Hassan Sabghir; Mahsenli; Qabasin and Halwanji. Following Operation Olive Branch, Syrian National Army extended the region with the capture of the entire Afrin District.[42] In addition to its administrative centre Afrin, the district includes settlements such as Bulbul, Maabatli, Rajo, Jindires, Sharran and Shaykh al-Hadid. According to the 2004 Syrian census, the district had a population of 172,095 before the war.[43]

During Operation Peace Spring, Turkish Armed Forces and its allies captured a total area of between 3,412 square kilometres (1,317 sq mi)[44] and 4,220 square kilometres (1,630 sq mi),[45] and 68 settlements, including Ras al-Ayn, Tell Abyad, Suluk, Mabrouka and Manajir and cut the M4 highway.[46][47][48] SNA forces captured 3 villages in the Manbij countryside shortly after the launch of the operation.[49]

There are further intentions by the Turkish government to include the areas captured by the Syrian Democratic Forces during their offensive west of the Euphrates into the safe zone, which includes settlements such as Manbij and Arima.[50][51]

Demographics edit

Northern Syria, including the Turkish-controlled region, has historically been ethnically highly diverse, inhabited predominately by Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Yazidis, and Circassians.[52][53] As of 2020, Arabs constituted a majority in the Turkish-controlled areas.[54] Before the Turkish occupation, the al-Bab area had an Arab majority, while the Afrin area had a Kurdish majority.[54][55][56] Tell Abyad was mostly Arab,[57] while Ras al-Ayn was dominated by Kurds.[58] However, all these areas were strongly affected by refugee shifts and population movement due to the civil war, making accurate demographic estimates difficult.[55][59] Great numbers of Syrian refugees moved voluntarily or involuntarily into these areas after the Turkish intervention.[54][59]

The population of the Turkish-dominated territories is generally Muslim, with the Euphrates Shield zone as well as Tell Abyad being deeply conservative in regards to religion.[54] There were some Christian communities in the later Turkish-occupied areas: A small Evangelical Christian community existed in Afrin, while Christians (mostly Syrian Armenians and Assyrians) lived in Tell Abyad and Ras al-Ayn. These Christians generally fled in advance for fear of reprisal.[60][61]

Ethnic cleansing and kidnapping of women edit

Further information: Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war and Turkish war crimes

After the Turkish-led forces had captured Afrin District (Afrin Canton) in early 2018, they began to implement a resettlement policy by moving their mostly Arab fighters[62] and refugees from southern Syria[63] into the empty homes that belonged to displaced locals.[64] The previous owners, most of them Kurds or Yazidis, were often prevented from returning to Afrin.[62][63] Though some Kurdish militias of the SNA and the Turkish-backed civilian councils opposed these resettlement policies, most SNA units fully supported them.[63] Refugees from Eastern Ghouta, Damascus, said that they were part of "an organised demographic change" which was said to replace the Kurdish population of Afrin with an Arab majority.[62] More than 200,000 people fled from Afrin District during the Turkish intervention by March 2018,[65] while 458,000 displaced persons from other parts of Syria were settled in Afrin following the Turkish intervention.[66]

A report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic,[67] submitted to the UN Human Rights Council pursuant to its resolution 43/28 for consideration at the 45th session of the Human Rights Council (commencing 14 September 2020), the Independent International Commission presents evidence of numerous human rights abuses against civilian population, and especially Kurdish civilian population, by the Turkish state and "non-state factions" such as the Syrian National Army, acting as de facto agents of Turkey. In paragraph 47, the Report addresses looting and property appropriation, noting that "[t]hroughout the Afrin region, multiple accounts indicate that the property of Kurdish owners was looted and appropriated by Syrian National Army members in a coordinated manner. For example, in September 2019, civilians in the Shaykh al-Hadid subdistrict (of the Afrin region) described how members of Division 14, Brigade 142 (the Suleiman Shah Brigade) of the Syrian National Army had gone from door to door instructing Kurdish families with fewer than three members to vacate their houses to accommodate individuals arriving from outside of Afrin."

It was reported that Yazidi and other Kurdish women and girls have been kidnapped by the SNA since the occupation of Afrin began in early 2018, either for ransom, rape, forced marriage, or because of perceived links to the Democratic Union Party.[68][69] It was alleged that many of them were later killed.[70][71] This activity has been interpreted as part of an Islamist policy of discouraging women from leaving their homes and to remove them from the civic activity they had been encouraged to take part in under the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria,[70] as well as part of a broader plan to discourage the return of Yazidi and other Kurdish refugees who fled Afrin in 2018.[72][73]

Population centres edit

This list includes some of the largest cities and towns in the region.

 
Mosque in Azaz
English Name Arabic Name Kurdish Name Turkish Name
Azaz أعزاز – Azez
Afrin عفرين Efrîn Afrin
Jarabulus جرابلس – Cerablus
Akhtarin أخترين – Aktarin
Tell Abyad تل أبيض Girê Spî Tel Abyad
al-Bab الباب – El-Bab
Ras al-Ayn رأس العين Serê Kaniyê Resulayn
Sawran صوران – Soran
Bizaah بزاعة – Bizza
Qabasin قباسين Qebasîn Başköy
Mare' مارع – Mare

Politics and administration edit

Further information: Syrian Interim Government

The occupation zone is formally governed by the Syrian Interim Government, an alternative government of the Syrian opposition based in Azaz.[5] Despite this, the area is governed by a number of autonomous local councils which work closely with Turkey.[74][75] These councils operate as a "Turkish-European style government".[4] In general, Turkey exerts a direct influence on the region's government,[76] and Turkish civilian officials such as governors have been appointed to oversee the area.[4][77] Turkish officials mostly act as advisors, allowing the councils to run the day-to-day government and collect their own taxes.[4] Overall, Turkey is in the process of forming a proto-state in northern Syria,[12] and regional expert Joshua Landis has said that the country "is prepared to, in a sense, quasi-annex this region" to prevent it from being retaken by the Syrian government.[1] Turkish Minister of the Interior Süleyman Soylu declared in January 2019 that northern Syria is "part of the Turkish homeland" per the Misak-ı Millî of 1920.[77]

 
Since the start of its intervention in Syria, Turkey has striven to rebuild destroyed areas under its control (pictured: devastated neighborhood of al-Bab) and restore civil society.[78]

Since the establishment of the occupation zone, the Turkish authorities have striven to restore civil society in the areas under their control[78] and to also bind the region more closely to Turkey.[6][2][79] As part of these efforts, towns and villages have been demilitarized by dismantling military checkpoints and moving the local militias to barracks and camps outside areas populated by civilians.[78] However, some members of the military remain influential in the governance of the zone; for example, Hamza Division commander Sayf Balud serves as de facto military governor of al-Bab since 2017.[80]

Turkey also funds education and health services, supports the region's economy, and has trained a new police force.[2][79] It has constructed a new hospital in al-Bab.[4] Some locals describe these developments as "Turkification" of the region. However, many locals have accepted or even welcomed this, as they said that the area is better off economically, politically, and socially under a Turkish protectorate.[1][4] The White Helmets volunteers entered Afrin region after Turkey occupied the area.[81] For Turkish officials, restoring order and improving the situation in northern Syria was a "justice of fraternity" stemming from Ottoman times, as one deputy governor explained.[4] The presence of Turkish soldiers prevents a Syrian government offensive into the area.[82]

Local government edit

Following the conquest of Afrin District, civilian councils were appointed to govern and rebuild the area.[74] A temporary council was organised by the Turkish-backed Syrian Kurds Independent Association in March 2018, to oversee aid, education and media in the area.[83] It was later replaced by an interim council that was appointed in Afrin city on 12 April.[84][85] The latter council, appointed by city elders, included eleven Kurds, eight Arabs and one Turkmen. While Zuheyr Haydar, a Kurdish representative who was appointed to serve as president of the council, stated that a more democratic election would take place if displaced citizens return, this has yet to take place. PYD officials have criticized the council and said it was working with an "occupying force".[86]

On 19 April 2018, a local council was appointed in Jindires.[87] During Operation Peace Spring, similar appointed councils were established in Tell Abyad[88] and Ras al-Ayn.[89] Turkish-backed administrators have refused to register people with Kurdish names, and insist that Christian and other minority women wear an Islamic veil before being issued documents.[90] An August 2020 US Department of Defense report criticised Turkey and the SNA for "arbitrary detentions, extra-judicial killings, seizure and resettlement of new populations in private properties" and "the repeated and deliberate shutting off of water access to half a million civilians".[91]

Military edit

Main article: Syrian National Army
 
Fighters of the Syrian National Army in 2016

On 30 May 2017,[92] the Syrian National Army composed of Syrian Arabs and Syrian Turkmen rebels operating in northern Syria was formed, mostly being a part of Operation Euphrates Shield or groups active in the area that are allied to the groups participating in the operation.[93] The general aim of the group is to assist Turkey in creating a "safe zone" in Syria and to establish a National Army, which will operate in the land gained as a result of Turkish military intervention[94] and answer to the Syrian Interim Government.[78]

By August 2018, the SNA was stated to be an "organized military bloc" that had largely overcome the chronic factionalism which had traditionally affected the Syrian rebels. Military colleges had been set up, and training as well as discipline had been improved.[79] Though clashes and inter-unit violence still happened,[75][12][4] they were no longer as serious as in the past. A military court had been established in al-Bab, a military police was organized to oversee discipline,[79][12] and local civilian authorities were given more power over the militant groups. Nevertheless, most militias have attempted to maintain their autonomy to some degree, with the Interim Government having little actual control over them. To achieve the formation of a new national army without risking a mutiny, Turkey has applied soft pressure on the different groups while punishing only the most independent-minded and disloyal among them.[12] The FSA units in the zone have accepted the Istanbul-based "Syrian Islamic Council" as religious authority.[78] SNA fighters are paid salaries by the Turkish government, though the falling value of Turkish lira began to cause resentment among the SNA by mid-2018. One fighter said that "when the Turkish lira began to lose value against the Syrian pound our salaries became worthless".[2]

