The Dalles, Oregon
The Dalles (/ˈdælz/), formally the City of The Dalles and also called Dalles City, is an inland port and the largest city in Wasco County, Oregon, United States. The population was 16,010 at the 2020 census, and it is the largest city in Oregon along the Columbia River outside the Portland Metropolitan Area. The Dalles is 75 miles (121 km) east of Portland, within the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area.
The Dalles | |
|---|---|
| City of the Dalles | |
The Dalles and the Columbia River in November 2008 | |
Flag Seal | |
| Motto(s): "Cognito timor Vincit" (Latin), "Knowledge Conquers Fear" (English) | |
Location in Oregon | |
| Coordinates: 45°36′06″N 121°10′30″W / 45.60167°N 121.17500°W | |
| County | Wasco County |
| Incorporated | 1857 |
| Government | |
| • Mayor | Richard Mays[citation needed] |
| Area | |
| • City | 6.94 sq mi (17.98 km2) |
| • Land | 6.66 sq mi (17.25 km2) |
| • Water | 0.28 sq mi (0.72 km2) |
| Elevation | 243 ft (74 m) |
| Population | |
| • City | 16,010 |
| • Density | 2,403.54/sq mi (927.99/km2) |
| • Metro | 26,403 |
| Time zone | UTC−8 (PST) |
| • Summer (DST) | UTC−7 (PDT) |
| ZIP code | 97058 |
| Area code(s) | 458 and 541 |
| FIPS code | 41-72950 |
| GNIS feature ID | 2412059[2] |
| Website | City of The Dalles |
History edit
The area around The Dalles is known to have been a trading center for Native Americans as long as 10,000 years ago and is thus one of the oldest inhabited places in North America.
The site of what is now the city of The Dalles was a major Native American trading center. The general area is one of the continent's most significant archaeological regions.[4] Lewis and Clark camped near Mill Creek on October 25–27, 1805, and recorded the Indian name for the creek as Quenett.
Etymology edit
The name of the city comes from the French word dalle, meaning either "sluice", akin to English "dale" and German T[h]al, "valley", or "flagstone", referring to the columnar basalt rocks carved by the river[5][6] (in voyageur French used to refer to rapids), which was used by the French-Canadian employees of the North West Company to refer to the rapids of the Columbia River between the present-day city and Celilo Falls. Also in the same area was the Petites Dalles or Little Dalles, or Short Narrows. In French, "les dalles" means "the slabs". When a river flows over hard flat rocks, it becomes shallow, and rapids are created.
Fur trade edit
The first use of the name Dalles, according to Oregon Geographic Names, appears in fur trader Gabriel Franchère's Narrative, on April 12, 1814, referring to the long series of major rapids in the river.[6] Starting in the 1810s, Americans and Europeans passed by what became The Dalles, active in the North American fur trade as employees of either the American Pacific Fur Company (PFC) or the Canadian North West Company (NWC). Men like NWC officer David Thompson voyaged both down and up the Columbia, traveling through Celilo Falls. The War of 1812 led to the 1813 liquidation of the PFC, its properties like Fort Astoria sold to the North West Company.[7]
In 1821 the North West Company was absorbed by the giant London-based Hudson's Bay Company (HBC). Fort Vancouver, built in 1824, replaced Fort Astoria as the regional fur trade headquarters. The HBC's trading network made extensive use of the Columbia River. The rapids of the Columbia River at The Dalles was the largest and longest of the four "great portages", where fur trading boats had to unload and transship their cargoes. Sometimes, during high water, boats traveling downriver would "shoot the rapids" instead of portaging, although the practice was dangerous and many people died as a result over the years.[8]
Wascopam Mission edit
In 1838 a branch of Jason Lee's Methodist Mission was established at Celilo Falls, named the Wascopam Mission, after the native Wasco Indians.[9] In 1850 the U.S. Army founded a small post at the site of the old mission, being eventually named Fort Dalles. Fort Dalles became the nucleus of the town of The Dalles, which began to develop along the waterfront.[9] In 1855, at the end of the Cayuse War, the Indians living near The Dalles were forcibly relocated by the U.S. Army to the Warm Springs Indian Reservation.[9]
American settlement edit
