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Race and ethnicity in the United States census

December 30, 2022

See also: Race and ethnicity in the United States

Race and ethnicity in the United States census, defined by the federal Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and the United States Census Bureau, are the self-identified categories of race or races and ethnicity chosen by residents, with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether they are of Hispanic or Latino origin (the only categories for ethnicity).[1][2]

The racial categories represent a social-political construct for the race or races that respondents consider themselves to be and, "generally reflect a social definition of race recognized in this country."[3] OMB defines the concept of race as outlined for the U.S. census as not "scientific or anthropological" and takes into account "social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry", using "appropriate scientific methodologies" that are not "primarily biological or genetic in reference."[4] The race categories include both racial and national-origin groups.[5]

Race and ethnicity are considered separate and distinct identities, with Hispanic or Latino origin asked as a separate question. Thus, in addition to their race or races, all respondents are categorized by membership in one of two ethnic categories, which are "Hispanic or Latino" and "Not Hispanic or Latino". However, the practice of separating "race" and "ethnicity" as different categories has been criticized both by the American Anthropological Association and members of US Commission on Civil Rights.[6][7]

In 1997, OMB issued a Federal Register notice regarding revisions to the standards for the classification of federal data on race and ethnicity.[8] OMB developed race and ethnic standards in order to provide "consistent data on race and ethnicity throughout the Federal Government. The development of the data standards stem in large measure from new responsibilities to enforce civil rights laws." Among the changes, OMB issued the instruction to "mark one or more races" after noting evidence of increasing numbers of interracial children and wanting to capture the diversity in a measurable way and having received requests by people who wanted to be able to acknowledge their or their children's full ancestry rather than identifying with only one group. Prior to this decision, the census and other government data collections asked people to report only one race.[3]

How data on race and ethnicity are used

The OMB states, "many federal programs are put into effect based on the race data obtained from the decennial census (i.e., promoting equal employment opportunities; assessing racial disparities in health and environmental risks). Race data are also critical for the basic research behind many policy decisions. States require these data to meet legislative redistricting requirements. The data are needed to monitor compliance with the Voting Rights Act by local jurisdictions".

"Data on ethnic groups are important for putting into effect a number of federal statutes (i.e., enforcing bilingual election rules under the Voting Rights Act; monitoring and enforcing equal employment opportunities under the Civil Rights Act). Data on Ethnic Groups are also needed by local governments to run programs and meet legislative requirements (i.e., identifying segments of the population who may not be receiving medical services under the Public Health Act; evaluating whether financial institutions are meeting the credit needs of minority populations under the Community Reinvestment Act)."[5]

Brief overview of race and ethnicity in U.S. census history

External image
  "Government Collection of Race and Ethnicity Data", Center for American Progress, February 6, 2015. An illustrated history of the racial and ethnic categories used in the U.S. census from 1790 through 2010.[9]

18th and 19th centuries

1790 census

 
Title page of 1790 United States census

The 1790 United States census was the first census in the history of the United States. The population of the United States was recorded as 3,929,214 as of Census Day, August 2, 1790, as mandated by Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution and applicable laws.[10]

"The law required that every household be visited, that completed census schedules be posted in two of the most public places within each jurisdiction, there to remain for the inspection of all concerned, and that 'the aggregate amount of each description of persons' for every district be transmitted to the president."[11] This law along with U.S. marshals were responsible for governing the census.

Loss of data

About one-third of the original census data has been lost or destroyed since documentation. The data was lost in 1790–1830, and included data from Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, Delaware, Georgia, New Jersey, and Virginia. However, the census was proven factual and the existence of most of this data can be confirmed in many secondary sources pertaining to the first census.[12][13]

Data

Census data included the name of the head of the family and categorized inhabitants as: free white males at least 16 years of age (to assess the country's industrial and military potential), free white males under 16 years of age, free white females, all other free persons (reported by sex and color), and slaves.[14] Thomas Jefferson, then the Secretary of State, directed marshals to collect data from all 13 states (Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia), and from the Southwest Territory.[11] The census was not conducted in Vermont until 1791, after that state's admission to the Union as the 14th state on March 4 of that year.

District Free white males at least 16 years of age, including heads of families Free white males under 16 years Free white females, including heads of families All other free persons Slaves Total
Vermont 22,435 22,328 40,505 271 0[a] 85,539[b]
New Hampshire 36,086 34,851 70,160 630 158 141,885
Maine 24,384 24,748 46,870 538 0 96,540
Massachusetts 95,453 87,289 190,582 5,463 0 378,787[c][15]
Rhode Island 16,019 15,799 32,652 3,407 948 68,825
Connecticut 60,523 54,403 117,448 2,808 2,764 237,946
New York 83,700 78,122 152,320 4,654 21,324 340,120
New Jersey 45,251 41,416 83,287 2,762 11,423 184,139
Pennsylvania 110,788 106,948 206,363 6,537 3,737 434,373
Delaware 11,783 12,143 22,384 3,899 8,887 59,094[d]
Maryland 55,915 51,339 101,395 8,043 103,036 319,728
Virginia 110,936 116,135 215,046 12,866 292,627 747,610[e][15]
Kentucky 15,154 17,057 28,922 114 12,430 73,677
North Carolina 69,988 77,506 140,710 4,975 100,572 393,751
South Carolina 35,576 37,722 66,880 1,801 107,094 249,073
Georgia 13,103 14,044 25,739 398 29,264 82,548
Total 807,094 791,850 1,541,263 59,150 694,280 3,893,635
  1. ^ The census of 1790, published in 1791, reports 16 slaves in Vermont. Subsequently, and up to 1860, the number is given as 17. An examination of the original manuscript allegedly shows that no slaves were ever in Vermont. The original error occurred in preparing the results for publication, when 16 persons, returned as "Free colored", were carried forward to the following page as "Slave". See Lyman Simpson Hayes (1929). The Connecticut River Valley in southern Vermont and New Hampshire; historical sketches. Rutland, Vt., Tuttle Co. pp. 276–278. for details.
  2. ^ Corrected figures are 85,425, or 114 less than the figures published in 1790, due to an error of addition in the returns for each of the towns of Fairfield, Milton, Shelburne, and Williston, in the county of Chittenden; Brookfield, Newbury, Randolph, and Strafford, in the county of Orange; Castleton, Clarendon, Hubbardton, Poultney, Rutland, Shrewsburg, and Wallingford, in the county of Rutland; Dummerston, Guilford, Halifax, and Westminster, in the county of Windham; and Woodstock, in the county of Windsor.
  3. ^ The figures for Massachusetts do not include the population of Maine. Though Maine was then a part of Massachusetts, the Maine figures were compiled separately, and are shown on the line for Maine.
  4. ^ Corrected figures are 59,096, or 2 more than figures published in 1790, due to error in addition.
  5. ^ The figures for Virginia do not include the population of Kentucky. Though Kentucky was then a part of Virginia, the Kentucky figures were compiled separately, and are shown on the line for Kentucky. The Virginia figures do include the portion of Virginia that later became the state of West Virginia.
Contemporary perception
 
Commemorative pitcher with census results

Some doubt surrounded the numbers, as President George Washington and Thomas Jefferson maintained the population was undercounted.[16] The potential reasons Washington and Jefferson may have thought this could be refusal to participate, poor public transportation and roads, spread-out population, and restraints of current technology.

Data availability

No microdata from the 1790 population census are available, but aggregate data for small areas and their compatible cartographic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System. However, the categories of "Free white males" of 16 years and upward, including heads of families under 16 years, "Free white females", including heads of families, All other free persons, and "Slaves," existed in the census form.[17]

1800 and 1810 census

In 1800 and 1810, the age question regarding free white males was more detailed with five cohorts and included All other free persons, except "Indians not taxed", and "Slaves.".[17]

1820 census

The 1820 census built on the questions asked in 1810 by asking age questions about slaves. Also the term "colored" entered the census nomenclature. In addition, a question stating "Number of foreigners not naturalized" was included.[18]

1830 census

In the 1830 census, a new question, which stated, "The number of White persons who were foreigners not naturalized" was included.[18]

1850 census

The 1850 census had a dramatic shift in the way information about residents was collected. For the first time, free persons were listed individually instead of by head of household. Two questionnaires were used - one for free inhabitants and one for slaves. The question on the free inhabitants schedule about color was a column that was to be left blank if a person were white, marked "B" if a person were black, and marked "M" if a person were mulatto. Slaves were listed by owner, and classified by gender and age, not individually, and the question about color was a column that was to be marked with a "B" if the slave were black and an "M" if mulatto.[18]

1890 census

For 1890, the Census Office changed the design of the population questionnaire. Residents were still listed individually, but a new questionnaire sheet was used for each family. Additionally, this was the first year that the census distinguished among different Asian ethnic groups, such as Japanese and Chinese, due to increased immigration. This census also marked the beginning of the term "race" in the questionnaires. Enumerators were instructed to write "White", "Black", "Mulatto", "Quadroon", "Octoroon", "Chinese", "Japanese", or "Indian".[18]