 
Turkish and U.S. soldiers conduct the joint patrol outside Manbij, 1 November 2018

By July 2018, the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) have built "at least" six military bases in the zone, "raising concerns that [the TAF] may be settling in for a long-term presence in northern Syria".[76]

Toponymic Turkification edit

After the establishment of Turkish control in the region, a number of streets, squares and villages have been renamed. Examples are the villages Kastal Mekdad, Kutana and the city of Ra'i, which are officially called Selçuk obası, Zafer obası and Çobanbey. The Saraya Square in Afrin bears the name Erdoğan Square. Signs with both Turkish and Arabic name stress the former with a bigger font.[95]

Law enforcement edit

Turkey has organized a new law enforcement authority in the zone in early 2017, the "Free Police" which is divided into the National Police and Public Security Forces. The Free Police includes both male as well as female officers.[96] It is trained, equipped, and paid by Turkish authorities,[96] and consequently loyal to the Turkish state.[97][98]

The National Police, headed by Maj. Gen. Abdul Razzaq Aslan, is further divided into the Civil Police Force and the Special Forces. Most of the police members are trained in the Turkish National Police Academy.[79] To maintain security in Afrin District, Turkey has also employed former members of the Free East Ghouta Police who had relocated to northern Syria after the end of the Siege of Eastern Ghouta.[99]

In addition, Turkey has established several courts in the zone which employ Syrian judges and follow Syria's judicial code, while being overseen and supported by Turkish judges and prosecutors. A special "terrorism court" was established in Azaz, while a correction facility was organized in al-Bab.[4]

Economy edit

By July 2018, Turkey was playing an "increasingly prominent—and contentious—role in the region's local economy."[76] It invested heavily in the zone, providing work opportunities and helping to rebuild the economy. Turkish-led development projects restored infrastructure such as dams, electricity and roads.[79] Turkish private companies, such as PTT,[6] Türk Telekom, the Independent Industrialists and Businessmen Association, and ET Energy launched projects in the area, as did a number of Syrian firms and businessmen.[79] One problematic result of Turkey's economic influence was that the country's currency and debt crisis has also affected the zone, as Turkey pays salaries and services with Turkish lira whose value greatly dropped in course of 2018, harming the local economy.[2][79]

Tourism edit

Further information: Tourism in Syria

As result of the Turkish-led invasion, Afrin's tourism sector which had survived the civil war up to that point, collapsed. After open combat between the SDF and pro-Turkish forces had mostly concluded, Turkey attempted to restabilize the region and revive local tourism. It removed the tight control over visitors and passers that had previously existed under the PYD-led administration, and the new local councils and the Free Police attempted to provide stability and incentives for tourists to return. By July 2018, these measures began to have an effect, with some visitors coming to Afrin's popular recreational areas, such as Maydanki Lake.[100]

Education edit

Turkey has taken "full control over the educational process" in the zone,[79] and funds all education services.[2] Thousands of teachers in the zone are paid by Turkey.[4] Several schools have been restored or newly built, with their curricula partially adjusted to education in Turkey: Though the curricula of the Syrian Ministry of Education still provide the basis, certain parts have been modified to fit the Turkish point of view in regard to history, for example replacing "Ottoman occupation" with "Ottoman rule".[79] Turkish is taught as foreign language since first class and those who attend schools in the occupation zones can subsequently attend universities in Turkey.[6][1][79]

Reactions to the occupation edit

Reactions within Syria edit

The Syrian government under Bashar al-Assad has criticized Turkish presence in Northern Syria on multiple occasions and called for their withdrawal.[101][102][103][104][105][106]

 
SDF-controlled territory (green) and Turkish-controlled territory (red) in October 2019

Syrian Opposition groups have expressed mixed, but generally positive opinions over the Turkish offensives. The Syrian Opposition Coalition expressed support for Turkish intervention and called for Turkey to help the Free Syrian Army launch offensives in the region.[107] Other Opposition groups, such as Syria's Tomorrow Movement have condemned the intervention.[108]