In the early 1840s American settlers began to arrive in significant numbers, traveling overland via the Oregon Trail. The trail ended at The Dalles. It was not possible to take wagons farther west due to steep cliffs that fell straight into the Columbia River. Until the construction of the Barlow Road in 1846, the only way to reach Fort Vancouver and the Willamette Valley was by rafting down the river from The Dalles.[9]
A post office was established within the boundaries of the current city in 1851, and The Dalles was incorporated as a city in 1857. It has been the major commercial center between Portland and Pendleton since. The city was originally named just "Dalles". In 1853 it was changed to "Wascopum," then, in 1860, to "The Dalles".[4]
In 1864, the U.S. Congress appropriated money to build a U.S. mint in The Dalles that was to use gold from Canyon City for coinage. The supply of gold from Canyon City began to dwindle, however, and other problems, such as cost overruns, workers leaving to work the gold fields, and flooding from the Columbia River, also contributed to the project running two years behind schedule and led eventually to its demise. In 1870, the State of Oregon received the property from the U.S. Government and the building was put to other uses.[10] The mint is now home to Freebridge Brewing.[11][12]
Construction of The Dalles Dam in 1957 submerged the Long Narrows and Celilo Falls.
In 1963, Ken Kesey's novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest was published featuring the narrator, Chief, who is from The Dalles.[13]
In 1970, the Bonneville Power Administration opened the Celilo Converter Station near the northern terminus of the Pacific DC Intertie which sends 3,100 megawatts of electricity to Los Angeles.
In 1982, a curly-coated kitten was born on a farm in The Dalles owned by Linda and Dick Koehl. The Koehls used this kitten and her offspring to develop a new breed of cat called the LaPerm, which went on to become a popular, established, championship pedigree cat breed around the world.[14]
In 1984, The Dalles was the site of the first and single largest bioterrorism attack in United States history.
In 1986, Penalty Phase, a film starring Peter Strauss and Melissa Gilbert, was filmed in and around The Dalles.[15]
In 2018, Terry A. Davis, creator of the TempleOS operating system, walked from Portland, Oregon to The Dalles in three days via the Columbia River Gorge. There, he was struck by a train and died at the age of 48.[16]
Geography edit
Highways I-84, US 30, and US 197 meet in the city.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 20.61 square miles (53.38 km2), of which 20.35 square miles (52.71 km2) is land and 0.26 square miles (0.67 km2) is water.[17]
Climate edit
The Dalles is usually classified as a semiarid (Köppen BSk) climate region. However, it has some characteristics of the midlatitude oceanic climate that dominates west of the Cascade Mountains, combined with seasonal precipitation patterns very similar to those found in Mediterranean climates. The city's location in the eastern Columbia Gorge results in the presence of numerous microclimates within a few miles of town. To the immediate west, the winters are significantly wetter, and summers are significantly cooler. In contrast, upland locations to the south are significantly cooler in all seasons. The generally warm and dry summers near town make it the ideal climate for the numerous Bing cherry orchards in the area.
The summer season runs from mid-June through early September and is quite warm by Pacific Northwest standards; however, summer weather often oscillates between intense heat waves and much cooler and windier periods. Except for the occasional sporadic thunderstorm, there is almost no summer rainfall.
From late September through early November, the area experiences an abrupt autumn during which normal temperatures drop very rapidly and cloudy, wet weather quickly picks up. Prior to the sudden onset of the rainy season in mid- to late fall, there are often days with a very wide disparity between daytime and nighttime temperatures, sometimes exceeding 36 °F or 20 °C. There is far less wind in the fall than in spring and early summer, though passing frontal systems can still bring quick bouts of strong wind.