1900 census

During 1900, the "Color or Race" question was slightly modified, removing the term "Mulatto". Also, there was an inclusion of an "Indian Population Schedule" in which "enumerators were instructed to use a special expanded questionnaire for American Indians living on reservations or in family groups off of reservations." This expanded version included the question "Fraction of person's lineage that is white."[18]

20th century

1910 census

The 1910 census was similar to that of 1900, but it included a reinsertion of "Mulatto" and a question about the "mother tongue" of foreign-born individuals and individuals with foreign-born parents. "Ot" was also added to signify "other races", with space for a race to be written in. This decade's version of the Indian Population Schedule featured questions asking the individual's proportion of white, black, or American Indian lineage.[18]

1920 census

The 1920 census questionnaire was similar to 1910, but excluded a separate schedule for Indigenous Americas. "Hin", "Kor", and "Fil" were also added to the "Color or Race" question, signifying Hindustani (South Asia Indian), Korean, and Filipino, respectively.[18]

1930 census

[19] The biggest change in this census was in racial classification. Enumerators were instructed to no longer use the "Mulatto" classification. Instead, they were given special instructions for reporting the race of interracial persons. A person with both white and black ancestry (termed "blood") was to be recorded as "Negro", no matter the fraction of that lineage (the "one-drop rule"). A person of mixed black and American Indian ancestry was also to be recorded as "Neg" (for "Negro") unless they were considered to be "predominantly" American Indian and accepted as such within the community. A person with both white and American Indian ancestry was to be recorded as American Indian, unless their Indigenous ancestry was small, and they were accepted as white within the community. In all situations in which a person had white and some other racial ancestry, they were to be reported as that other race.[contradictory] People who had minority interracial ancestry were to be reported as the race of their father.[contradictory]

For the first and only time, "Mexican" was listed as a race. Enumerators were instructed that all people born in Mexico, or whose parents were born in Mexico, should be listed as Mexicans, and not under any other racial category. In prior censuses and in 1940, enumerators were instructed to list Mexican Americans as white, perhaps because some of them were of white background (mainly Spanish), many others mixed white and Native American and some of them Native American.[20]

The Supplemental American Indian questionnaire was back, but in abbreviated form. It featured a question asking if the person was of full or mixed American Indian ancestry.[18][21]

1940 census

President Franklin D. Roosevelt promoted a "good neighbor" policy that sought better relations with Mexico. In 1935, a federal judge ruled that three Mexican immigrants were ineligible for citizenship because they were not white, as required by federal law. Mexico protested, and Roosevelt decided to circumvent the decision and make sure the federal government treated Hispanics as white. The State Department, the Census Bureau, the Labor Department, and other government agencies therefore made sure to uniformly classify people of Mexican descent as white. This policy encouraged the League of United Latin American Citizens in its quest to minimize discrimination by asserting their whiteness.[22]

The 1940 census was the first to include separate population and housing questionnaires.[18] The race category of "Mexican" was eliminated in 1940, and the population of Mexican descent was counted with the white population.[23]

1940 census data was used for Japanese American internment. The Census Bureau's role was denied for decades, but was finally proven in 2007.[24][25]

1950 census

The 1950 census questionnaire removed the word "color" from the racial question, and also removed Hindu and Korean from the race choices.[18]

1960 census

The 1960 census re-added the word "color" to the racial question, and changed "Indian" to "American Indian", as well as adding Hawaiian, Part-Hawaiian, Aleut, and Eskimo. The "Other (print out race)" option was removed.[18]

1970 census

This year's census included "Negro or Black", re-added Korean and the Other race option. East Indians (the term used at that time for people whose ancestry is from the Indian subcontinent) were counted as White. There was a questionnaire that was asked of only a sample of respondents. These questions were as follows:

  2. a. Where was this person born?
  4. b. Is this person's origin or descent...
  5. #
  6. Mexican
  8. Puerto Rican
  10. Cuban
  12. Central or South American
  14. Other Spanish
  16. None of These
  17. What country was the person's father born in?
  18. What country was the person's mother born in?
  19. a. For persons born in a foreign country – Is the person naturalized?
  20. b When did the person come to the United States to stay?
  21. What language, other than English, was spoken in the person's home as a child?
  22. Spanish
  23. French
  24. Italian
  25. German
  26. Other
  27. None, only English[18]

Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent [17]

Is this person's origin or descent?

Mexican

Puerto Rican Cuban

Central American Other Spanish

No, none of these

1980 census

This year added several options to the race question, including Vietnamese, Indian (East), Guamanian, Samoan, and re-added Aleut. Again, the term "color" was removed from the racial question, and the following questions were asked of a sample of respondents:

  2. In what state or foreign country was the person born?
  3. If this person was born in a foreign country...
  4. a. Is this person a naturalized citizen of the United States?
  5. b. When did this person come to the United States to stay?
  6. a. Does this person speak a language other than English at home?
  7. b. If yes, what is this language?
  8. c. If yes, how well does this person speak English?
  9. What is this person's ancestry?[18]

Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent [17]

Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin or descent?

No, not Spanish/Hispanic

Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano Yes, Puerto Rican

Yes, Cuban

Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic

1990 census

The racial categories in this year are as they appear in the 2000 and 2010 censuses. The following questions were asked of a sample of respondents for the 1990 census:

  2. In what U.S. State or foreign country was this person born?
  3. Is this person a citizen of the United States?
  4. If this person was not born in the United States, when did this person come to the United States to stay?[18]

The 1990 census was not designed to capture multiple racial responses, and when individuals marked the "other" race option and provided a multiple write-in. The response was assigned according to the race written first. "For example, a write-in of 'black-white' was assigned a code of 'black,' while a write-in of 'white-black' was assigned a code of 'white.'"[3]

Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent [17]

Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin?

No, not Spanish/Hispanic

Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano

Yes, Puerto Rican

Yes, Cuban

Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic, print one group ...

Census data indicate that the number of children in interracial families grew from less than one-half million in 1970 to about two million in 1990. In 1990, for interracial families with one White partner, the other parent was Black for about 20 percent of all children, the other parent was Asian for 45 percent, and the other parent was American Indian and Alaska Native for about 34 percent.[26]

2000 census

Race was asked differently in the 2000 census in several other ways than previously. Most significantly, respondents were given the option of selecting one or more race categories to indicate racial identities. Data show that nearly seven million Americans identified as members of two or more races. Because of these changes, the 2000 census data on race are not directly comparable with data from the 1990 census or earlier censuses. Use of caution is therefore recommended when interpreting changes in the racial composition of the US population over time.

The following definitions apply to the 2000 census only.[27]

  • White — A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "white-skinned people" or report entries such as Irish, German, English, Scandinavian, Scottish, Near Easterners, Iranian, Lebanese, or Polish.[27]
  • Black or African American — A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am." or provide written entries such as Kenyan, Nigerian, or Haitian.[27]
  • American Indian and Alaska Native — A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintain tribal affiliation or community attachment.[27]
  • Asian — A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. It includes "Asian Indian", "Chinese", "Filipino", "Korean", "Japanese", "Vietnamese", and "Other Asian".[27]
  • Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander — A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands. It includes people who indicate their race as "Native Hawaiian", "Guamanian or Chamorro", "Samoan", and "Other Pacific Islander".[27]
  • Some other race — Includes all other responses not included in the "Caucasian", "Black or African American", "American Indian and Alaska Native", "Asian" and "Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander" race categories described above. Respondents providing write-in entries such as multiracial, mixed, interracial, We-Sort, or a Hispanic/Latino group (for example, Mexican, Puerto Rican, or Cuban) in the "Some other race" category are included here.[27]
  • Two or more races — People may have chosen to provide two or more races either by checking two or more race response check boxes, by providing multiple write-in responses, or by some combination of check boxes and write-in responses.[27]
Snapshot: Race in the U.S. census
The 23rd federal census, 2010[28] asks one ethnic and one race question (questions 1-4 not reproduced here, questions 5 and 6 paraphrased):
  2. Is the person of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?
  • No, not of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin
  • Yes, Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano
  • Yes, Puerto Rican
  • Yes, Cuban
  • Yes, another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin – Print origin, for example, Argentinian, Colombian, Dominican, Nicaraguan, Salvadoran, Spaniard, and so on.
  • What is the person's race?
    • White
    • Black or African American
    • American Indian or Alaska Native – Print name of enrolled or principal tribe.
    • Asian Indian
    • Chinese
    • Filipino
    • Other Asian – Print race, for example, Hmong, Laotian, Thai, Pakistani, Cambodian, and so on.
    • Japanese
    • Korean
    • Vietnamese
    • Native Hawaiian
    • Guamanian or Chamorro
    • Samoan
    • Other Pacific Islander – Print race, for example, Fijian, Tongan, and so on.
    • Some other race – Print race.

    • This census acknowledged that "race categories include both racial and national-origin groups."

    The federal government of the United States has mandated that "in data collection and presentation, federal agencies are required to use a minimum of two ethnicities: "Hispanic or Latino" and "Not Hispanic or Latino".[29] The Census Bureau defines "Hispanic or Latino" as "a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race."[29] For discussion of the meaning and scope of the Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, see the Hispanic and Latino Americans and Racial and ethnic demographics of the United States articles.