International reaction edit

  •   Azerbaijan – On 20 September 2016, Qənirə Paşayeva, member of parliament, said that Turkey would have an obligation to protect the civilians in northern Syria from terror groups and would have the right to protect itself from the attacks originating from Syria with the intervention.[113]
  •   China – On October 29, 2021, China's Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Ambassador Geng Shuang said "Since Turkey illegally invaded northeastern Syria, it has repeatedly cut off the water supply service from the Alouk water station"[114] Also stating "China urges Turkey to abide by the international law, including international humanitarian law, protect civilians, maintain infrastructure operations, and guarantee humanitarian access for the UN"[115]
  •   Cyprus – On 9 September 2016, the Cyprus House of Representatives unanimously adopted a resolution condemning "the unacceptable invasion of Turkey into Syria, under the pretext of war against terrorism." It also called on the international community to demand Turkey's withdrawal from Syria.[116]
  •   EU – On 14 October 2019, following Turkeys' offensive the Council of the European Union released a press statement condemning Turkey's military action and called for Turkey to cease its "unilateral" military action in north-eastern Syria. It again recalled previous made statements by member states to halt arms exports licensing to Turkey and also recalled that it would not provide "stabilisation or development assistance where the rights of local populations are ignored or violated."[117][118]
  •   France – On March 30, 2018, Macron assured the SDF of France's support for the stabilization of the security zone in the north-east of Syria, within the framework of an inclusive and balanced governance, to prevent any resurgence of Islamic State.[119]
  •   Iran – On 31 August 2016, Iranian foreign ministry spokesman Bahram Ghasemi urged Ankara to quickly wrap up its military intervention in Syria, saying it was an "unacceptable" violation of Syrian sovereignty.[120]
  •   Spain – On 14 October 2019 the Spanish Foreign Minister Josep Borrell Fontelles (also High Representative of European Union Foreign Affairs and Security Policy) in an interview stated that the 28 European member states “have unanimously decided to condemn...in strong terms what in the end is a military attack.”[121] Agreeing to also limit arms exports over its offensive in northern Syria, which Turkey “fully rejected and condemned” the decisions made by the EU regarding the issue.[122]
  •   United States of America – On October 7, 2021, President Joe Biden's announcement stated "The situation in and in relation to Syria, and in particular the actions by the Government of Turkey to conduct a military offensive into northeast Syria, undermines the campaign to defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, or ISIS, endangers civilians, and further threatens to undermine the peace, security, and stability in the region, and continues to pose an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States." thus extending the national emergency powers in Syria by another year.[123]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d Madeline Edwards (6 August 2018). "As Syria's proxies converge on Idlib, what's next for Turkey's northern state-within-a-state?". SYRIA:direct and Konrad Adenauer Foundation. from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Khalil Ashawi (28 August 2018). "Falling lira hits Syrian enclave backed by Turkey". Reuters. from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  3. ^ ANF (29 March 2019). "ID cards of civilians replaced with Turkish ID cards in Afrin". Ajansa Nûçeyan a Firatê. ANF News. from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Sarah El Deeb (19 June 2018). "Blurring the border, Turkey deepens roots in northern Syria". AP News. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
  5. ^ a b "Turkey's Idlib Incursion and the HTS Question: Understanding the Long Game in Syria". War on the Rocks. October 31, 2017. from the original on June 4, 2019. Retrieved April 12, 2018.
  6. ^ a b c d Sydow, Christoph (14 October 2017). "Syrien: Willkommen in der türkischen Besatzungszone" [Syria: Welcome to the Turkish occupation zone]. Spiegel Online. from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  7. ^ "30 يوما من نبع السلام: "قسد" تخسر نصف مساحة سيطرتها تقريبا.. وروسيا و"النظام" لاعب جديد في الشمال السوري.. وانتهاكات الفصائل التركية تجبر المدنيين على الفرار.. وأكثر من 870 شهيداً وقتيلاً.. وأوضاع إنسانية وصحية كارثية تهدد المنطقة". 9 November 2019. from the original on 2019-11-09. Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  8. ^ "Fırat Kalkanı Harekatının 216 günlük bilançosu". 30 March 2017. from the original on 2019-11-09. Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  9. ^ "Bozdağ: Türkiye'nin Afrin de işi bitmemiştir - Politika haberleri". 26 March 2018. from the original on 2019-11-09. Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  10. ^ Sirwan Kajjo (2 March 2017). "Skirmishes Mar Fight Against IS in Northern Syria". Voice of America. from the original on 13 April 2017. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Turkish occupation "is an existential threat to the Assad government's ability to reclaim the entirety of its territory, which is a key argument that regime loyalists make in their support of Bashar al-Assad's government," Heras said.
  11. ^ Robert Fisk (29 March 2017). "In northern Syria, defeated Isis fighters leave behind only scorched earth, trenches – and a crucifixion stand". The Independent. from the original on 28 July 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2017. You can't mistake the front line between the Syrian army and Turkey's occupation force east of Aleppo.
  12. ^ a b c d e Haid Haid (2 November 2018). "Turkey's Gradual Efforts to Professionalize Syrian Allies". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
  13. ^ "Safe zone 'crucial for Turkmen in Syria'". www.aa.com.tr. from the original on 2019-10-07. Retrieved 2019-10-10.
  14. ^ Rudaw (2020-04-20). "Afrin, Syria: Kurdish population more than halved since 2018 Turkish invasion". genocidewatch. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  15. ^ "NYT accused of whitewashing Turkey's Afrin occupation". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  16. ^ "'Nothing is ours anymore': Kurds forced out of Afrin after Turkish assault". the Guardian. 2018-06-07. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  17. ^ Iddon, Paul (2020-03-19). "Turkey's actions in Syria's Afrin amount to ethnic cleansing - Kurdish analysts". Ahval. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  18. ^ "Suriyeli muhalifler Antalya'da buluşuyor". CNN Türk. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 7 December 2022.
  19. ^ "Turkey PM 'will support' Syria no-fly zone". from the original on 1 August 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  20. ^ "Syrian opposition calls for no-fly zone". from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  21. ^ Tisdall, Simon (27 July 2015). "Syrian safe zone: US relents to Turkish demands after border crisis grows". TheGuardian.com. from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  22. ^ "DIPLOMACY - US and Turkey agree to forge 'ISIL-free zone' in Syria, official confirms". 29 July 2015. from the original on 22 July 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  23. ^ "Solution to refugee crisis is to end Syria's civil war, UN official says". The Globe and Mail. from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  24. ^ Wintour, Patrick (16 February 2016). "Turkey revives plan for safe zone in Syria to stem flow of refugees". TheGuardian.com. from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  25. ^ "National Security Zone". from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  26. ^ "Fight against IS helps PKK gain global legitimacy - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East". 16 September 2014. from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  27. ^ "U.S. denies reaching agreement with Turkey on Syria 'safe zone'". Reuters. 11 August 2015. from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  28. ^ "Turkey Started Preparations for Further Operations in Northern Syria: Erdoğan, New York Times, March 30th, 2018". The New York Times. from the original on 2018-03-31. Retrieved 2018-03-31.
  29. ^ a b "US begins troop withdrawal from northeastern Syria ahead of Turkish offensive". Deutsche Welle. 7 October 2019. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  30. ^ Barnes, Julian E.; Schmitt, Eric (2019-10-13). "Trump Orders Withdrawal of U.S. Troops From Northern Syria". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  31. ^ "Turkey unleashes airstrikes against Kurds in north-east Syria". the Guardian. 2019-10-09. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  32. ^ "Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against regime aggression in Syria". Istanbul: Daily Sabah. 2020-03-01.
  33. ^ Amberin Zaman (2020-03-01). "Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against Syrian forces". Al-Monitor.
  34. ^ Joe Truzman (2020-03-05). "Turkey's Operation "Spring Shield" delivers blow to Hezbollah". Longwarjournal.org.
  35. ^ "Rusya'dan İdlib açıklaması: Ateşkes düzenlemesine genel olarak uyuluyor" (in Turkish). Ankara: Milliyet. 2020-03-12.
  36. ^ "Turkey planned Syria military operation after Russia withdrawal, sources reveal". Middle East Monitor. 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
  37. ^ "Syria: US-backed SDF 'open' to working with Syrian troops to fight off Turkey invasion". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
  38. ^ Agencies (2022-06-07). "Russian, regime forces boosted after Turkey signals Syria operation". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
  39. ^ "President Erdoğan reiterates determination for Syria operation - Türkiye News". Hürriyet Daily News. 8 August 2022. Retrieved 2022-08-09.
  40. ^ "Turkey reconnects opposition-held areas in northern Syria - Turkey News". Hürriyet Daily News. 27 February 2018. from the original on 2018-09-19. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  41. ^ "El Bâb kontrol altına alınmıştır". Al Jazeera Turk - Ortadoğu, Kafkasya, Balkanlar, Türkiye ve çevresindeki bölgeden son dakika haberleri ve analizler. 3 May 2017. from the original on 2018-10-09. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  42. ^ "Turkey takes full control of Syria's Afrin region, reports say". Middle East Eye. from the original on 2019-10-14. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  43. ^ (PDF) (in Arabic). Syrian Central Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2015. Also available in English: "2004 Census Data". UN OCHA. from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
  44. ^ "The Turkish forces and the factions advance and take control of about 10 villages in Abu Rasin area (Zarkan) amid the continuation of fierce clashes against the regime forces and tens of casualties and wounded in the ranks of both parties". 29 October 2019. from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  45. ^ "YPG/PKK terror group as dangerous as Daesh: Erdogan". from the original on 2019-10-26. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  46. ^ "8 days of Operation "Peace Spring": Turkey controls 68 areas, "Ras al-Ain" under siege, and 416 dead among the SDF, Turkish forces and Turkish-backed factions". 17 October 2019. from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  47. ^ "القوات التركية والفصائل تحاصر مدينة رأس العين (سري كانييه) بشكل كامل، ولا صحة لسيطرة "النظام السوري" على سجون قوات سوريا الديمقراطية ضمن المناطق التي انتشرت بها". SOHR (in Arabic). 17 October 2019.
  48. ^ "قوات سوريا الديمقراطية تنسحب من كامل مدينة رأس العين (سري كانييه) • المرصد السوري لحقوق الإنسان". 20 October 2019. from the original on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  49. ^ "Menbiç'e operasyon başladı: 3 köy YPG'den temizlendi". Yeni Şafak. 14 October 2019. from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  50. ^ . Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2018-12-03. Retrieved 2017-04-10.