Winter is the wet season in The Dalles. Despite the rain shadow effect created by the Cascades, there is still enough precipitation most years to support relatively high soil moisture levels for most of the winter. This is a very similar pattern to what happens in classic Mediterranean climates – except that the temperatures are significantly colder. The area receives measurable snowfall virtually every year, but the snow totals fluctuate dramatically from one year to the next; some seasons see only one or two brief light snow events while others get major snowstorms and cumulative totals of 20 inches (0.51 m) or more. The most snowfall in a season has been 85.5 inches (2.17 m) between July 1949 and June 1950. Average winter temperatures are only about 3 to 5 °F (1.7 to 2.8 °C) colder than in cities such as Portland and Seattle, and temperatures below 0 °F or −17.8 °C are very rare, but not unheard of – historically occurring on three mornings out of every five winters, but only once since February 1996.
As in the summer, winter temperatures can vary tremendously from one day to the next. During arctic air events the daytime high temperatures will generally be well below 32 °F or 0 °C, while a strong subtropical push can raise temperatures into the 50s and low 60s F, even in January. It is quite common for relatively cold air to become trapped at low elevations due to an inversion above; depending on the temperature of the surface airmass, depth of the inversion layer, and temperatures above the inversion layer, this can result in snow, sleet, freezing rain or a very cold liquid rain.
Springtime conditions generally run from late February through early June, during which time the overall trend gradually becomes warmer and drier and the landscape briefly turns lush and green. This is the windiest season of all, with a powerful west wind on most afternoons. During stormy periods in spring, conditions are usually cloudy and cool, while most sunny and calm days become intensely warm, especially from April onward. Springtime temperatures often vary more from one week to the next than they do from one month to the next.
The growing season is roughly 200 days long in a typical year, generally running from early April through most of October. However, the spring frost dates can range from mid-March to early May, and the fall frost dates can range from late September to mid-November.
A weather station is located at nearby Columbia Gorge Regional Airport, also known as The Dalles Municipal Airport.
| Climate data for Columbia Gorge Regional Airport (1981–2010) (extremes 1948–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °F (°C) | 71 (22) | 69 (21) | 80 (27) | 95 (35) | 107 (42) | 118 (48) | 111 (44) | 110 (43) | 105 (41) | 93 (34) | 72 (22) | 66 (19) | 118 (48) |
| Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 42.2 (5.7) | 48.0 (8.9) | 57.0 (13.9) | 64.4 (18.0) | 72.9 (22.7) | 79.1 (26.2) | 87.5 (30.8) | 87.3 (30.7) | 80.1 (26.7) | 65.7 (18.7) | 50.0 (10.0) | 40.3 (4.6) | 64.5 (18.1) |
| Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 31.0 (−0.6) | 31.8 (−0.1) | 36.6 (2.6) | 41.5 (5.3) | 48.6 (9.2) | 54.8 (12.7) | 60.4 (15.8) | 59.5 (15.3) | 51.6 (10.9) | 42.3 (5.7) | 35.3 (1.8) | 30.2 (−1.0) | 43.6 (6.5) |
| Record low °F (°C) | −14 (−26) | −4 (−20) | 11 (−12) | 23 (−5) | 28 (−2) | 37 (3) | 40 (4) | 42 (6) | 29 (−2) | 15 (−9) | −1 (−18) | −5 (−21) | −14 (−26) |
| Average precipitation inches (mm) | 2.57 (65) | 1.6 (41) | 1.19 (30) | 0.65 (17) | 0.58 (15) | 0.41 (10) | 0.16 (4.1) | 0.23 (5.8) | 0.47 (12) | 0.99 (25) | 2.14 (54) | 2.73 (69) | 13.72 (347.9) |
| Average snowfall inches (cm) | 1.9 (4.8) | 0.8 (2.0) | 0.5 (1.3) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.0 (0.0) | trace | 0.5 (1.3) | 1.3 (3.3) | 4.8 (12) |
| Source: NOAA[18] | |||||||||||||
Economy edit