    Use of the word "ethnicity" for Hispanics only is considerably more restricted than its conventional meaning, which covers other distinctions, some of which are covered by the "race" and "ancestry" questions. The distinct questions accommodate the possibility of Hispanic and Latino Americans' also declaring various racial identities (see also White Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans, and Black Hispanic and Latino Americans).

    In the 2000 census, 12.5% of the US population reported "Hispanic or Latino" ethnicity and 87.5% reported "Not-Hispanic or Latino" ethnicity.[29]

    21st century

    2010 census

    The 2010 census included changes designed to more clearly distinguish Hispanic ethnicity as not being a race. That included adding the sentence: "For this census, Hispanic origins are not races."[30][31] Additionally, the Hispanic terms were modified from "Hispanic or Latino" to "Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin".[30][31]

    Although used in the census and the American Community Survey, "Some other race" is not an official race,[29] and the Bureau considered eliminating it prior to the 2000 census.[32] As the 2010 census form did not contain the question titled "Ancestry" found in prior censuses, there were campaigns to get non-Hispanic West Indian Americans,[33] Turkish Americans,[34] Armenian Americans, Arab Americans and Iranian Americans to indicate their ethnic or national background through the race question, specifically the "Some other race" category.[35][36][37]

    The Interagency Committee has suggested that the concept of marking multiple boxes be extended to the Hispanic origin question, thereby freeing individuals from having to choose between their parents' ethnic heritages. In other words, a respondent could choose both "Hispanic or Latino" and "Not Hispanic or Latino".[38]

    2020 census

    The 2020 census featured similar designs to the 2000 and 2010 censuses. Subsequently, the Census Bureau adhered to the 1997 OMB standards and thus used two separate questions to collect data on race and ethnicity. However, there were improvements in the phrasing of the race and ethnicity questions within the OMB guidelines, that would enhance clarity for respondents.

    The Hispanic origin question included the same checkboxes as the 2010 census ("Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano", "Puerto Rican", "Cuban"), along with a "Yes, another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin". Under this category, two changes emerged. The first was the shift from "Print origin, for example" to "Print, for example".[39] The removal of the word origin was due to the surveyed confusion and differentiating meanings origin has for respondents or varying backgrounds. Furthermore, the Census Bureau updated the write-in instructions for the "Some Other Race" category and included the instruction to "Print race", but changed the instruction to read "Print race or origin" to match the primary instruction to "Mark ☒ one or more boxes AND print origins". [39]

    According to the United States Census Bureau, as a result of significant feedback, a detailed write-in response and example were included for the "White" and the "Black or African Am." racial categories to compensate a wider horizon of identities. There were also six example groups for each of the "White", "Black or African American", and "American Indian or Alaska Native" racial categories. In addition, after 100 years, the term "Negro" was removed from the 2020 census, as a large portion of respondents advocated for its removal. Instead, the category shifted from "Black, African Am., or Negro" to "Black or African Am." on paper questionnaires and electronic instruments.[39]

    The identification of the term African American first occurred in the 2000 census, reflecting a long-standing history of offensive terminology since the censuses' inception. The 1790 census included other "free persons" by color and "slaves". From 1850 to 1880, the codes for enumerators were generally Black (B) and Mulatto (M).[40] In 1900, there were no specified categories on the census listing form, and the instructions called for enumerators to list "B" for "Black (or negro or negro descent)", displaying the first occurrence of the controversial term "Negro". In 1930, there were specific instructions that used the term "Negro". Mixed persons were to be counted as "Negro" no matter how small the share of blood, also known as the one-drop rule. It was not until 1970 that the term Black appeared on a census form, and in 1990 the enumerator of color was eliminated.[40]

    The next change was reordering the example groups from "Argentinean, Colombian, Dominican, Nicaraguan, Salvadoran, Spaniard, and so on." to "Salvadoran, Dominican, Colombian, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Ecuadorian, etc." to reflect the ever-increasing geographic diversity of the Hispanic or Latino category and the variations in populations sums each year. [39]

    Percent Net Coverage Error by Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010 and 2020 [41]
    Race and Hispanic Origin 2010 2020 Is There A Significant Difference Between 2020 and 2010?
    Total 0.01 -0.24
    Race Alone or in Combination
    White 0.54* 0.66* No
    Non-Hispanic White alone 0.83* 1.64* Yes
    Black or African American -2.06* -3.30* No
    Asian 0.00 2.62* Yes
    American Indian or Alaska Native -0.15 -0.91* No
    On Reservation -4.88* -5.64* No
    American Indian Areas Off Reservation 3.86 3.06 No
    Balance of the United States 0.05 -0.86* No
    Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander -1.02 1.28 No
    Some Other Race -1.63* -4.34* Yes
    Hispanic or Latino -1.54* -4.99* Yes

    *Net coverage error is statistically significantly different from 0.

    Though the issues of identification questions of origin were addressed, the accuracy of the 2020 census displays undercounts and overcounts of Black people, Latinos, and Native Americans according to the work conducted under Robert Santos, the current director of the United States Census Bureau. A follow-up survey concluded that the miscounting of children under five years of age and that American Indians and Alaska Natives living on reservations continued to have the highest net undercount rate, similar to 2010. One of the leading factors of the misrepresented information in the 2020 census is the coronavirus pandemic, which caused notable delays in the bureau's Post-Enumeration Survey. The Post-Enumeration Survey is used to determine how accurate the census results are and inform planning for the next national count in 2030. [41] Furthermore, discrepancies persisted due to the irrefutable variables of delays to field work, migration of many college students and others, and some respondents failed to answer the necessary questions required for the Post-Enumeration survey to match the census.[41] American Journalist for the New York Times, attributes group quarters like college dormitories, long-term care facilities and prisons to have the largest contingencies in the tally as the pandemic pushed many university students to return home, making it harder to count them in the dormitories or apartments where they normally would have been.[42]

    Hispanic or Latino

    Translating the data set, the 3.45 difference in net coverage error for the Hispanic or Latino category proves widely problematic, but is an avid reflection of the seismic shifts in the United States. Mexican immigrants have been at the center of one of the largest mass migrations in contemporary history, reaching a peak of 12.8 million in 2007, but have since declined, as reported by PEW Research Center.[43] The predominant reasoning being shifts in political authority and the coronavirus pandemic resulting in policy changes. More specifically, immigrants entering through a permanent legal residency (green card), visa overstays, and apprehensions have drastically changed the input and output of data.

    PEW Research Center also found that the number of immigrants who entered the U.S. in fiscal 2020 through a "green card" was down 45% from the prior year, most notably during the onset of the pandemic.[43] Furthermore, the total number of non-immigrant visas processed in Mexico by the U.S. Department of State dropped 35% compared with the prior year, from about 1.5 million in 2019 to about 960,000 in 2020. The temporary visas were processed for tourism, business, or crossing the border. [43]They did not include work authorization.

    Consequently, due to political shifts, apprehensions of unauthorized Mexican immigrants increased considerably after the pandemic started in 2020. In fiscal 2020, the number of detainments of Mexican adults at the U.S.-Mexican border reached sky-high new levels under former president Donald Trump. There were 253,118 such encounters, up 52% from 166,458 the previous year.[43] Now under president Joe Biden who has annulled record high immigration laws formulated under Donald Trump, the numbers of deportations and detainments is subject to change by the 2030 census.

    Under the Biden administration, the number of people who received a green card declined from about 240,000 in the second quarter of the 2020 fiscal year to about 79,000 in the third quarter. However, Biden has proposed to provide a pathway for the undocumented immigrants in the United States to remain and gain legal status. Regarding refugees, the U.S. admitted only 11,411 refugees in fiscal year 2021 according to Pew Research Center. The low number of admissions appeared after the Biden administration raised the maximum number of refugees the nation could admit to 62,500 in fiscal 2021 and 125,000 for fiscal 2022. [44]

    Relation between ethnicity and race in census results

    The Census Bureau warns that data on race in 2000 census are not directly comparable to those collected in previous censuses.[27] Many residents of the United States consider race and ethnicity to be the same.[4]

    Population distribution by race (2000 census)[45]
    Race Hispanic or
    Latino    		 % of
    H/L    		 % of
    US    		 Not Hispanic
    or Latino    		 % of not
    H/L    		 % of
    US
    All races 35,305,818 100 12.5 246,116,088 100 87.5
    One race 33,081,736 93.7 11.8 241,513,942 98.1 85.8
    White 16,907,852 47.9 6.0 194,552,774 79.1 69.1
    Black or African A. 710,353 2.0 0.3 33,947,837 13.8 12.1
    A. Indian/Alaska Nat. 407,073 1.2 0.1 2,068,883 0.8 0.7
    Asian 119,829 0.3 <0.1 10,123,169 4.1 3.6
    Hawaiian N. & Pacific Is. 45,326 0.1 <0.1 353,509 0.1 0.1
    Some other 14,891,303 42.2 5.3 467,770 0.2 0.2
    2+ races 2,224,082 6.3 0.8 4,602,146 1.9 1.6
    Some other + W/B/N/A 1,859,538 5.3 0.7 1,302,875 0.5 0.5
    2+ W/B/N/A 364,544 1.0 0.1 3,299,271 1.3 1.2

    In the 2000 census, respondents were tallied in each of the race groups they reported. Consequently, the total of each racial category exceeds the total population because some people reported more than one race.[3]