  51. ^ "Turkey says will take action if militants do not leave Syria's Manbij". Reuters. March 28, 2018. from the original on October 10, 2019. Retrieved October 10, 2019 – via www.reuters.com.
  52. ^ Morton (2020), pp. 122–123, 167.
  53. ^ Vanly (1992), p. 116.
  54. ^ a b c d Asli Aydıntaşbaş (28 May 2020). "A new Gaza: Turkey's border policy in northern Syria". Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  55. ^ a b Khayrallah al-Hilu (2019). "Afrin Under Turkish Control: Political, Economic and Social Transformations" (PDF). Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  56. ^ Adar, Sinem; Stiftung Wissenschaft Und Politik (1 January 2020). "Repatriation to Turkey's "Safe Zone" in Northeast Syria". SWP Comment. doi:10.18449/2020C01. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  57. ^ Fabrice Balanche (21 December 2018). "The district's ethnic composition and wartime migrations make it the weakest point of the YPG defense system, and the most likely entryway for Turkish troops and their proxies". Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  58. ^ Tessa Fox (19 December 2019). "Who Exactly Is Turkey Resettling in Syria?". Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  59. ^ a b Ferhat Gurini (26 February 2019). "Turkey's Lack of Vision in Syria". Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  60. ^ Sam Sweeney (31 October 2019). "As Turkey Invades Northeast Syria, Christians There Are on the Brink". National Review. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  61. ^ Tom Gjelten (9 October 2019). "Christian Leaders Say Turkish Invasion Of Syria Raises Risk Of 'Genocide'". NPR.org. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  62. ^ a b c Patrick Cockburn (18 April 2018). "Yazidis who suffered under Isis face forced conversion to Islam amid fresh persecution in Afrin". The Independent. from the original on 13 June 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  63. ^ a b c Ammar Hamou; Barrett Limoges (1 May 2018). "Seizing lands from Afrin's displaced Kurds, Turkish-backed militias offer houses to East Ghouta families". SYRIA:direct. from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  64. ^ "Syria's war of ethnic cleansing: Kurds threatened with beheading by Turkey's allies if they don't convert to extremism". The Independent. 12 March 2018. from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
  65. ^ "More than 200,000 people fled Syria's Afrin, have no shelter: Kurdish official 2018-11-25 at the Wayback Machine". Reuters. 19 March 2018.
  66. ^ "Afrin: Kurdish population more than halved since 2018 offensive, says rights group". Rudaw. 20 April 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  67. ^ https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/45/31. Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, 2020
  68. ^ Hagedorn, Elizabeth (June 2, 2020). "'An insult to women' everywhere: Afrin kidnappings prompt calls for investigation of Turkey-backed rebels". Al-Monitor.
  69. ^ "Abuses against Kurdish women in Afrin under Turkish Parliament radar". Syrians for Truth & Justice. 31 December 2020.
  70. ^ a b "Kurdish woman reportedly murdered in Turkish-occupied Afrin". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com.
  71. ^ "Rights Groups Concerned About Continued Abuses in Afrin | Voice of America - English". www.voanews.com. 10 June 2020.
  72. ^ "Patrick Cockburn: Erdogan's ethnic cleansing of the Kurds is still happening now – and we have Trump to thank". The Independent. November 15, 2019.
  73. ^ "The looming genocide against the Kurds: history should not repeat itself". openDemocracy.
  74. ^ a b Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi (23 August 2018). "In Syria, It's Either Reconciliation or Annexation". The American Spectator. from the original on 26 August 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  75. ^ a b Borzou Daragahi (13 July 2018). "Turkey Has Made a Quagmire for Itself in Syria". Foreign Policy. from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
  76. ^ a b c Barrett Limoges; Justin Clark; Avery Edelman (29 July 2018). "What's next for post-Islamic State Syria? A month-long reporting series from Syria Direct". Syria Direct, Konrad Adenauer Foundation. from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
  77. ^ a b Rawa Barwari (13 January 2019). "Turkish sub-governor found dead at office in Syria's occupied Jarabulus". Kurdistan24. from the original on 14 January 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  78. ^ a b c d e Khaled al-Khateb (12 September 2017). "FSA relocating to outside Syria's liberated areas". al-Monitor. from the original on 3 January 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  79. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Enab Baladi's Investigation Team (29 August 2018). "From Afrin to Jarabulus: A small replica of Turkey in the north". Enab Baladi. from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  80. ^ Heras 2018, pp. 14–15.
  81. ^ "White Helmets return to Afrin to mixed reception". Kurdistan 24. 26 August 2018. from the original on 5 November 2019. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
  82. ^ Carlotta Gall (16 February 2021). "In Turkey's Safe Zone in Syria, Security and Misery Go Hand in Hand". New York Times. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  83. ^ Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim; Alice Al Maleh; Tariq Adely (26 March 2018). "Interim governing council formed to tackle 'disaster' in Afrin after Turkish-backed offensive". SYRIA:direct. from the original on 24 August 2018. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  84. ^ "Interim local council established in Syria's Afrin". www.aa.com.tr. from the original on 2019-10-10. Retrieved 2019-10-10.
  85. ^ "Interim local council established in Syria's Afrin - World News". Hürriyet Daily News. 12 April 2018. from the original on 2018-09-06. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  86. ^ Kajjo, Sirwan (11 April 2018). "Turkey-backed council is to take over Afrin, suspicion abound". Ahval. from the original on 2018-06-16. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  87. ^ "Cinderes'te yerel meclis oluşturuldu". Timeturk.com. from the original on 2018-11-18. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
  88. ^ "Local council set up in terror-free Tal Abyad in Syria - World News". 28 October 2019. from the original on 2019-11-05. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  89. ^ "Syria: Council set up in terror-free Ras al-Ayn". from the original on 2019-11-09. Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  90. ^ "Turkey's occupation of Syria slammed for ethnic cleansing". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com.
  91. ^ "Lead Inspector General for Operation Inherent Resolve Quarterly Report to the United States". Department of Defense Office of Inspector General.
  92. ^ "Turkey-backed opposition to form new army in northern Syria". from the original on 2017-07-04. Retrieved 2017-08-06.
  93. ^ Kajjo, Sirwan (25 August 2016). "Who are the Turkey backed Syrian Rebels?". Voice of America. from the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  94. ^ Coskun, Orhan; Sezer, Seda (19 September 2016). "Turkey-backed rebels could push further south in Syria, Erdogan says". Reuters. from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  95. ^ Baker, Rauf (September 2021). "When will Turkey annex Northern Syria?". Middle East Quarterly. Fall 2021. Retrieved November 1, 2021.
  96. ^ a b Khaled al-Khateb (1 December 2017). "Women join opposition police forces in Aleppo's liberated areas". al-Monitor. from the original on 3 January 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  97. ^ Stein, Aaron; Abouzahr, Hossam; Komar, Rao (20 July 2017). "How Turkey Is Governing in Northern Aleppo". Syria Deeply. from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  98. ^ Amberin Zaman (25 January 2017). "Syria's new national security force pledges loyalty to Turkey". al-Monitor. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  99. ^ Bahira al-Zarier; Justin Clark; Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim; Ammar Hamou (14 May 2018). "Hidden explosives stunt movement, frighten Afrin residents two months into pro-Turkish rule". SYRIA:direct. from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
  100. ^ Khaled al-Khateb (26 July 2018). "Day trippers flock to Afrin's orchards as Aleppo restores security". al-Monitor. from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
  101. ^ "Turkey sends tanks into Syria to battle ISIS". 24 August 2016. from the original on 2019-11-02. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  102. ^ Elements of pro-government NDF militias.[1] 2019-10-29 at the Wayback Machine
  103. ^ "Syrian government demands Turkish troops leave Afrin". from the original on 2019-11-02. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  104. ^ "Syria: Turkish regime forces occupation of Afrin illegitimate act". 19 March 2018. from the original on 2018-03-20. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  105. ^ "Syria expects Turkey to withdraw from its soil". Ahval. 6 April 2018. from the original on 2018-04-07. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  106. ^ Virella, Kelly (28 September 2019). "Syria Demands Immediate Withdrawal of U.S. And Turkish Forces, Again". The New York Times. from the original on 2019-11-02. Retrieved 2019-11-02.
  107. ^ "SOC's President Calls on Turkey to Intervene alongside SNA to Force PYD from Tal Rifaat & Manbij". Syrian National Coalition Of Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces. 2021-06-14. Retrieved 2021-10-19.
  108. ^ admin (2021-06-17). "After hostile statements, a Syrian opponent movement suspends its dialogues with the coalition". The Syrian Democratic Council. Retrieved 2021-10-19.
  109. ^ . ARA News. 26 August 2016. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016.
  110. ^ "ENKS urges int'l protection for Afrin, condemning PYD policy". from the original on 2019-02-23. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
  111. ^ "Syrian Kurds welcome multi-ethnic Afrin local council". www.aa.com.tr. from the original on 2019-07-02. Retrieved 2019-10-10.
  112. ^ "Akram Mahshoush: Partition wall aims to erase Kurdish identity, settle mercenaries". Hawar News Agency. 28 May 2019. from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  113. ^ "Azerbayjan Milletvekili Paşayeva". Milliyet Haber. 3 September 2016. from the original on 2016-10-21. Retrieved 2016-09-20.
  114. ^ English, Duvar (2021-10-29). "China accuses Turkey of invading northeastern Syria". www.duvarenglish.com (in Turkish). Retrieved 2021-11-02.
  115. ^ "China says Turkey's military operations in northeast Syria are illegal". www.kurdistan24.net. Retrieved 2021-11-02.
  116. ^ . Famagusta Gazette. 9 September 2016. Archived from the original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
  117. ^ "North East Syria: Council adopts conclusions". www.consilium.europa.eu. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
  118. ^ "Foreign Affairs Council, 14 October 2019". www.consilium.europa.eu. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
  119. ^ "France's Macron Vows Support for Northern Syrians, Kurdish Militia, New York Times, March 30th, 2018". The New York Times. from the original on 2018-03-31. Retrieved 2018-03-31.
  120. ^ "Iran urges Turkey to quickly end Syria intervention". France24. 31 August 2016. from the original on 31 August 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
  121. ^ Brzozowski, Alexandra (2019-10-14). "EU condemns Turkey's military action, stops short of common arms embargo". www.euractiv.com. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
  122. ^ "EU governments limit arms sales to Turkey but avoid embargo". Reuters. 2019-10-14. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
  123. ^ "Notice on the Continuation of the National Emergency with Respect to the Situation in and in Relation to Syria". The White House. 2021-10-07. Retrieved 2021-11-03.