In 2006, Google began building a major data center, known locally as Project 02, along the Columbia River in The Dalles, using the area's reliable hydroelectric power and the underutilized fiber optic capacity of the area. The new complex includes two buildings, each approximately the size of a football field, and two cooling plants, each four stories high. The project promised hundreds of jobs in the area, mainly in construction, with an additional 200 permanent positions expected later in 2006 although as of 2013 Google employed only 150 combined company employees and contractors in The Dalles.[19][20][21]
Top employers edit
As of 2012, the top 15 employers in The Dalles according to the Mid-Columbia Economic Development District report on "Largest Employers in Wasco County" are:
| # | Employer | # of employees |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Adventist Health Columbia Gorge | 915 |
| 2 | North Wasco County School District | 360 |
| 3 | Oregon Cherry Growers | 275 |
| 4 | State of Oregon | 243 |
| 5 | Fred Meyer | 230 |
| 6 | Oregon Veteran's Home | 208 |
| 7 | Columbia Gorge Community College | 200 |
| 8 | Wasco County | 181 |
| 9 | 150 | |
| 10 | Safeway | 142 |
| 11 | U.S. Army Corps of Engineers | 125 |
| 12 | City of The Dalles | 100 |
| 13 | Home Depot | 100 |
| 14 | Cousin's Country Inn | 100 |
| 15 | Orchard View Farms | 90 |
Education edit
The Dalles is home to Oregon School District 21. Originally 2 school districts; District 9 in the Chenoweth area and District 12 which included much of The Dalles.
District 21 includes 3 elementary schools: Colonel Wright Elementary, Chenoweth Elementary and Dry Hollow Elementary. District 21 is also home to Innovations Academy, The Dalles Middle School and The Dalles High School.[22]
St Mary's Academy is a k-8 school affiliated with the Catholic Church in The Dalles.[23]
Columbia Lutheran School is a Christian elementary school of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod in The Dalles.[24]
The Dalles is also home to the main campus of Columbia Gorge Community College which began in 1977 as Wasco Area Education Service District. It is a leading institution in renewable energy technology education and training.[25]
Demographics edit
| Census | Pop. | Note | %± |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1860 | 802 | — | |
| 1870 | 942 | 17.5% | |
| 1880 | 2,232 | 136.9% | |
| 1890 | 3,239 | 45.1% | |
| 1900 | 3,542 | 9.4% | |
| 1910 | 4,880 | 37.8% | |
| 1920 | 5,807 | 19.0% | |
| 1930 | 5,833 | 0.4% | |
| 1940 | 6,266 | 7.4% | |
| 1950 | 7,676 | 22.5% | |
| 1960 | 10,493 | 36.7% | |
| 1970 | 10,423 | −0.7% | |
| 1980 | 10,820 | 3.8% | |
| 1990 | 11,060 | 2.2% | |
| 2000 | 12,156 | 9.9% | |
| 2010 | 13,620 | 12.0% | |
| 2020 | 16,010 | 17.5% | |
| source:[26] U.S. Decennial Census[27] [3] | |||
2010 census edit
As of the census[28] of 2010, there were 13,620 people, 5,472 households, and 3,441 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,144.9 inhabitants per square mile (828.2/km2). There were 5,903 housing units at an average density of 929.6 per square mile (358.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 87.9% White, 0.5% African American, 1.5% Native American, 1.0% Asian, 0.8% Pacific Islander, 5.7% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 17.0% of the population.
There were 5,472 households, of which 30.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.1% were married couples living together, 12.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 37.1% were non-families. 31.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.99.
The median age in the city was 39.7 years. 23.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.1% were from 25 to 44; 25.8% were from 45 to 64; and 17.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.4% male and 51.6% female.