    According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University, Northridge, by some calculations in the 2000 census the largest part white biracial population is white/Native American and Alaskan Native, at 7,015,017, followed by white/black at 737,492, then white/Asian at 727,197, and finally white/Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander at 125,628.[46]

    The Census Bureau implemented a Census Quality Survey, gathering data from about 50,000 households to assess the reporting of race and Hispanic origin in the 2000 census with the purpose of creating a way to make comparisons between the 2000 census with previous census racial data.[3]

    In September 1997, during the process of revision of racial categories previously declared by OMB directive no. 15, the American Anthropological Association (AAA) recommended that OMB combine the "race" and "ethnicity" categories into one question to appear as "race/ethnicity" for the 2000 census. The Interagency Committee agreed, stating that "race" and "ethnicity" were not sufficiently defined and "that many respondents conceptualize 'race' and 'ethnicity' as one and the same [sic] underscor[ing] the need to consolidate these terms into one category, using a term that is more meaningful to the American people."[4]

    The AAA also stated,

    The American Anthropological Association recommends the elimination of the term "race" from OMB Directive 15 during the planning for the 2010 census. During the past 50 years, "race" has been scientifically proven to not be a real, natural phenomenon. More specific, social categories such as "ethnicity" or "ethnic group" are more salient for scientific purposes and have fewer of the negative, racist connotations for which the concept of race was developed. Yet the concept of race has become thoroughly—and perniciously—woven into the cultural and political fabric of the United States. It has become an essential element of both individual identity and government policy. Because so much harm has been based on "racial" distinctions over the years, correctives for such harm must also acknowledge the impact of "racial" consciousness among the U.S. populace, regardless of the fact that "race" has no scientific justification in human biology. Eventually, however, these classifications must be transcended and replaced by more non-racist and accurate ways of representing the diversity of the U.S. population.[4]

    The recommendations of the AAA were not adopted by the Census Bureau for the 2000, 2010 and 2020 censuses. This includes Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin, which remained an ethnicity, not a race. While race/ethnicity definitions for 2020 remained consistent, individuals who identify as White, Black/African American, and/or American Indian or Alaska Native was asked to specifically identify their racial origins.[47]

    Other agencies

    Further information: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission § Race and ethnicity

    In 2001, the National Institutes of Health adopted the new language to comply with the revisions to Directive 15,[48] as did the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the United States Department of Labor in 2007.[49]

    See also

    References

    1. ^ "American FactFinder Help: Race". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on August 19, 2018. Retrieved September 13, 2017.
    2. ^ "American FactFinder Help: Hispanic or Latino origin". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on May 24, 2017. Retrieved September 13, 2017.
    3. ^ a b c d e . United States Census Bureau. March 14, 2001. Archived from the original on April 5, 2001. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
    4. ^ a b c d "A Brief History of the OMB Directive 15". Response to OMB Directive 15 (PDF) (Report). American Anthropological Association. September 1997. Retrieved May 18, 2007.
    5. ^ a b "American FactFinder Help: Ethnic Groups". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on August 19, 2018. Retrieved September 13, 2017.
    6. ^ Gerald A. Reynolds, Chairman Abigail Thernstrom, Vice Chair Todd Gaziano, Gail Heriot, Peter N. Kirsanow, Arlan D. Melendez, Ashley L. Taylor Jr, Michael Yaki (April 7, 2006). "Racial Categorization in the 2010 Census" (PDF). University of Maryland: Thurgood Marshall Law Library. US Commission of Civil Rights. Retrieved December 7, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    7. ^ "American Anthropological Association Response to OMB Directive 15". Race and Ethnic Standards for Federal Statistics and Administrative Reporting. Retrieved December 7, 2012.
    8. ^ "Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity" (PDF). Office of Management and Budget. October 30, 1997. Retrieved October 7, 2008.
    9. ^ Ahmad, Farah Z.; Hagler, Jamal (February 6, 2015). "Infographic: Government Collection of Race and Ethnicity Data". Center for American Progress. Retrieved July 24, 2016.
    10. ^ . U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on June 25, 2010.
    11. ^ a b . U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on September 5, 2009.
    12. ^ Dollarhide, William (2001). The Census Book: A Genealogists Guide to Federal Census Facts, Schedules and Indexes. North Salt Lake, Utah: HeritageQuest. p. 7.
    13. ^ "1790 Census". 1930 Census Resources for Genealogists.
    14. ^ . U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on October 3, 2014.
    15. ^ a b Census Office, United States (1909). "A Century of Population Growth from the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900". p. 47.
    16. ^ . U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on September 5, 2009.
    17. ^ a b c d e Anderson, Margo J.; Fienberg, Stephen E. (1999). Who Counts?: The Politics of Census-Taking in Contemporary America. Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 978-0-87154-256-4. JSTOR 10.7758/9781610440059.
    18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n . United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on September 1, 2009. Retrieved January 18, 2012.
    19. ^ US Census Bureau, Census History Staff. . www.census.gov. Archived from the original on September 28, 2009. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
    20. ^ Gratton, Brian; Merchant, Emily Klancher (September 19, 2016). "La Raza: Mexicans in the United States Census". Journal of Political History. Cambridge University Press. 28 (4): 537–567. doi:10.1017/S0898030616000257. S2CID 157124212 – via Cambridge Core.
    21. ^ copy of the full 1930 census instructions
    22. ^ Patrick D. Lukens, A Quiet Victory for Latino Rights: FDR and the Controversy over Whiteness (University of Arizona Press, 2012)
    23. ^ The 1930 Census in Perspective, 1930census.com
    24. ^ J. R. Minkel (March 30, 2007). "Confirmed: The U.S. Census Bureau Gave Up Names of Japanese-Americans in WW II". Scientific American. from the original on August 29, 2013.
    25. ^ Haya El Nasser (March 30, 2007). "Papers show Census role in WWII camps". USA Today.
    26. ^ "US Census Bureau, 2000" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on October 20, 2003.
    27. ^ a b c d e f g h i . US Census Bureau. Archived from the original on August 31, 2009. Retrieved January 5, 2010.
    28. ^ (PDF). US Census Bureau. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2017. Retrieved December 9, 2017.
    29. ^ a b c d Grieco, Elizabeth M.; Cassidy, Rachel C. (March 2001). "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: Census 2000 Brief" (PDF). US Census Bureau.
    30. ^ a b Waite, Preston. US Census Bureau. "2010 Decennial Census Program." 2006. accessed July 7, 2008.
    31. ^ a b (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2017. Retrieved March 15, 2010.
    32. ^ (Press release). US Census Bureau. January 16, 2003. Archived from the original on October 12, 2006.
    33. ^ Kay, Jennifer (February 24, 2010). . Archived from the original on May 1, 2019. Retrieved March 14, 2010.
    34. ^ The Washington Diplomat. . Archived from the original on September 16, 2011. Retrieved May 5, 2011.
    35. ^ . Archived from the original on May 26, 2010. Retrieved March 15, 2010.
    36. ^ Ashmawey, Roqaya (March 1, 2010). "Arab-Americans Aim to Increase Their Census Count". Newsweek. Retrieved March 14, 2010.
    37. ^ SMITH, DOUG (April 5, 1990). "They ask, 'Where are we going to write Armenian? '" – via LA Times.
    38. ^ "OMB Standards". Office of Management and Budget. from the original on January 21, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2010 – via National Archives.
    39. ^ a b c d Bureau, US Census. "Improvements to the 2020 Census Race and Hispanic Origin Question Designs, Data Processing, and Coding Procedures". The United States Census Bureau. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
    40. ^ a b Cohn, D’Vera (January 21, 2010). "Race and the Census: The "Negro" Controversy". Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
    41. ^ a b c Lo Wang, Hansi (March 11, 2022). "The 2020 census had big undercounts of Black people, Latinos and Native Americans". National Public Radio. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
    42. ^ Wines, Michael (September 14, 2021). "Despite Many Obstacles, the 2020 Census Gets a Cautious Thumbs-Up". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
    43. ^ a b c d Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana. "Before COVID-19, more Mexicans came to the U.S. than left for Mexico for the first time in years". Pew Research Center. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
    44. ^ Krogstad, Jens Manuel; Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana. "Key facts about U.S. immigration policies and Biden's proposed changes". Pew Research Center. Retrieved April 1, 2022.
    45. ^ "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010" (PDF). 2010 Census Briefs. US Census Bureau. (see Table 1. Population by Hispanic or Latino Origin and by Race for the United States: 2000 and 2010)
    46. ^ Bridging 1990 and 2000 census race data: Fractional assignment of multiracial populations 2008-10-02 at the Wayback Machine, James P. Allen and Eugene Turner, Department of Geography, California State University, Northridge, Northridge, CA
    47. ^ . census2020now.org. March 23, 2019. Archived from the original on October 12, 2019.
    48. ^ "Amendment: NIH Policy and Guidelines on the Inclusion of Women and Minorities as Subjects in Clinical Research". National Institutes of Health. October 9, 2001.
    49. ^ Final Revisions of the Employer Information Report (EEO-1) 2009-08-13 at the Wayback Machine by the EEOC. The page contains links to FAQs, forms, and instructions