Works cited edit

  • Heras, Nicholas (November 2018). "Turkey's Man in Syria—Sayf Boulad Abu Bakr" (PDF). Militant Leadership Monitor. Washington, D.C.: Jamestown Foundation. 9 (11): 11–16.
  • Morton, Nicholas (2020). The Crusader States and their Neighbours: A Military History, 1099-1187. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198824541.[relevant?]
  • Vanly, Ismet Chériff (1992). "The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon". In Philip G. Kreyenbroek; Stefan Sperl (eds.). The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. New York City, London: Routledge. pp. 112–134. ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7.

Further reading edit

  • Bagheri, Saeed (2023). "Turkey's Extraterritorial Use of Force against Armed Non-State Actors". Israel Law Review. 56 (2): 143–170. doi:10.1017/S0021223722000243. ISSN 0021-2237. S2CID 257868157.

February 16, 2024
turkish, occupation, northern, syria, confused, with, northern, syria, buffer, zone, turkish, armed, forces, ally, syrian, national, army, have, occupied, areas, northern, syria, since, august, 2016, during, syrian, civil, though, these, areas, nominally, ackn. Not to be confused with the Northern Syria Buffer Zone The Turkish Armed Forces and its ally the Syrian National Army have occupied 10 11 areas of northern Syria since August 2016 during the Syrian Civil War Though these areas nominally acknowledge a government affiliated with the Syrian opposition in practice they constitute a separate proto state 12 under the dual authority of decentralized native local councils and Turkish military administration Turkish occupation zone of northern SyriaThe Syrian Independence flag and the Turkish flag both are widely used in the zone 1 2 3 4 Turkish occupation zonesShow Turkish backed Syrian opposition Operation Euphrates Shield 2016 area Operation Olive Branch 2018 area Operation Peace Spring 2019 areaCapitalAzaz 5 Official languagesArabic 4 Turkish 6 de facto GovernmentProvisional government dual authority of decentralized local councils and military administration PresidentSalem al Meslet Prime MinisterAbdurrahman Mustafa Minister of DefenceSalim IdrisSelf governance under military occupation First intervention24 August 2016 Second intervention20 January 2018 Third intervention9 October 2019Area Total8 835 7 8 9 km2 3 411 sq mi CurrencySyrian pound Turkish lira 2 United States dollarTurkish controlled areas of Syria comprise a 8 835 square kilometre area encompassing over 1000 settlements including towns such as al Bab Azaz Jarabulus Rajo Tal Abyad and Ras al Ayn The majority of these settlements had been captured from the Islamic State IS and the Syrian Democratic Forces SDF groups both of which have been designated as terrorist organisations by the Turkish government although some towns including Azaz were under the control of the Syrian opposition before Turkish intervention The Syrian Interim Government moved into the Turkish controlled territories and began to extend partial authority there including providing documents to Syrian citizens These areas are referred to as safe zones by Turkish authorities 13 The occupation has allegedly led to human rights abuses in some areas including ethnic cleansing 14 15 16 17 Contents 1 Background 1 1 Turkey s proposals for its Safe Zone 1 2 European comments 1 3 U S Turkish negotiations 2 Turkish military offensives 2 1 Third offensive 2 2 Idlib offensive 2 3 Possible fourth offensive 3 Geography 4 Demographics 4 1 Ethnic cleansing and kidnapping of women 4 2 Population centres 5 Politics and administration 5 1 Local government 5 2 Military 5 3 Toponymic Turkification 6 Law enforcement 7 Economy 7 1 Tourism 8 Education 9 Reactions to the occupation 9 1 Reactions within Syria 9 2 International reaction 10 See also 11 References 11 1 Works cited 12 Further readingBackground editFurther information Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war and Islamic State related terrorist attacks in Turkey Turkey s proposals for its Safe Zone edit nbsp Situation in 2014 Turkey proposed to establish a safe zone in Syria between Kobane pink and Afrin light blue for several years Turkey and the Syrian opposition proposed the creation of a safe zone that includes some regions of northern Syria as early as May 2011 18 However the United States and the other western states were not willing to accept these plans 19 20 After the 2014 advancements of ISIL in Iraq Turkey and United States negotiated a safe zone while USA accepted ISIL free zone US officials were reluctant to accept a no fly zone 21 22 European comments edit After the attacks of ISIL in Syria tens of thousands of Syrians fled to Turkey In the beginning of 2015 refugees began to cross the Greece Turkey border escaping to European countries in large numbers The huge refugee flow resulted in reconsidering the creation of a safe zone for civilians in Syria 23 In February 2016 Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel said In the current situation it would be helpful if there could be such an area where none of the parties are allowed to launch aerial attacks that is to say a kind of no fly zone 24 U S Turkish negotiations edit Further information Northern Syria Buffer Zone The creation of the safe zone failed in early 2016 due to disagreements between the United States and Turkish governments primarily on which actor is to be eliminated first While Turkey wanted the Syrian government to be overthrown as soon as possible the US prioritised the war against ISIL The US also feared that the Syrian Air Force would bomb the area which would make the idea of a safe zone impracticable The government rejected the safe zone for being a safe haven for both civilians and rebels citation needed nbsp Turkish soldiers and Syrian National Army fighters at the building in Afrin that had hosted the PYD led government of Afrin Region 18 March 2018The outline of the safe zone was another reason for the disagreement According to Turkey the safe zone should include a no fly zone whereas the US rejected establishing a no fly zone which would bring a conflict with the Syrian government 25 Turkey designates the Kurdish YPG to be a threat due to its strong ties with the PKK On the other hand the US said that although they deem the PKK as a terrorist organisation the YPG is a distinct actor constituting one of the main allies of the US in its war against ISIL 26 Another debate was about the name of the safe zone While Turkey called the zone a safe zone from ISIS the Syrian regime and YPG the US however declared that they will only accept an ISIS free zone 27 Turkish military offensives editThird offensive edit Main article 2019 Turkish offensive into north eastern Syria On March 30 2018 Turkey s president Recep Tayyip Erdogan stated that Turkey had started preparations to clear northern Syria s Ayn al Arab Kobane Ras al Ain Tell Abyad and Al Hasakah regions from militants referring to the mainly Kurdish YPG forces up to the Iraqi border adding that it would also clear militants from Iraq this time referring to the Kurdish armed organisation PKK 28 On October 7 2019 the President of the United States ordered the withdrawal of US military troops stationed on the Syria Turkey border This withdrawal of military support was ordered by President Trump with the disapproval of the Pentagon and the US Intelligence community 29 30 The US president ordered the withdrawal of military troops under the premise that Turkey would not invade the region being held by Syrian Democratic Forces SDF 29 however Turkey attacked the SDF within two days of US military withdrawal from the region 31 Idlib offensive edit Main article Operation Spring Shield A cross border military operation began on 27 February 2020 by the Turkish Armed Forces TSK against the Syrian Armed Forces and allied militias in the Idlib Governorate of northwestern Syria 32 in response to the Balyun airstrikes which lead to the deaths of 34 Turkish military servicemen 33 34 Turkish Defense Minister Hulusi Akar said that the purpose of the operation had been within the framework of the Astana talks to ensure a ceasefire agreement in the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone and to prevent migration from Idlib towards the Turkish border On 5 March Turkey and Russia signed a ceasefire agreement in Moscow 35 Possible fourth offensive edit In May 2022 Turkish and opposition Syrian officials said that Turkey s Armed Forces and the Syrian National Army are planning a new operation against the SDF composed mostly of the YPG YPJ 36 37 The new operation is set to resume efforts to create 30 kilometer 18 6 mile wide safe zones along Turkey s border with Syria President Erdogan said in a statement 38 The operation aims at the Tal Rifaat and Manbij regions west of the Euphrates and other areas further east Meanwhile Ankara is in talks with Moscow over the operation President Erdogan reiterated his determination for the operation on August 8 2022 39 needs update Geography editThe territory of the Turkish occupied region is located within the northern areas of Aleppo Raqqa and Hasakah governorates On 26 February 2018 the territory connected with the mostly rebel held Idlib Governorate 40 The Syrian National Army captured an area of 2 225 square kilometres during Operation Euphrates Shield 41 Areas captured during the operation included villages between Azaz and al Rai such as Kafr Kalbin Kafrah Sawran Ihtaimlat Dabiq Turkman Bareh Kafr Elward Ghoz Ghaytun Akhtarin Baruza Tall Tanah Kaljibrin Qebbet al Turkmen Ghandoura Arab Hassan Sabghir Mahsenli Qabasin and Halwanji Following Operation Olive Branch Syrian National Army extended the region with the capture of the entire Afrin District 42 In addition to its administrative centre Afrin the district includes settlements such as Bulbul Maabatli Rajo Jindires Sharran and Shaykh al Hadid According to the 2004 Syrian census the district had a population of 172 095 before the war 43 During Operation Peace Spring Turkish Armed Forces and its allies captured a total area of between 3 412 square kilometres 1 317 sq mi 44 and 4 220 square kilometres 1 630 sq mi 45 and 68 settlements including Ras al Ayn Tell Abyad Suluk Mabrouka and Manajir and cut the M4 highway 46 47 48 SNA forces captured 3 villages in the Manbij countryside shortly after the launch of the operation 49 There are further intentions by the Turkish government to include the areas captured by the Syrian Democratic Forces during their offensive west of the Euphrates into the safe zone which includes settlements such as Manbij and Arima 50 51 Demographics editNorthern Syria including the Turkish controlled region has historically been ethnically highly diverse inhabited predominately by Arabs Kurds Turkmens Yazidis and Circassians 52 53 As of 2020 Arabs constituted a majority in the Turkish controlled areas 54 Before the Turkish occupation the al Bab area had an Arab majority while the Afrin area had a Kurdish majority 54 55 56 Tell Abyad was mostly Arab 57 while Ras al Ayn was dominated by Kurds 58 However all these areas were strongly affected by refugee shifts and population movement due to the civil war making accurate demographic estimates difficult 55 59 Great numbers of Syrian refugees moved voluntarily or involuntarily into these areas after the Turkish intervention 54 59 The population of the Turkish dominated territories is generally Muslim with the Euphrates Shield zone as well as Tell Abyad being deeply conservative in regards to religion 54 There were some Christian communities in the later Turkish occupied areas A small Evangelical Christian community existed in Afrin while Christians mostly Syrian Armenians and Assyrians lived in Tell Abyad and Ras al Ayn These Christians generally fled in advance for fear of reprisal 60 61 Ethnic cleansing and kidnapping of women edit Further information Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war and Turkish war crimes After the Turkish led forces had captured Afrin District Afrin Canton in early 2018 they began to implement a resettlement policy by moving their mostly Arab fighters 62 and refugees from southern Syria 63 into the empty homes that belonged to displaced locals 64 The previous owners most of them Kurds or Yazidis were often prevented from returning to Afrin 62 63 Though