2000 census edit
As of the census[29] of 2000, there were 12,156 people, 4,896 households, and 3,226 families residing in the city. The population density was 892.3/km2. There were 5,227 housing units at an average density of 383.7/km2. The racial makeup of the city was 87.8% White, 0.4% African American, 1.2% Native American, 1.0% Asian, 0.8% Pacific Islander, 6.2% from other races, and 2.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 10.5% of the population.
There were 4,896 households, out of which 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.1% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.1% were non-families. 29.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40, and the average family size was 2.94.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.8% under the age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 23.5% from 45 to 64, and 18.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $35,430, and the median income for a family was $43,041. Males had a median income of $36,387 versus $22,583 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,511. About 9.0% of families and 12.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.6% of those under age 18 and 8.6% of those age 65 or over.
Arts and culture edit
Annual cultural events edit
The Northwest Cherry Festival is held in The Dalles in April.[30]
Museums and other points of interest edit
- Columbia Gorge Discovery Center & Museum, the official interpretive center for the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area[31]
- Fort Dalles Museum, Oregon's oldest history museum located in the Surgeon's Quarters built in 1856 at Fort Dalles[32]
- Pulpit Rock, used by Methodist missionaries to preach to Native Americans[33]
- North Wasco County Aquatic Center, the most recent in many iterations of the local swimming pool. Previously known as the Natatorium, "Nat" or "Nat Club".
- The river front trail, runs along the Columbia River from the Discovery Center to the local boat marina.
Media edit
Radio edit
- KACI 1300/103.9 FM
- KODL 1440AM/99.1 FM
- KMSW 92.7/102.9 FM
- KACI-FM 93.5 FM
- KCGB-FM 105.5/96.9 FM
- KJYV 101.5 FM
Television edit
- K34KE-D translator for KGW Portland, NBC affiliate
- K23OV-D translator for KOIN Portland, CBS affiliate
Newspaper edit
- Columbia Gorge News
- Columbia Community Connection Digital, Bilingual and Local News for the Mid-Columbia Region
Rajneeshee Movement edit
In 1984, The Dalles was the scene of a bioterrorist incident launched by members of the Rajneesh Movement in an attempt to gain control of the local government of Wasco County, which failed on Election Day. Salmonella placed in ten restaurants resulted in 751 cases of Salmonellosis. It was the first known bioterrorism attack of the 20th century in the United States.[34] The circumstances of the attack are documented in an American Medical Association article (JAMA Vol 278, No 5, page 389, 6 Aug 1997).
Notable people edit
- Homer D. Angell, Republican U.S. congressman, 1939–1955
- Lefty Bertrand, Major League Baseball player
- John Callahan, cartoonist, grew up in The Dalles
- H. L. Davis, Oregon's only Pulitzer Prize winner in literature with Honey in the Horn (1936)[35]
- Ken Dayley, Major League Baseball player
- Alan Embree, Major League Baseball player
- Shemia Fagan, Democratic State Senator for Portland and Candidate for Oregon Secretary of State.[36]
- Jacob Glanville, Ph.D., computational immunoengineer and businessperson
- Jennifer Lyon, Survivor: Palau contestant
- Todd Nelson, retired touring professional tennis player
- Wilma Roberts, local photographer who lived and worked at the Elite Studio, later called "Mel O's" in The Dalles
- Greg Walden, Republican congressman from OR-02.
- Philip Whalen, a poet associated with the Beat Generation, grew up in The Dalles
Sister cities edit
The Dalles has one sister city:
- Miyoshi City, Japan (formerly Ikeda)[37]
See also edit
References edit
- ^ "ArcGIS REST Services Directory". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
- ^ a b U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: The Dalles, Oregon
- ^ a b "Census Population API". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
- ^ a b "Historic The Dalles". Wasco County Historical Society. Retrieved July 23, 2019.