    Further reading

    • Ahmad, Farah Z.; Hagler, Jamal (February 6, 2015). "The Evolution of Race and Ethnicity Classifications in the Decennial Census". Center for American Progress.
    • Prewitt, Kenneth. What Is Your Race? The Census and Our Flawed Efforts to Classify Americans (Princeton University Press; 2013) argues for dropping the race question from the census.
    • Prewitt, Kenneth (Winter 2005). "Racial classification in America". Dædalus. American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

    December 30, 2022
    race, ethnicity, united, states, census, also, race, ethnicity, united, states, defined, federal, office, management, budget, united, states, census, bureau, self, identified, categories, race, races, ethnicity, chosen, residents, with, which, they, most, clos. See also Race and ethnicity in the United States Race and ethnicity in the United States census defined by the federal Office of Management and Budget OMB and the United States Census Bureau are the self identified categories of race or races and ethnicity chosen by residents with which they most closely identify and indicate whether they are of Hispanic or Latino origin the only categories for ethnicity 1 2 The racial categories represent a social political construct for the race or races that respondents consider themselves to be and generally reflect a social definition of race recognized in this country 3 OMB defines the concept of race as outlined for the U S census as not scientific or anthropological and takes into account social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry using appropriate scientific methodologies that are not primarily biological or genetic in reference 4 The race categories include both racial and national origin groups 5 Race and ethnicity are considered separate and distinct identities with Hispanic or Latino origin asked as a separate question Thus in addition to their race or races all respondents are categorized by membership in one of two ethnic categories which are Hispanic or Latino and Not Hispanic or Latino However the practice of separating race and ethnicity as different categories has been criticized both by the American Anthropological Association and members of US Commission on Civil Rights 6 7 In 1997 OMB issued a Federal Register notice regarding revisions to the standards for the classification of federal data on race and ethnicity 8 OMB developed race and ethnic standards in order to provide consistent data on race and ethnicity throughout the Federal Government The development of the data standards stem in large measure from new responsibilities to enforce civil rights laws Among the changes OMB issued the instruction to mark one or more races after noting evidence of increasing numbers of interracial children and wanting to capture the diversity in a measurable way and having received requests by people who wanted to be able to acknowledge their or their children s full ancestry rather than identifying with only one group Prior to this decision the census and other government data collections asked people to report only one race 3 Contents 1 How data on race and ethnicity are used 2 Brief overview of race and ethnicity in U S census history 2 1 18th and 19th centuries 2 1 1 1790 census 2 1 1 1 Loss of data 2 1 1 2 Data 2 1 1 3 Contemporary perception 2 1 1 4 Data availability 2 1 2 1800 and 1810 census 2 1 3 1820 census 2 1 4 1830 census 2 1 5 1850 census 2 1 6 1890 census 2 1 7 1900 census 2 2 20th century 2 2 1 1910 census 2 2 2 1920 census 2 2 3 1930 census 2 2 4 1940 census 2 2 5 1950 census 2 2 6 1960 census 2 2 7 1970 census 2 2 8 1980 census 2 2 9 1990 census 2 2 10 2000 census 2 3 21st century 2 3 1 2010 census 2 3 2 2020 census 3 Relation between ethnicity and race in census results 4 Other agencies 5 See also 6 References 7 Further readingHow data on race and ethnicity are used EditThe OMB states many federal programs are put into effect based on the race data obtained from the decennial census i e promoting equal employment opportunities assessing racial disparities in health and environmental risks Race data are also critical for the basic research behind many policy decisions States require these data to meet legislative redistricting requirements The data are needed to monitor compliance with the Voting Rights Act by local jurisdictions Data on ethnic groups are important for putting into effect a number of federal statutes i e enforcing bilingual election rules under the Voting Rights Act monitoring and enforcing equal employment opportunities under the Civil Rights Act Data on Ethnic Groups are also needed by local governments to run programs and meet legislative requirements i e identifying segments of the population who may not be receiving medical services under the Public Health Act evaluating whether financial institutions are meeting the credit needs of minority populations under the Community Reinvestment Act 5 Brief overview of race and ethnicity in U S census history EditExternal image Government Collection of Race and Ethnicity Data Center for American Progress February 6 2015 An illustrated history of the racial and ethnic categories used in the U S census from 1790 through 2010 9 18th and 19th centuries Edit 1790 census Edit Title page of 1790 United States census The 1790 United States census was the first census in the history of the United States The population of the United States was recorded as 3 929 214 as of Census Day August 2 1790 as mandated by Article I Section 2 of the United States Constitution and applicable laws 10 The law required that every household be visited that completed census schedules be posted in two of the most public places within each jurisdiction there to remain for the inspection of all concerned and that the aggregate amount of each description of persons for every district be transmitted to the president 11 This law along with U S marshals were responsible for governing the census Loss of data Edit About one third of the original census data has been lost or destroyed since documentation The data was lost in 1790 1830 and included data from Connecticut Maine Maryland Massachusetts New Hampshire New York North Carolina Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina Vermont Delaware Georgia New Jersey and Virginia However the census was proven factual and the existence of most of this data can be confirmed in many secondary sources pertaining to the first census 12 13 Data Edit Census data included the name of the head of the family and categorized inhabitants as free white males at least 16 years of age to assess the country s industrial and military potential free white males under 16 years of age free white females all other free persons reported by sex and color and slaves 14 Thomas Jefferson then the Secretary of State directed marshals to collect data from all 13 states Connecticut Delaware Georgia Maryland Massachusetts New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina and Virginia and from the Southwest Territory 11 The census was not conducted in Vermont until 1791 after that state s admission to the Union as the 14th state on March 4 of that year District Free white males at least 16 years of age including heads of families Free white males under 16 years Free white females including heads of families All other free persons Slaves TotalVermont 22 435 22 328 40 505 271 0 a 85 539 b New Hampshire 36 086 34 851 70 160 630 158 141 885Maine 24 384 24 748 46 870 538 0 96 540Massachusetts 95 453 87 289 190 582 5 463 0 378 787 c 15 Rhode Island 16 019 15 799 32 652 3 407 948 68 825Connecticut 60 523 54 403 117 448 2 808 2 764 237 946New York 83 700 78 122 152 320 4 654 21 324 340 120New Jersey 45 251 41 416 83 287 2 762 11 423 184 139Pennsylvania 110 788 106 948 206 363 6 537 3 737 434 373Delaware 11 783 12 143 22 384 3 899 8 887 59 094 d Maryland 55 915 51 339 101 395 8 043 103 036 319 728Virginia 110 936 116 135 215 046 12 866 292 627 747 610 e 15 Kentucky 15 154 17 057 28 922 114 12 430 73 677North Carolina 69 988 77 506 140 710 4 975 100 572 393 751South Carolina 35 576 37 722 66 880 1 801 107 094 249 073Georgia 13 103 14 044 25 739 398 29 264 82 548Total 807 094 791 850 1 541 263 59 150 694 280 3 893 635 The census of 1790 published in 1791 reports 16 slaves in Vermont Subsequently and up to 1860 the number is given as 17 An examination of the original manuscript allegedly shows that no slaves were ever in Vermont The original error occurred in preparing the results for publication when 16 persons returned as Free colored were carried forward to the following page as Slave See Lyman Simpson Hayes 1929 The Connecticut River Valley in southern Vermont and New Hampshire historical sketches Rutland Vt Tuttle Co pp 276 278 for details Corrected figures are 85 425 or 114 less than the figures published in 1790 due to an error of addition in the returns for each of the towns of Fairfield Milton Shelburne and Williston in the county of Chittenden Brookfield Newbury Randolph and Strafford in the county of Orange Castleton Clarendon Hubbardton Poultney Rutland Shrewsburg and Wallingford in the county of Rutland Dummerston Guilford Halifax and Westminster in the county of Windham and Woodstock in the county of Windsor The figures for Massachusetts do not include the population of Maine Though Maine was then a part of Massachusetts the Maine figures were compiled separately and are shown on the line for Maine Corrected figures are 59 096 or 2 more than figures published in 1790 due to error in addition The figures for Virginia do not include the population of Kentucky Though Kentucky was then a part of Virginia the Kentucky figures were compiled separately and are shown on the line for Kentucky The Virginia figures do include the portion of Virginia that later became the state of West Virginia Contemporary perception Edit Commemorative pitcher with census results Some doubt surrounded the numbers as President George Washington and Thomas Jefferson maintained the population was undercounted 16 The potential reasons Washington and Jefferson may have thought this could be refusal to participate poor public transportation and roads spread out population and restraints of current technology Data availability Edit No microdata from the 1790 population census are available but aggregate data for small areas and their compatible cartographic boundary files can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System However the categories of Free white males of 16 years and upward including heads of families under 16 years Free white females including heads of families All other free persons and Slaves existed in the census form 17 1800 and 1810 census Edit In 1800 and 1810 the age question regarding free white males was more detailed with five cohorts and included All other free persons except Indians not taxed and Slaves 17 1820 census Edit The 1820 census built on the questions asked in 1810 by asking age questions about slaves Also the term colored entered the census nomenclature In addition a question stating Number of foreigners not naturalized was included 18 1830 census Edit In the 1830 census a new question which stated The number of White persons who were foreigners not naturalized was included 18 1850 census Edit The 1850 census had a dramatic shift in the way information about residents was collected For the first time free persons were