some Kurdish militias of the SNA and the Turkish backed civilian councils opposed these resettlement policies most SNA units fully supported them 63 Refugees from Eastern Ghouta Damascus said that they were part of an organised demographic change which was said to replace the Kurdish population of Afrin with an Arab majority 62 More than 200 000 people fled from Afrin District during the Turkish intervention by March 2018 65 while 458 000 displaced persons from other parts of Syria were settled in Afrin following the Turkish intervention 66 A report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic 67 submitted to the UN Human Rights Council pursuant to its resolution 43 28 for consideration at the 45th session of the Human Rights Council commencing 14 September 2020 the Independent International Commission presents evidence of numerous human rights abuses against civilian population and especially Kurdish civilian population by the Turkish state and non state factions such as the Syrian National Army acting as de facto agents of Turkey In paragraph 47 the Report addresses looting and property appropriation noting that t hroughout the Afrin region multiple accounts indicate that the property of Kurdish owners was looted and appropriated by Syrian National Army members in a coordinated manner For example in September 2019 civilians in the Shaykh al Hadid subdistrict of the Afrin region described how members of Division 14 Brigade 142 the Suleiman Shah Brigade of the Syrian National Army had gone from door to door instructing Kurdish families with fewer than three members to vacate their houses to accommodate individuals arriving from outside of Afrin It was reported that Yazidi and other Kurdish women and girls have been kidnapped by the SNA since the occupation of Afrin began in early 2018 either for ransom rape forced marriage or because of perceived links to the Democratic Union Party 68 69 It was alleged that many of them were later killed 70 71 This activity has been interpreted as part of an Islamist policy of discouraging women from leaving their homes and to remove them from the civic activity they had been encouraged to take part in under the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria 70 as well as part of a broader plan to discourage the return of Yazidi and other Kurdish refugees who fled Afrin in 2018 72 73 Population centres edit This list includes some of the largest cities and towns in the region nbsp Mosque in AzazEnglish Name Arabic Name Kurdish Name Turkish NameAzaz أعزاز AzezAfrin عفرين Efrin AfrinJarabulus جرابلس CerablusAkhtarin أخترين AktarinTell Abyad تل أبيض Gire Spi Tel Abyadal Bab الباب El BabRas al Ayn رأس العين Sere Kaniye ResulaynSawran صوران SoranBizaah بزاعة BizzaQabasin قباسين Qebasin BaskoyMare مارع MarePolitics and administration editFurther information Syrian Interim Government The occupation zone is formally governed by the Syrian Interim Government an alternative government of the Syrian opposition based in Azaz 5 Despite this the area is governed by a number of autonomous local councils which work closely with Turkey 74 75 These councils operate as a Turkish European style government 4 In general Turkey exerts a direct influence on the region s government 76 and Turkish civilian officials such as governors have been appointed to oversee the area 4 77 Turkish officials mostly act as advisors allowing the councils to run the day to day government and collect their own taxes 4 Overall Turkey is in the process of forming a proto state in northern Syria 12 and regional expert Joshua Landis has said that the country is prepared to in a sense quasi annex this region to prevent it from being retaken by the Syrian government 1 Turkish Minister of the Interior Suleyman Soylu declared in January 2019 that northern Syria is part of the Turkish homeland per the Misak i Milli of 1920 77 nbsp Since the start of its intervention in Syria Turkey has striven to rebuild destroyed areas under its control pictured devastated neighborhood of al Bab and restore civil society 78 Since the establishment of the occupation zone the Turkish authorities have striven to restore civil society in the areas under their control 78 and to also bind the region more closely to Turkey 6 2 79 As part of these efforts towns and villages have been demilitarized by dismantling military checkpoints and moving the local militias to barracks and camps outside areas populated by civilians 78 However some members of the military remain influential in the governance of the zone for example Hamza Division commander Sayf Balud serves as de facto military governor of al Bab since 2017 80 Turkey also funds education and health services supports the region s economy and has trained a new police force 2 79 It has constructed a new hospital in al Bab 4 Some locals describe these developments as Turkification of the region However many locals have accepted or even welcomed this as they said that the area is better off economically politically and socially under a Turkish protectorate 1 4 The White Helmets volunteers entered Afrin region after Turkey occupied the area 81 For Turkish officials restoring order and improving the situation in northern Syria was a justice of fraternity stemming from Ottoman times as one deputy governor explained 4 The presence of Turkish soldiers prevents a Syrian government offensive into the area 82 Local government edit Following the conquest of Afrin District civilian councils were appointed to govern and rebuild the area 74 A temporary council was organised by the Turkish backed Syrian Kurds Independent Association in March 2018 to oversee aid education and media in the area 83 It was later replaced by an interim council that was appointed in Afrin city on 12 April 84 85 The latter council appointed by city elders included eleven Kurds eight Arabs and one Turkmen While Zuheyr Haydar a Kurdish representative who was appointed to serve as president of the council stated that a more democratic election would take place if displaced citizens return this has yet to take place PYD officials have criticized the council and said it was working with an occupying force 86 On 19 April 2018 a local council was appointed in Jindires 87 During Operation Peace Spring similar appointed councils were established in Tell Abyad 88 and Ras al Ayn 89 Turkish backed administrators have refused to register people with Kurdish names and insist that Christian and other minority women wear an Islamic veil before being issued documents 90 An August 2020 US Department of Defense report criticised Turkey and the SNA for arbitrary detentions extra judicial killings seizure and resettlement of new populations in private properties and the repeated and deliberate shutting off of water access to half a million civilians 91 Military edit Main article Syrian National Army nbsp Fighters of the Syrian National Army in 2016On 30 May 2017 92 the Syrian National Army composed of Syrian Arabs and Syrian Turkmen rebels operating in northern Syria was formed mostly being a part of Operation Euphrates Shield or groups active in the area that are allied to the groups participating in the operation 93 The general aim of the group is to assist Turkey in creating a safe zone in Syria and to establish a National Army which will operate in the land gained as a result of Turkish military intervention 94 and answer to the Syrian Interim Government 78 By August 2018 the SNA was stated to be an organized military bloc that had largely overcome the chronic factionalism which had traditionally affected the Syrian rebels Military colleges had been set up and training as well as discipline had been improved 79 Though clashes and inter unit violence still happened 75 12 4 they were no longer as serious as in the past A military court had been established in al Bab a military police was organized to oversee discipline 79 12 and local civilian authorities were given more power over the militant groups Nevertheless most militias have attempted to maintain their autonomy to some degree with the Interim Government having little actual control over them To achieve the formation of a new national army without risking a mutiny Turkey has applied soft pressure on the different groups while punishing only the most independent minded and disloyal among them 12 The FSA units in the zone have accepted the Istanbul based Syrian Islamic Council as religious authority 78 SNA fighters are paid salaries by the Turkish government though the falling value of Turkish lira began to cause resentment among the SNA by mid 2018 One fighter said that when the Turkish lira began to lose value against the Syrian pound our salaries became worthless 2 nbsp Turkish and U S soldiers conduct the joint patrol outside Manbij 1 November 2018By July 2018 the Turkish Armed Forces TAF have built at least six military bases in the zone raising concerns that the TAF may be settling in for a long term presence in northern Syria 76 Toponymic Turkification edit After the establishment of Turkish control in the region a number of streets squares and villages have been renamed Examples are the villages Kastal Mekdad Kutana and the city of Ra i which are officially called Selcuk obasi Zafer obasi and Cobanbey The Saraya Square in Afrin bears the name Erdogan Square Signs with both Turkish and Arabic name stress the former with a bigger font 95 Law enforcement editTurkey has organized a new law enforcement authority in the zone in early 2017 the Free Police which is divided into the National Police and Public Security Forces The Free Police includes both male as well as female officers 96 It is trained equipped and paid by Turkish authorities 96 and consequently loyal to the Turkish state 97 98 The National Police headed by Maj Gen Abdul Razzaq Aslan is further divided into the Civil Police Force and the Special Forces Most of the police members are trained in the Turkish National Police Academy 79 To maintain security in Afrin District Turkey has also employed former members of the Free East Ghouta Police who had relocated to northern Syria after the end of the Siege of Eastern Ghouta 99 In addition Turkey has established several courts in the zone which employ Syrian judges and follow Syria s judicial code while being overseen and supported by Turkish judges and prosecutors A special terrorism court was established in Azaz while a correction facility was organized in al Bab 4 Economy editThis section needs expansion You can help by adding to it July 2018 By July 2018 Turkey was playing an increasingly prominent and contentious role in the region s local economy 76 It invested heavily in the zone providing work opportunities and helping to rebuild the economy Turkish led development projects restored infrastructure such as dams electricity and roads 79 Turkish private companies such as PTT 6 Turk Telekom the Independent Industrialists and Businessmen Association and ET Energy launched projects in the area as did a number of Syrian firms and businessmen 79 One problematic result of Turkey s economic influence was that the country s currency and debt crisis has also affected the zone as Turkey pays salaries and services with Turkish lira whose value greatly dropped in course of 2018 harming the local economy 2 79 Tourism edit Further information Tourism in Syria As result of the Turkish led invasion Afrin s tourism sector which had survived the civil war up to that point collapsed After open combat between the SDF and pro Turkish forces had mostly concluded Turkey attempted to restabilize the region and revive local tourism It removed the tight control over visitors and passers that had previously existed under the PYD led administration and the new local councils and the Free Police attempted to provide stability and incentives for tourists to return By July 2018 these measures began to have an effect with some visitors coming to Afrin s popular recreational areas such as Maydanki Lake 100 Education editTurkey has taken full control over the educational process in the zone 79 and funds all education services 2 Thousands of teachers in the zone are paid by Turkey 4 Several schools have been restored or newly built with their curricula partially adjusted to education in Turkey Though the curricula of the Syrian Ministry of Education still provide