- ^ Gibson, James R. (1997). The Lifeline of the Oregon Country: The Fraser-Columbia Brigade System, 1811–47. University of British Columbia (UBC) Press. p. 125. ISBN 0-7748-0643-5.
- ^ a b McArthur, Lewis A.; McArthur, Lewis L. (1992) [1928]. Oregon Geographic Names (6th ed.). Portland, Oregon: Oregon Historical Society Press. p. 826. ISBN 978-0875952369.
- ^ "Fort Astoria, 1813". Oregon Historical Society. Retrieved August 28, 2011.
- ^ Gibson, James R. (1998). The Lifeline of the Oregon Country: The Fraser-Columbia Brigade System, 1811–47. UBC Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-7748-0643-5. Retrieved August 28, 2011.
- ^ a b c d . Fort Dalles Museum and the Anderson Homestead. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2011.
- ^ Wasco History February 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Wasco-history.r9esd.k12.or.us. Retrieved on June 4, 2012.
- ^ The Dalles U.S. Branch Mint/Erin Glenn Winery (1870)
- ^ Mint that Never Was Makes Interesting Tale
- ^ One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest: Summary and Analysis: There's a Monopoly Game. CliffsNotes. Retrieved on June 4, 2012.
- ^ "History of the Breed". The LaPerm Society. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
In the midst of these hunting grounds, near The Dalles, Oregon and under the watchful eye of Tsagaglalal, the LaPerm came into existence in the spring of 1982.
- ^ Tarlton Law Library – Law in Popular Culture Collection – Law and Lawyers in Popular Culture. Tarlton.law.utexas.edu. Retrieved on June 4, 2012.
- ^ Terry Davis (June 7, 2018), , archived from the original on September 1, 2018, retrieved June 8, 2018
- ^ . United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved December 21, 2012.
- ^ "NOWData – NOAA Online Weather Data". Retrieved May 2, 2016.
- ^ Rogoway, Mike. "Google plans much bigger data center if it expands in The Dalles". The Oregonian. Retrieved June 5, 2013.
- ^ Markoff, John; Saul Hansell (June 14, 2006). "Hiding in Plain Sight, Google Seeks More Power". The New York Times.
- ^ The Dalles · Google Data Centers. Google.com. Retrieved on June 4, 2012.
- ^ "North Wasco County School District / District Home Page". Retrieved November 3, 2021.
- ^ "ST. MARY'S ACADEMY – The Dalles, Oregon | Established in 1864". Retrieved February 3, 2022.
- ^ "About Us". Retrieved November 3, 2021.
- ^ "Columbia Gorge Community College Leads Nation in Wind Training". Retrieved April 29, 2016.
- ^ Moffatt, Riley. Population History of Western U.S. Cities & Towns, 1850–1990. Lanham: Scarecrow, 1996, 216.
- ^ United States Census Bureau. "Census of Population and Housing". Retrieved September 26, 2014.
- ^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved December 21, 2012.
- ^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
- ^ 30th Annual Northwest Cherry Festival January 9, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Authorized by the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area Act (PL99-663)
- ^ Fort Dalles Museum. Historicthedalles.org. Retrieved on June 4, 2012.
- ^ Horner, John B. (1919). Oregon: Her History, Her Great Men, Her Literature. Portland.: The J.K. Gill Co. pp. 72–73.
- ^ . Special Coverage. WBUR.org. Associated Press. Archived from the original on December 31, 2001. Retrieved August 21, 2011.
- ^ Oregon Cultural Heritage Commission. Ochcom.org (June 30, 2004). Retrieved on June 4, 2012.
- ^ "Fagan wins Democratic primary for secretary of state". SFChronicle.com. May 22, 2020. Retrieved May 24, 2020.
- ^ Tukwila Sister City Affiliation. Ci.tukwila.wa.us (November 19, 1979). Retrieved on June 4, 2012.
External links edit
- City website
- Entry for The Dalles from the Oregon Blue Book
- . Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.