listed individually instead of by head of household Two questionnaires were used one for free inhabitants and one for slaves The question on the free inhabitants schedule about color was a column that was to be left blank if a person were white marked B if a person were black and marked M if a person were mulatto Slaves were listed by owner and classified by gender and age not individually and the question about color was a column that was to be marked with a B if the slave were black and an M if mulatto 18 1890 census Edit For 1890 the Census Office changed the design of the population questionnaire Residents were still listed individually but a new questionnaire sheet was used for each family Additionally this was the first year that the census distinguished among different Asian ethnic groups such as Japanese and Chinese due to increased immigration This census also marked the beginning of the term race in the questionnaires Enumerators were instructed to write White Black Mulatto Quadroon Octoroon Chinese Japanese or Indian 18 1900 census Edit During 1900 the Color or Race question was slightly modified removing the term Mulatto Also there was an inclusion of an Indian Population Schedule in which enumerators were instructed to use a special expanded questionnaire for American Indians living on reservations or in family groups off of reservations This expanded version included the question Fraction of person s lineage that is white 18 20th century Edit 1910 census Edit The 1910 census was similar to that of 1900 but it included a reinsertion of Mulatto and a question about the mother tongue of foreign born individuals and individuals with foreign born parents Ot was also added to signify other races with space for a race to be written in This decade s version of the Indian Population Schedule featured questions asking the individual s proportion of white black or American Indian lineage 18 1920 census Edit The 1920 census questionnaire was similar to 1910 but excluded a separate schedule for Indigenous Americas Hin Kor and Fil were also added to the Color or Race question signifying Hindustani South Asia Indian Korean and Filipino respectively 18 1930 census Edit 19 The biggest change in this census was in racial classification Enumerators were instructed to no longer use the Mulatto classification Instead they were given special instructions for reporting the race of interracial persons A person with both white and black ancestry termed blood was to be recorded as Negro no matter the fraction of that lineage the one drop rule A person of mixed black and American Indian ancestry was also to be recorded as Neg for Negro unless they were considered to be predominantly American Indian and accepted as such within the community A person with both white and American Indian ancestry was to be recorded as American Indian unless their Indigenous ancestry was small and they were accepted as white within the community In all situations in which a person had white and some other racial ancestry they were to be reported as that other race contradictory People who had minority interracial ancestry were to be reported as the race of their father contradictory For the first and only time Mexican was listed as a race Enumerators were instructed that all people born in Mexico or whose parents were born in Mexico should be listed as Mexicans and not under any other racial category In prior censuses and in 1940 enumerators were instructed to list Mexican Americans as white perhaps because some of them were of white background mainly Spanish many others mixed white and Native American and some of them Native American 20 The Supplemental American Indian questionnaire was back but in abbreviated form It featured a question asking if the person was of full or mixed American Indian ancestry 18 21 1940 census Edit President Franklin D Roosevelt promoted a good neighbor policy that sought better relations with Mexico In 1935 a federal judge ruled that three Mexican immigrants were ineligible for citizenship because they were not white as required by federal law Mexico protested and Roosevelt decided to circumvent the decision and make sure the federal government treated Hispanics as white The State Department the Census Bureau the Labor Department and other government agencies therefore made sure to uniformly classify people of Mexican descent as white This policy encouraged the League of United Latin American Citizens in its quest to minimize discrimination by asserting their whiteness 22 The 1940 census was the first to include separate population and housing questionnaires 18 The race category of Mexican was eliminated in 1940 and the population of Mexican descent was counted with the white population 23 1940 census data was used for Japanese American internment The Census Bureau s role was denied for decades but was finally proven in 2007 24 25 1950 census Edit The 1950 census questionnaire removed the word color from the racial question and also removed Hindu and Korean from the race choices 18 1960 census Edit The 1960 census re added the word color to the racial question and changed Indian to American Indian as well as adding Hawaiian Part Hawaiian Aleut and Eskimo The Other print out race option was removed 18 1970 census Edit This year s census included Negro or Black re added Korean and the Other race option East Indians the term used at that time for people whose ancestry is from the Indian subcontinent were counted as White There was a questionnaire that was asked of only a sample of respondents These questions were as follows a Where was this person born b Is this person s origin or descent Mexican Puerto Rican Cuban Central or South American Other Spanish None of These What country was the person s father born in What country was the person s mother born in a For persons born in a foreign country Is the person naturalized b When did the person come to the United States to stay What language other than English was spoken in the person s home as a child Spanish French Italian German Other None only English 18 Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent 17 Is this person s origin or descent MexicanPuerto Rican CubanCentral American Other SpanishNo none of these 1980 census Edit This year added several options to the race question including Vietnamese Indian East Guamanian Samoan and re added Aleut Again the term color was removed from the racial question and the following questions were asked of a sample of respondents In what state or foreign country was the person born If this person was born in a foreign country a Is this person a naturalized citizen of the United States b When did this person come to the United States to stay a Does this person speak a language other than English at home b If yes what is this language c If yes how well does this person speak English What is this person s ancestry 18 Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent 17 Is this person of Spanish Hispanic origin or descent No not Spanish HispanicYes Mexican Mexican American Chicano Yes Puerto RicanYes CubanYes other Spanish Hispanic 1990 census Edit The racial categories in this year are as they appear in the 2000 and 2010 censuses The following questions were asked of a sample of respondents for the 1990 census In what U S State or foreign country was this person born Is this person a citizen of the United States If this person was not born in the United States when did this person come to the United States to stay 18 The 1990 census was not designed to capture multiple racial responses and when individuals marked the other race option and provided a multiple write in The response was assigned according to the race written first For example a write in of black white was assigned a code of black while a write in of white black was assigned a code of white 3 Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent 17 Is this person of Spanish Hispanic origin No not Spanish HispanicYes Mexican Mexican American ChicanoYes Puerto RicanYes CubanYes other Spanish Hispanic print one group Census data indicate that the number of children in interracial families grew from less than one half million in 1970 to about two million in 1990 In 1990 for interracial families with one White partner the other parent was Black for about 20 percent of all children the other parent was Asian for 45 percent and the other parent was American Indian and Alaska Native for about 34 percent 26 2000 census Edit Race was asked differently in the 2000 census in several other ways than previously Most significantly respondents were given the option of selecting one or more race categories to indicate racial identities Data show that nearly seven million Americans identified as members of two or more races Because of these changes the 2000 census data on race are not directly comparable with data from the 1990 census or earlier censuses Use of caution is therefore recommended when interpreting changes in the racial composition of the US population over time The following definitions apply to the 2000 census only 27 White A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe the Middle East or North Africa It includes people who indicate their race as white skinned people or report entries such as Irish German English Scandinavian Scottish Near Easterners Iranian Lebanese or Polish 27 Black or African American A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa It includes people who indicate their race as Black African Am or provide written entries such as Kenyan Nigerian or Haitian 27 American Indian and Alaska Native A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America including Central America and who maintain tribal affiliation or community attachment 27 Asian A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East Southeast Asia or the Indian subcontinent including for example Cambodia China India Indonesia Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan the Philippine Islands Thailand and Vietnam It includes Asian Indian Chinese Filipino Korean Japanese Vietnamese and Other Asian 27 Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii Guam Samoa or other Pacific Islands It includes people who indicate their race as Native Hawaiian Guamanian or Chamorro Samoan and Other Pacific Islander 27 Some other race Includes all other responses not included in the Caucasian Black or African American American Indian and Alaska Native Asian and Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander race categories described above Respondents providing write in entries such as multiracial mixed interracial We Sort or a Hispanic Latino group for example Mexican Puerto Rican or Cuban in the Some other race category are included here 27 Two or more races People may have chosen to provide two or more races either by checking two or more race response check boxes by providing multiple write in responses or by some combination of check boxes and write in responses 27 Snapshot Race in the U S censusThe 23rd federal census 2010 28 asks one ethnic and one race question questions 1 4 not reproduced here questions 5 and 6 paraphrased Is the person of Hispanic Latino or Spanish origin No not of Hispanic Latino or Spanish origin Yes Mexican Mexican Am Chicano Yes Puerto Rican Yes Cuban Yes another Hispanic Latino or Spanish origin Print origin for example Argentinian Colombian Dominican Nicaraguan Salvadoran