the basis certain parts have been modified to fit the Turkish point of view in regard to history for example replacing Ottoman occupation with Ottoman rule 79 Turkish is taught as foreign language since first class and those who attend schools in the occupation zones can subsequently attend universities in Turkey 6 1 79 Reactions to the occupation editThis section needs expansion You can help by adding to it April 2018 Reactions within Syria edit The Syrian government under Bashar al Assad has criticized Turkish presence in Northern Syria on multiple occasions and called for their withdrawal 101 102 103 104 105 106 nbsp SDF controlled territory green and Turkish controlled territory red in October 2019Syrian Opposition groups have expressed mixed but generally positive opinions over the Turkish offensives The Syrian Opposition Coalition expressed support for Turkish intervention and called for Turkey to help the Free Syrian Army launch offensives in the region 107 Other Opposition groups such as Syria s Tomorrow Movement have condemned the intervention 108 nbsp Democratic Federation of Northern Syria On 26 August 2016 the Shahba region civilian council condemned the occupation of Jarabulus as a Turkish attempt to expand into Syria likening it to the Battle of Marj Dabiq and suggesting that Jarabulus would become a grave for the criminal occupier Erdogan and his mercenaries 109 nbsp Kurdish National Council On 20 April 2018 the ENKS has called for the expulsion of Turkish forces from Afrin 110 On 2 July 2019 ENKS voiced its support for the establishment of an ethnically diverse local council in Afrin 111 Democratic Conservative Party On 28 May 2019 the Democratic Conservative Party condemned the occupation stating that Turkey was attempting to annex Afrin 112 International reaction edit nbsp Azerbaijan On 20 September 2016 Qenire Pasayeva member of parliament said that Turkey would have an obligation to protect the civilians in northern Syria from terror groups and would have the right to protect itself from the attacks originating from Syria with the intervention 113 nbsp China On October 29 2021 China s Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations Ambassador Geng Shuang said Since Turkey illegally invaded northeastern Syria it has repeatedly cut off the water supply service from the Alouk water station 114 Also stating China urges Turkey to abide by the international law including international humanitarian law protect civilians maintain infrastructure operations and guarantee humanitarian access for the UN 115 nbsp Cyprus On 9 September 2016 the Cyprus House of Representatives unanimously adopted a resolution condemning the unacceptable invasion of Turkey into Syria under the pretext of war against terrorism It also called on the international community to demand Turkey s withdrawal from Syria 116 nbsp EU On 14 October 2019 following Turkeys offensive the Council of the European Union released a press statement condemning Turkey s military action and called for Turkey to cease its unilateral military action in north eastern Syria It again recalled previous made statements by member states to halt arms exports licensing to Turkey and also recalled that it would not provide stabilisation or development assistance where the rights of local populations are ignored or violated 117 118 nbsp France On March 30 2018 Macron assured the SDF of France s support for the stabilization of the security zone in the north east of Syria within the framework of an inclusive and balanced governance to prevent any resurgence of Islamic State 119 nbsp Iran On 31 August 2016 Iranian foreign ministry spokesman Bahram Ghasemi urged Ankara to quickly wrap up its military intervention in Syria saying it was an unacceptable violation of Syrian sovereignty 120 nbsp Spain On 14 October 2019 the Spanish Foreign Minister Josep Borrell Fontelles also High Representative of European Union Foreign Affairs and Security Policy in an interview stated that the 28 European member states have unanimously decided to condemn in strong terms what in the end is a military attack 121 Agreeing to also limit arms exports over its offensive in northern Syria which Turkey fully rejected and condemned the decisions made by the EU regarding the issue 122 nbsp United States of America On October 7 2021 President Joe Biden s announcement stated The situation in and in relation to Syria and in particular the actions by the Government of Turkey to conduct a military offensive into northeast Syria undermines the campaign to defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria or ISIS endangers civilians and further threatens to undermine the peace security and stability in the region and continues to pose an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States thus extending the national emergency powers in Syria by another year 123 See also edit nbsp Turkey portal nbsp Asia portalHatay Province Sanjak of AlexandrettaReferences edit a b c d Madeline Edwards 6 August 2018 As Syria s proxies converge on Idlib what s next for Turkey s northern state within a state SYRIA direct and Konrad Adenauer Foundation Archived from the original on 16 August 2018 Retrieved 16 August 2018 a b c d e f g Khalil Ashawi 28 August 2018 Falling lira hits Syrian enclave backed by Turkey Reuters Archived from the original on 31 August 2018 Retrieved 31 August 2018 ANF 29 March 2019 ID cards of civilians replaced with Turkish ID cards in Afrin Ajansa Nuceyan a Firate ANF News Archived from the original on 1 April 2019 Retrieved 1 April 2019 a b c d e f g h i j k Sarah El Deeb 19 June 2018 Blurring the border Turkey deepens roots in northern Syria AP News Retrieved 6 October 2020 a b Turkey s Idlib Incursion and the HTS Question Understanding the Long Game in Syria War on the Rocks October 31 2017 Archived from the original on June 4 2019 Retrieved April 12 2018 a b c d Sydow Christoph 14 October 2017 Syrien Willkommen in der turkischen Besatzungszone Syria Welcome to the Turkish occupation zone Spiegel Online Archived from the original on 28 December 2017 Retrieved 2 January 2018 30 يوما من نبع السلام قسد تخسر نصف مساحة سيطرتها تقريبا وروسيا و النظام لاعب جديد في الشمال السوري وانتهاكات الفصائل التركية تجبر المدنيين على الفرار وأكثر من 870 شهيدا وقتيلا وأوضاع إنسانية وصحية كارثية تهدد المنطقة 9 November 2019 Archived from the original on 2019 11 09 Retrieved 2019 11 09 Firat Kalkani Harekatinin 216 gunluk bilancosu 30 March 2017 Archived from the original on 2019 11 09 Retrieved 2019 11 09 Bozdag Turkiye nin Afrin de isi bitmemistir Politika haberleri 26 March 2018 Archived from the original on 2019 11 09 Retrieved 2019 11 09 Sirwan Kajjo 2 March 2017 Skirmishes Mar Fight Against IS in Northern Syria Voice of America Archived from the original on 13 April 2017 Retrieved 13 April 2017 Turkish occupation is an existential threat to the Assad government s ability to reclaim the entirety of its territory which is a key argument that regime loyalists make in their support of Bashar al Assad s government Heras said Robert Fisk 29 March 2017 In northern Syria defeated Isis fighters leave behind only scorched earth trenches and a crucifixion stand The Independent Archived from the original on 28 July 2017 Retrieved 17 September 2017 You can t mistake the front line between the Syrian army and Turkey s occupation force east of Aleppo a b c d e Haid Haid 2 November 2018 Turkey s Gradual Efforts to Professionalize Syrian Allies Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Archived from the original on 20 November 2018 Retrieved 19 November 2018 Safe zone crucial for Turkmen in Syria www aa com tr Archived from the original on 2019 10 07 Retrieved 2019 10 10 Rudaw 2020 04 20 Afrin Syria Kurdish population more than halved since 2018 Turkish invasion genocidewatch Retrieved 2021 11 04 NYT accused of whitewashing Turkey s Afrin occupation The Jerusalem Post JPost com Retrieved 2021 11 04 Nothing is ours anymore Kurds forced out of Afrin after Turkish assault the Guardian 2018 06 07 Retrieved 2021 11 04 Iddon Paul 2020 03 19 Turkey s actions in Syria s Afrin amount to ethnic cleansing Kurdish analysts Ahval Retrieved 2021 11 04 Suriyeli muhalifler Antalya da bulusuyor CNN Turk 31 May 2011 Retrieved 7 December 2022 Turkey PM will support Syria no fly zone Archived from the original on 1 August 2016 Retrieved 31 May 2016 Syrian opposition calls for no fly zone Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 31 May 2016 Tisdall Simon 27 July 2015 Syrian safe zone US relents to Turkish demands after border crisis grows TheGuardian com Archived from the original on 5 May 2016 Retrieved 31 May 2016 DIPLOMACY US and Turkey agree to forge ISIL free zone in Syria official confirms 29 July 2015 Archived from the original on 22 July 2016 Retrieved 31 May 2016 Solution to refugee crisis is to end Syria s civil war UN official says The Globe and Mail Archived from the original on 10 April 2017 Retrieved 31 May 2016 Wintour Patrick 16 February 2016 Turkey revives plan for safe zone in Syria to stem flow of refugees TheGuardian com Archived from the original on 17 May 2016 Retrieved 31 May 2016 National Security Zone Archived from the original on 25 September 2015 Retrieved 31 May 2016 Fight against IS helps PKK gain global legitimacy Al Monitor the Pulse of the Middle East 16 September 2014 Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 31 May 2016 U S denies reaching agreement with Turkey on Syria safe zone Reuters 11 August 2015 Archived from the original on 12 March 2016 Retrieved 31 May 2016 Turkey Started Preparations for Further Operations in Northern Syria Erdogan New York Times March 30th 2018 The New York Times Archived from the original on 2018 03 31 Retrieved 2018 03 31 a b US begins troop withdrawal from northeastern Syria ahead of Turkish offensive Deutsche Welle 7 October 2019 Retrieved 2021 07 30 Barnes Julian E Schmitt Eric 2019 10 13 Trump Orders Withdrawal of U S Troops From Northern Syria The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2021 07 30 Turkey unleashes airstrikes against Kurds in north east Syria the Guardian 2019 10 09 Retrieved 2021 07 30 Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against regime aggression in Syria Istanbul Daily Sabah 2020 03 01 Amberin Zaman 2020 03 01 Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against Syrian forces Al Monitor Joe Truzman 2020 03 05 Turkey s Operation Spring Shield delivers blow to Hezbollah Longwarjournal org Rusya dan Idlib aciklamasi Ateskes duzenlemesine genel olarak uyuluyor in Turkish Ankara Milliyet 2020 03 12 Turkey planned Syria military operation after Russia withdrawal sources reveal Middle East Monitor 2022 06 05 Retrieved 2022 06 08 Syria US backed SDF open to working with Syrian troops to fight off Turkey invasion Middle East Eye Retrieved 2022 06 08 Agencies 2022 06 07 Russian regime forces boosted after Turkey signals Syria operation Daily Sabah Retrieved 2022 06 08 President Erdogan reiterates determination for Syria operation Turkiye News Hurriyet Daily News 8 August 2022 Retrieved 2022 08 09 Turkey reconnects opposition held areas in northern Syria Turkey News Hurriyet Daily News 27 February 2018 Archived from the original on 2018 09 19 Retrieved 2018 04 12 El Bab kontrol altina alinmistir Al Jazeera Turk Ortadogu Kafkasya Balkanlar Turkiye ve cevresindeki bolgeden son dakika haberleri ve analizler 3 May 2017 Archived from the original on 2018 10 09 Retrieved 2018 04 12 Turkey takes full control of Syria s Afrin region reports say Middle East Eye Archived from the original on 2019 10 14 Retrieved 2018 04 12 General Census of Population and Housing 2004 PDF in Arabic Syrian Central Bureau of Statistics Archived from the original PDF on 8 December 2015 Retrieved 15 October 2015 Also available in English 2004 Census Data UN OCHA Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 Retrieved 15 October 2015 The Turkish forces and the factions advance and take control of about 10 villages in Abu Rasin area Zarkan amid the continuation of fierce clashes against the regime forces and tens of casualties and wounded in the ranks of both parties 29 October 2019 Archived from the original on 7 December 2019 Retrieved 2 November 2019 YPG PKK terror group as dangerous as Daesh Erdogan Archived from the original on 2019 10 26 