Spaniard and so on What is the person s race White Black or African American American Indian or Alaska Native Print name of enrolled or principal tribe Asian Indian Chinese Filipino Other Asian Print race for example Hmong Laotian Thai Pakistani Cambodian and so on Japanese Korean Vietnamese Native Hawaiian Guamanian or Chamorro Samoan Other Pacific Islander Print race for example Fijian Tongan and so on Some other race Print race This census acknowledged that race categories include both racial and national origin groups The federal government of the United States has mandated that in data collection and presentation federal agencies are required to use a minimum of two ethnicities Hispanic or Latino and Not Hispanic or Latino 29 The Census Bureau defines Hispanic or Latino as a person of Cuban Mexican Puerto Rican South or Central American or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race 29 For discussion of the meaning and scope of the Hispanic or Latino ethnicity see the Hispanic and Latino Americans and Racial and ethnic demographics of the United States articles Use of the word ethnicity for Hispanics only is considerably more restricted than its conventional meaning which covers other distinctions some of which are covered by the race and ancestry questions The distinct questions accommodate the possibility of Hispanic and Latino Americans also declaring various racial identities see also White Hispanic and Latino Americans Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans and Black Hispanic and Latino Americans In the 2000 census 12 5 of the US population reported Hispanic or Latino ethnicity and 87 5 reported Not Hispanic or Latino ethnicity 29 21st century Edit 2010 census Edit The 2010 census included changes designed to more clearly distinguish Hispanic ethnicity as not being a race That included adding the sentence For this census Hispanic origins are not races 30 31 Additionally the Hispanic terms were modified from Hispanic or Latino to Hispanic Latino or Spanish origin 30 31 Although used in the census and the American Community Survey Some other race is not an official race 29 and the Bureau considered eliminating it prior to the 2000 census 32 As the 2010 census form did not contain the question titled Ancestry found in prior censuses there were campaigns to get non Hispanic West Indian Americans 33 Turkish Americans 34 Armenian Americans Arab Americans and Iranian Americans to indicate their ethnic or national background through the race question specifically the Some other race category 35 36 37 The Interagency Committee has suggested that the concept of marking multiple boxes be extended to the Hispanic origin question thereby freeing individuals from having to choose between their parents ethnic heritages In other words a respondent could choose both Hispanic or Latino and Not Hispanic or Latino 38 2020 census Edit The 2020 census featured similar designs to the 2000 and 2010 censuses Subsequently the Census Bureau adhered to the 1997 OMB standards and thus used two separate questions to collect data on race and ethnicity However there were improvements in the phrasing of the race and ethnicity questions within the OMB guidelines that would enhance clarity for respondents The Hispanic origin question included the same checkboxes as the 2010 census Mexican Mexican Am Chicano Puerto Rican Cuban along with a Yes another Hispanic Latino or Spanish origin Under this category two changes emerged The first was the shift from Print origin for example to Print for example 39 The removal of the word origin was due to the surveyed confusion and differentiating meanings origin has for respondents or varying backgrounds Furthermore the Census Bureau updated the write in instructions for the Some Other Race category and included the instruction to Print race but changed the instruction to read Print race or origin to match the primary instruction to Mark one or more boxes AND print origins 39 According to the United States Census Bureau as a result of significant feedback a detailed write in response and example were included for the White and the Black or African Am racial categories to compensate a wider horizon of identities There were also six example groups for each of the White Black or African American and American Indian or Alaska Native racial categories In addition after 100 years the term Negro was removed from the 2020 census as a large portion of respondents advocated for its removal Instead the category shifted from Black African Am or Negro to Black or African Am on paper questionnaires and electronic instruments 39 The identification of the term African American first occurred in the 2000 census reflecting a long standing history of offensive terminology since the censuses inception The 1790 census included other free persons by color and slaves From 1850 to 1880 the codes for enumerators were generally Black B and Mulatto M 40 In 1900 there were no specified categories on the census listing form and the instructions called for enumerators to list B for Black or negro or negro descent displaying the first occurrence of the controversial term Negro In 1930 there were specific instructions that used the term Negro Mixed persons were to be counted as Negro no matter how small the share of blood also known as the one drop rule It was not until 1970 that the term Black appeared on a census form and in 1990 the enumerator of color was eliminated 40 The next change was reordering the example groups from Argentinean Colombian Dominican Nicaraguan Salvadoran Spaniard and so on to Salvadoran Dominican Colombian Guatemalan Spaniard Ecuadorian etc to reflect the ever increasing geographic diversity of the Hispanic or Latino category and the variations in populations sums each year 39 Percent Net Coverage Error by Race and Hispanic Origin 2010 and 2020 41 Race and Hispanic Origin 2010 2020 Is There A Significant Difference Between 2020 and 2010 Total 0 01 0 24Race Alone or in CombinationWhite 0 54 0 66 NoNon Hispanic White alone 0 83 1 64 YesBlack or African American 2 06 3 30 NoAsian 0 00 2 62 YesAmerican Indian or Alaska Native 0 15 0 91 NoOn Reservation 4 88 5 64 NoAmerican Indian Areas Off Reservation 3 86 3 06 NoBalance of the United States 0 05 0 86 NoNative Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 1 02 1 28 NoSome Other Race 1 63 4 34 YesHispanic or Latino 1 54 4 99 Yes Net coverage error is statistically significantly different from 0 Though the issues of identification questions of origin were addressed the accuracy of the 2020 census displays undercounts and overcounts of Black people Latinos and Native Americans according to the work conducted under Robert Santos the current director of the United States Census Bureau A follow up survey concluded that the miscounting of children under five years of age and that American Indians and Alaska Natives living on reservations continued to have the highest net undercount rate similar to 2010 One of the leading factors of the misrepresented information in the 2020 census is the coronavirus pandemic which caused notable delays in the bureau s Post Enumeration Survey The Post Enumeration Survey is used to determine how accurate the census results are and inform planning for the next national count in 2030 41 Furthermore discrepancies persisted due to the irrefutable variables of delays to field work migration of many college students and others and some respondents failed to answer the necessary questions required for the Post Enumeration survey to match the census 41 American Journalist for the New York Times attributes group quarters like college dormitories long term care facilities and prisons to have the largest contingencies in the tally as the pandemic pushed many university students to return home making it harder to count them in the dormitories or apartments where they normally would have been 42 Hispanic or LatinoTranslating the data set the 3 45 difference in net coverage error for the Hispanic or Latino category proves widely problematic but is an avid reflection of the seismic shifts in the United States Mexican immigrants have been at the center of one of the largest mass migrations in contemporary history reaching a peak of 12 8 million in 2007 but have since declined as reported by PEW Research Center 43 The predominant reasoning being shifts in political authority and the coronavirus pandemic resulting in policy changes More specifically immigrants entering through a permanent legal residency green card visa overstays and apprehensions have drastically changed the input and output of data PEW Research Center also found that the number of immigrants who entered the U S in fiscal 2020 through a green card was down 45 from the prior year most notably during the onset of the pandemic 43 Furthermore the total number of non immigrant visas processed in Mexico by the U S Department of State dropped 35 compared with the prior year from about 1 5 million in 2019 to about 960 000 in 2020 The temporary visas were processed for tourism business or crossing the border 43 They did not include work authorization Consequently due to political shifts apprehensions of unauthorized Mexican immigrants increased considerably after the pandemic started in 2020 In fiscal 2020 the number of detainments of Mexican adults at the U S Mexican border reached sky high new levels under former president Donald Trump There were 253 118 such encounters up 52 from 166 458 the previous year 43 Now under president Joe Biden who has annulled record high immigration laws formulated under Donald Trump the numbers of deportations and detainments is subject to change by the 2030 census Under the Biden administration the number of people who received a green card declined from about 240 000 in the second quarter of the 2020 fiscal year to about 79 000 in the third quarter However Biden has proposed to provide a pathway for the undocumented immigrants in the United States to remain and gain legal status Regarding refugees the U S admitted only 11 411 refugees in fiscal year 2021 according to Pew Research Center The low number of admissions appeared after the Biden administration raised the maximum number of refugees the nation could admit to 62 500 in fiscal 2021 and 125 000 for fiscal 2022 44 This is missing information about 2020 census Please expand the to include this information Further details may exist on the talk page February 2021 Relation between ethnicity and race in census results EditThis section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information December 2019 The Census Bureau warns that data on race in 2000 census are not directly comparable to those collected in previous censuses 27 Many residents of the United States consider race and ethnicity to be the same 4 Population distribution by race 2000 census 45 Race Hispanic orLatino ofH L ofUS Not Hispanicor Latino of notH L ofUSAll races 35 305 818 100 12 5 246 116 088 100 87 5One race 33 081 736 93 7 11 8 241 513 942 98 1 85 8White 16 907 852 47 9 6 0 194 552 774 79 1 69 1Black or African A 710 353 2 0 0 3 33 947 837 13 8 12 1A Indian Alaska Nat 407 073 1 2 0 1 2 068 883 0 8 0 7Asian 119 829 0 3 lt 0 1 10 123 169 4 1 3 6Hawaiian N amp Pacific Is 45 326 0 1 lt 0 1 353 509 0 1 0 1Some other 14 891 303 42 2 5 3 467 770 0 2 0 22 races 2 224 082 6 3 0 8 4 602 146 1 9 1 6Some other W B N A 1 859 538 5 3 0 7 1 302 875 0 5 0 52 W B N A 364 544 1 0 0 1 3 299 271 1 3 1 2In the 2000 census respondents were tallied in each of the race groups they reported Consequently the total of each racial category exceeds the total population because some people reported more than one race 3 According to James P Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University Northridge by some calculations in the 2000 census the largest part white biracial population is white Native American and Alaskan Native at 7 015 017 followed by white black at 737 492 then white Asian at 727 197 and finally white Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander at 125 628 46 The Census Bureau implemented a Census Quality Survey gathering data from about 50 000 households to assess the reporting of race and Hispanic origin in the 2000 census with the purpose of creating a way to make comparisons between the 2000 census with previous census racial data 3 In September 1997 during the process of revision of racial categories previously declared by OMB directive no 15 the American Anthropological Association AAA recommended that OMB combine the race and ethnicity categories into one question to appear as race ethnicity for the 2000 census The Interagency Committee agreed stating that race and ethnicity were not sufficiently defined and that many respondents conceptualize race and ethnicity as one and the same sic underscor ing the need to consolidate these terms into one category using a term that is more meaningful to the American people 4 The AAA also stated The American Anthropological Association recommends the elimination of the term race from OMB Directive 15 during the planning for the 2010 census During the past 50 years race has been scientifically proven to not be a real natural phenomenon More specific social categories such as ethnicity or ethnic group are more salient for scientific purposes and have fewer of the negative racist connotations for which the concept of race was developed Yet the concept of race has become thoroughly and perniciously woven into the cultural and political fabric of the United States It has become an essential element of both individual identity and government policy Because so much harm has been based on racial distinctions over the years correctives for such harm must also acknowledge the impact of racial consciousness among the U S populace regardless of the fact that race has no scientific justification in human biology Eventually however these classifications must be transcended and replaced by more non racist and accurate ways of representing the diversity of the U S population 4 The recommendations of the AAA were not adopted by the Census Bureau for the 2000 2010 and 2020 censuses This includes Hispanic Latino or Spanish origin which remained an ethnicity not a race While race ethnicity definitions for 2020 remained consistent individuals who identify as White Black African American and or American Indian or Alaska Native was asked to specifically identify their racial origins 47 Other agencies EditFurther information Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Race and ethnicity In 2001 the National Institutes of Health adopted the new language to comply with the revisions to Directive 15 48 as did the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the United States Department of Labor in 2007 49 See also EditCertificate of Degree of Indian Blood Classification of ethnicity in the United Kingdom Historical racial and ethnic demographics of the United States Judicial aspects of race in the United States Language Spoken at Home Race human classification Race and ethnicity in censuses Race and ethnicity in the United States Racial segregation in the United States Visible minorityReferences Edit American FactFinder Help Race United States Census Bureau Archived from the original on August 19 2018 Retrieved September 13 2017 American FactFinder Help Hispanic or Latino origin United States Census Bureau Archived from the original on May 24 2017 Retrieved September 13 2017 a b c d e Questions and Answers for Census 2000 Data on Race United States Census Bureau March 14 2001 Archived from the original on April 5 2001 Retrieved April 25 2010 a b c d A Brief History of the OMB Directive 15 Response to OMB Directive 15 PDF Report American Anthropological Association September 1997 Retrieved May 18 2007 a b American FactFinder Help Ethnic Groups United States Census Bureau Archived from the original on August 19 2018 Retrieved September 13 2017 Gerald A Reynolds Chairman Abigail Thernstrom Vice Chair Todd Gaziano Gail Heriot Peter N Kirsanow Arlan D Melendez Ashley L Taylor Jr Michael Yaki April 7 2006 Racial Categorization in the 2010 Census PDF University of Maryland Thurgood Marshall Law Library US Commission of Civil Rights Retrieved December 7 2012 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link American Anthropological Association Response to OMB Directive 15 Race and Ethnic Standards for Federal Statistics and Administrative Reporting Retrieved December 7 2012 Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity PDF Office of Management and Budget October 30 1997 Retrieved October 7 2008 Ahmad Farah Z Hagler Jamal February 6 2015 Infographic Government Collection of Race and Ethnicity Data Center for American Progress Retrieved July 24 2016 History 1790 Fast Facts U S Census Bureau Archived from the original on June 25 2010 a b History 1790 Overview U S Census Bureau Archived from the original on September 5 2009 Dollarhide William 2001 The Census Book A Genealogists Guide to Federal Census Facts Schedules and Indexes North Salt Lake Utah HeritageQuest p 7 1790 Census 1930 Census Resources for Genealogists 1790 Census of Population and Housing U S Census Bureau Archived from the original on October 3 2014 a b Census Office United States 1909 A Century of Population Growth from the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth 1790 1900 p 47 1790 Overview U S Census Bureau Archived from the original on September 5 2009 a b c d e Anderson Margo J Fienberg Stephen E 1999 Who Counts The Politics of Census Taking in Contemporary America Russell Sage Foundation ISBN 978 0 87154 256 4 JSTOR 10 7758 9781610440059 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Through the Decades United States Census Bureau Archived from the original on September 1 2009 Retrieved January 18 2012 US Census Bureau Census History Staff 1930 History U S Census Bureau www census gov Archived from the original on September 28 2009 Retrieved April 22 2020 Gratton Brian Merchant Emily Klancher September 19 2016 La Raza Mexicans in the United States Census Journal of Political History Cambridge University Press 28 4 537 567 doi 10 1017 S0898030616000257 S2CID 157124212 via Cambridge Core copy of the full 1930 census instructions https www census gov history pdf 1930instructions pdf Patrick D Lukens A Quiet Victory for Latino Rights FDR and the Controversy over Whiteness University of Arizona Press 2012 The 1930 Census in Perspective 1930census com J R Minkel March 30 2007 Confirmed The U S Census Bureau Gave Up Names of Japanese Americans in WW II Scientific American Archived from the original on August 29 2013 Haya El Nasser March 30 2007 Papers show Census role in WWII camps USA Today US Census Bureau 2000 PDF Archived PDF from the original on October 20 2003 a b c d e f g h i 2000 Census of Population Public Law 94 171 Redistricting Data File Race US Census Bureau Archived from the original on August 31 2009 Retrieved January 5 2010 2010 US Census Form PDF US Census Bureau 2010 Archived from the original PDF on July 24 2017 Retrieved December 9 2017 a b c d Grieco Elizabeth M Cassidy Rachel C March 2001 Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin Census 2000 Brief PDF US Census Bureau a b Waite Preston US Census Bureau 2010 Decennial Census Program 2006 accessed July 7 2008 a b 2010 US Census form PDF Archived from the original PDF on July 24 2017 Retrieved March 15 2010 Census Bureau to Test Changes in Questionnaire New Response Technology Press release US Census Bureau January 16 2003 Archived from the original on October 12 2006 Kay Jennifer February 24 2010 Caribbeans urged to write in ancestry on US Census Archived from the original on May 1 2019 Retrieved March 14 2010 The Washington Diplomat Census Takes Aim to Tally Hard to Count Populations Archived from the original on September 16 2011 Retrieved May 5 2011 The Arab American Institute Get Involved Archived from the original on May 26 2010 Retrieved March 15 2010 Ashmawey Roqaya March 1 2010 Arab Americans Aim to Increase Their Census Count Newsweek Retrieved March 14 2010 SMITH DOUG April 5 1990 They ask Where are we going to write Armenian via LA Times OMB Standards Office of Management and Budget Archived from the original on January 21 2017 Retrieved April 25 2010 via National Archives a b c d Bureau US Census Improvements to the 2020 Census Race and Hispanic Origin Question Designs Data Processing and Coding Procedures The United States Census Bureau Retrieved April 1 2022 a b Cohn D Vera January 21 2010 Race and the Census The Negro Controversy Pew Research Center s Social amp Demographic Trends Project Retrieved April 1 2022 a b c Lo Wang Hansi March 11 2022 The 2020 census had big undercounts of Black people Latinos and Native Americans National Public Radio Retrieved March 22 2022 Wines Michael September 14 2021 Despite Many Obstacles the 2020 Census Gets a Cautious Thumbs Up The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved April 1 2022 a b c d Gonzalez Barrera Ana Before COVID 19 more Mexicans came to the U S than left for Mexico for the first time in years Pew Research Center Retrieved April 1 2022 Krogstad Jens Manuel Gonzalez Barrera Ana Key facts about U S immigration policies and Biden s proposed changes Pew Research Center Retrieved April 1 2022 Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin 2010 PDF 2010 Census Briefs US Census Bureau see Table 1 Population by Hispanic or Latino Origin and by Race for the United States 2000 and 2010 Bridging 1990 and 2000 census race data Fractional assignment of multiracial populations Archived 2008 10 02 at the Wayback Machine James P Allen and Eugene Turner Department of Geography California State University Northridge Northridge CA Race Ethnicity and the 2020 Census census2020now org March 23 2019 Archived from the original on October 12 2019 Amendment NIH Policy and Guidelines on the Inclusion of Women and Minorities as Subjects in Clinical Research National Institutes of Health October 9 2001 Final Revisions of the Employer Information Report EEO 1 Archived 2009 08 13 at the Wayback Machine by the EEOC The page contains links to FAQs forms and instructionsFurther reading EditAhmad Farah Z Hagler Jamal February 6 2015 The Evolution of Race and Ethnicity Classifications in the Decennial Census Center for American Progress Prewitt Kenneth What Is Your Race The Census and Our Flawed Efforts to Classify Americans Princeton University Press 2013 argues for dropping the race question from the census Prewitt Kenneth Winter 2005 Racial classification in America Daedalus American Academy of Arts and Sciences Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Race and ethnicity in the United States census amp oldid 1129920169, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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