Retrieved 2019 11 02 8 days of Operation Peace Spring Turkey controls 68 areas Ras al Ain under siege and 416 dead among the SDF Turkish forces and Turkish backed factions 17 October 2019 Archived from the original on 20 December 2019 Retrieved 2 November 2019 القوات التركية والفصائل تحاصر مدينة رأس العين سري كانييه بشكل كامل ولا صحة لسيطرة النظام السوري على سجون قوات سوريا الديمقراطية ضمن المناطق التي انتشرت بها SOHR in Arabic 17 October 2019 قوات سوريا الديمقراطية تنسحب من كامل مدينة رأس العين سري كانييه المرصد السوري لحقوق الإنسان 20 October 2019 Archived from the original on 26 October 2019 Retrieved 2 November 2019 Menbic e operasyon basladi 3 koy YPG den temizlendi Yeni Safak 14 October 2019 Archived from the original on 10 November 2019 Retrieved 2 November 2019 EU Concerned Over Politicians Detention in Turkey Washington Post Archived from the original on 2018 12 03 Retrieved 2017 04 10 Turkey says will take action if militants do not leave Syria s Manbij Reuters March 28 2018 Archived from the original on October 10 2019 Retrieved October 10 2019 via www reuters com Morton 2020 pp 122 123 167 Vanly 1992 p 116 a b c d Asli Aydintasbas 28 May 2020 A new Gaza Turkey s border policy in northern Syria Retrieved 10 February 2021 a b Khayrallah al Hilu 2019 Afrin Under Turkish Control Political Economic and Social Transformations PDF Retrieved 10 February 2021 Adar Sinem Stiftung Wissenschaft Und Politik 1 January 2020 Repatriation to Turkey s Safe Zone in Northeast Syria SWP Comment doi 10 18449 2020C01 Retrieved 10 February 2021 Fabrice Balanche 21 December 2018 The district s ethnic composition and wartime migrations make it the weakest point of the YPG defense system and the most likely entryway for Turkish troops and their proxies Retrieved 10 February 2021 Tessa Fox 19 December 2019 Who Exactly Is Turkey Resettling in Syria Retrieved 10 February 2021 a b Ferhat Gurini 26 February 2019 Turkey s Lack of Vision in Syria Retrieved 10 February 2021 Sam Sweeney 31 October 2019 As Turkey Invades Northeast Syria Christians There Are on the Brink National Review Retrieved 18 March 2022 Tom Gjelten 9 October 2019 Christian Leaders Say Turkish Invasion Of Syria Raises Risk Of Genocide NPR org Retrieved 10 February 2021 a b c Patrick Cockburn 18 April 2018 Yazidis who suffered under Isis face forced conversion to Islam amid fresh persecution in Afrin The Independent Archived from the original on 13 June 2019 Retrieved 23 August 2018 a b c Ammar Hamou Barrett Limoges 1 May 2018 Seizing lands from Afrin s displaced Kurds Turkish backed militias offer houses to East Ghouta families SYRIA direct Archived from the original on 13 April 2019 Retrieved 23 August 2018 Syria s war of ethnic cleansing Kurds threatened with beheading by Turkey s allies if they don t convert to extremism The Independent 12 March 2018 Archived from the original on 5 June 2019 Retrieved 16 December 2018 More than 200 000 people fled Syria s Afrin have no shelter Kurdish official Archived 2018 11 25 at the Wayback Machine Reuters 19 March 2018 Afrin Kurdish population more than halved since 2018 offensive says rights group Rudaw 20 April 2020 Retrieved 6 May 2020 https undocs org en A HRC 45 31 Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic 2020 Hagedorn Elizabeth June 2 2020 An insult to women everywhere Afrin kidnappings prompt calls for investigation of Turkey backed rebels Al Monitor Abuses against Kurdish women in Afrin under Turkish Parliament radar Syrians for Truth amp Justice 31 December 2020 a b Kurdish woman reportedly murdered in Turkish occupied Afrin The Jerusalem Post JPost com Rights Groups Concerned About Continued Abuses in Afrin Voice of America English www voanews com 10 June 2020 Patrick Cockburn Erdogan s ethnic cleansing of the Kurds is still happening now and we have Trump to thank The Independent November 15 2019 The looming genocide against the Kurds history should not repeat itself openDemocracy a b Aymenn Jawad Al Tamimi 23 August 2018 In Syria It s Either Reconciliation or Annexation The American Spectator Archived from the original on 26 August 2018 Retrieved 26 August 2018 a b Borzou Daragahi 13 July 2018 Turkey Has Made a Quagmire for Itself in Syria Foreign Policy Archived from the original on 10 April 2019 Retrieved 28 July 2018 a b c Barrett Limoges Justin Clark Avery Edelman 29 July 2018 What s next for post Islamic State Syria A month long reporting series from Syria Direct Syria Direct Konrad Adenauer Foundation Archived from the original on 29 July 2018 Retrieved 30 July 2018 a b Rawa Barwari 13 January 2019 Turkish sub governor found dead at office in Syria s occupied Jarabulus Kurdistan24 Archived from the original on 14 January 2019 Retrieved 14 January 2019 a b c d e Khaled al Khateb 12 September 2017 FSA relocating to outside Syria s liberated areas al Monitor Archived from the original on 3 January 2018 Retrieved 2 January 2018 a b c d e f g h i j k Enab Baladi s Investigation Team 29 August 2018 From Afrin to Jarabulus A small replica of Turkey in the north Enab Baladi Archived from the original on 31 August 2018 Retrieved 31 August 2018 Heras 2018 pp 14 15 White Helmets return to Afrin to mixed reception Kurdistan 24 26 August 2018 Archived from the original on 5 November 2019 Retrieved 5 November 2019 Carlotta Gall 16 February 2021 In Turkey s Safe Zone in Syria Security and Misery Go Hand in Hand New York Times Retrieved 16 February 2021 Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim Alice Al Maleh Tariq Adely 26 March 2018 Interim governing council formed to tackle disaster in Afrin after Turkish backed offensive SYRIA direct Archived from the original on 24 August 2018 Retrieved 23 August 2018 Interim local council established in Syria s Afrin www aa com tr Archived from the original on 2019 10 10 Retrieved 2019 10 10 Interim local council established in Syria s Afrin World News Hurriyet Daily News 12 April 2018 Archived from the original on 2018 09 06 Retrieved 2018 04 12 Kajjo Sirwan 11 April 2018 Turkey backed council is to take over Afrin suspicion abound Ahval Archived from the original on 2018 06 16 Retrieved 2018 04 12 Cinderes te yerel meclis olusturuldu Timeturk com Archived from the original on 2018 11 18 Retrieved 2018 04 20 Local council set up in terror free Tal Abyad in Syria World News 28 October 2019 Archived from the original on 2019 11 05 Retrieved 2019 11 02 Syria Council set up in terror free Ras al Ayn Archived from the original on 2019 11 09 Retrieved 2019 11 09 Turkey s occupation of Syria slammed for ethnic cleansing The Jerusalem Post JPost com Lead Inspector General for Operation Inherent Resolve Quarterly Report to the United States Department of Defense Office of Inspector General Turkey backed opposition to form new army in northern Syria Archived from the original on 2017 07 04 Retrieved 2017 08 06 Kajjo Sirwan 25 August 2016 Who are the Turkey backed Syrian Rebels Voice of America Archived from the original on 19 February 2017 Retrieved 6 August 2017 Coskun Orhan Sezer Seda 19 September 2016 Turkey backed rebels could push further south in Syria Erdogan says Reuters Archived from the original on 29 July 2017 Retrieved 6 August 2017 Baker Rauf September 2021 When will Turkey annex Northern Syria Middle East Quarterly Fall 2021 Retrieved November 1 2021 a b Khaled al Khateb 1 December 2017 Women join opposition police forces in Aleppo s liberated areas al Monitor Archived from the original on 3 January 2018 Retrieved 2 January 2018 Stein Aaron Abouzahr Hossam Komar Rao 20 July 2017 How Turkey Is Governing in Northern Aleppo Syria Deeply Archived from the original on 14 September 2017 Retrieved 14 September 2017 Amberin Zaman 25 January 2017 Syria s new national security force pledges loyalty to Turkey al Monitor Retrieved 2 January 2018 Bahira al Zarier Justin Clark Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim Ammar Hamou 14 May 2018 Hidden explosives stunt movement frighten Afrin residents two months into pro Turkish rule SYRIA direct Archived from the original on 16 August 2018 Retrieved 16 August 2018 Khaled al Khateb 26 July 2018 Day trippers flock to Afrin s orchards as Aleppo restores security al Monitor Archived from the original on 29 July 2018 Retrieved 29 July 2018 Turkey sends tanks into Syria to battle ISIS 24 August 2016 Archived from the original on 2019 11 02 Retrieved 2019 11 02 Elements of pro government NDF militias 1 Archived 2019 10 29 at the Wayback Machine Syrian government demands Turkish troops leave Afrin Archived from the original on 2019 11 02 Retrieved 2019 11 02 Syria Turkish regime forces occupation of Afrin illegitimate act 19 March 2018 Archived from the original on 2018 03 20 Retrieved 2019 11 02 Syria expects Turkey to withdraw from its soil Ahval 6 April 2018 Archived from the original on 2018 04 07 Retrieved 2019 11 02 Virella Kelly 28 September 2019 Syria Demands Immediate Withdrawal of U S And Turkish Forces Again The New York Times Archived from the original on 2019 11 02 Retrieved 2019 11 02 SOC s President Calls on Turkey to Intervene alongside SNA to Force PYD from Tal Rifaat amp Manbij Syrian National Coalition Of Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces 2021 06 14 Retrieved 2021 10 19 admin 2021 06 17 After hostile statements a Syrian opponent movement suspends its dialogues with the coalition The Syrian Democratic Council Retrieved 2021 10 19 Kurdish backed council says Turkey s intervention to make Syrian town grave for Erdogan troops ARA News 26 August 2016 Archived from the original on 26 August 2016 ENKS urges int l protection for Afrin condemning PYD policy Archived from the original on 2019 02 23 Retrieved 2018 04 20 Syrian Kurds welcome multi ethnic Afrin local council www aa com tr Archived from the original on 2019 07 02 Retrieved 2019 10 10 Akram Mahshoush Partition wall aims to erase Kurdish identity settle mercenaries Hawar News Agency 28 May 2019 Archived from the original on 25 September 2019 Retrieved 25 September 2019 Azerbayjan Milletvekili Pasayeva Milliyet Haber 3 September 2016 Archived from the original on 2016 10 21 Retrieved 2016 09 20 English Duvar 2021 10 29 China accuses Turkey of invading northeastern Syria www duvarenglish com in Turkish Retrieved 2021 11 02 China says Turkey s military operations in northeast Syria are illegal www kurdistan24 net Retrieved 2021 11 02 Cyprus House condemns Turkey s invasion of Syria Famagusta Gazette 9 September 2016 Archived from the original on 10 September 2016 Retrieved 10 September 2016 North East Syria Council adopts conclusions www consilium europa eu Retrieved 2021 11 07 Foreign Affairs Council 14 October 2019 www consilium europa eu Retrieved 2021 11 07 France s Macron Vows Support for Northern Syrians Kurdish Militia New York Times March 30th 2018 The New York Times Archived from the original on 2018 03 31 Retrieved 2018 03 31 Iran urges Turkey to quickly end Syria intervention France24 31 August 2016 Archived from the original on 31 August 2016 Retrieved 31 August 2016 Brzozowski Alexandra 2019 10 14 EU condemns Turkey s military action stops short of common arms embargo www euractiv com Retrieved 2021 11 07 EU governments limit arms sales to Turkey but avoid embargo Reuters 2019 10 14 Retrieved 2021 11 07 Notice on the Continuation of the National Emergency with Respect to the Situation in and in Relation to Syria The White House 2021 10 07 Retrieved 2021 11 03 Works cited edit Heras Nicholas November 2018 Turkey s Man in Syria Sayf Boulad Abu Bakr PDF Militant Leadership Monitor Washington D C Jamestown Foundation 9 11 11 16 Morton Nicholas 2020 The Crusader States and their Neighbours A Military History 1099 1187 Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0198824541 relevant Vanly Ismet Cheriff 1992 The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon In Philip G Kreyenbroek Stefan Sperl eds The Kurds A Contemporary Overview New York City London Routledge pp 112 134 ISBN 978 0 415 96691 7 Further reading editBagheri Saeed 2023 Turkey s Extraterritorial Use of Force against Armed Non State Actors Israel Law Review 56 2 143 170 doi 10 1017 S0021223722000243 ISSN 0021 2237 S2CID 257868157 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Turkish occupation of northern Syria amp oldid 1207226491, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.