fbpx
Wikipedia

Salar del Huasco

May 02, 2024

Salar del Huasco is a salt flat dotted with ponds and salt marshes, and seasonally partially covered with water, in northern Chile. It is part of Ramsar Site 874,[2] and was, for several years, a national park. The area has a significant population of flamingos.[2]

Salar del Huasco
LocationTarapacá Region, Chile
Coordinates20°18′S 68°51′W / 20.300°S 68.850°W / -20.300; -68.850
Area1,100.49 km2 (424.90 sq mi)
DesignationRamsar Site (1996)
Official nameSalar del Huasco
Designated2 December 1996
Reference no.874[1]

The salt flat is probably bordered by a fault on its western side, and a river delta forms much of its northern edge; it is now crisscrossed by stream channels. In the Pleistocene the salt flat was covered by a lake that was identified through its clay and diatomite sediments and which has left well preserved shorelines and terraces.[3]

Lake edit

Salar del Huasco is in Pica commune,[4] Iquique Province, Tarapaca Region[5] of northern Chile, about 150 kilometres (93 mi) east of Iquique. The area is largely uninhabited[6] owing to its harsh climate.[7] The Chilean roads A-687 and A-685 pass close to Salar del Huasco.[8]

The salt covers a surface of about 50–60 square kilometres (19–23 sq mi)[9] with a roughly rectangular shape, the long sides extending northwest-southeast.[10] The component salts reach a maximum thickness of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in)[11] and are distinct from sea salt,[12] consisting mostly sodium chloride and sodium sulfate[13] such as mirabilite, halite and gypsum; clay and silt are transported into the salt flat by wind.[14] At the centre of the salt flat, the salt deposits are massive, but to the edges they become thinner.[15] The salt flat is covered by an intricate web of canals and lagoons, which constitute areas with distinct flora and fauna.[16] Open water covers an area fluctuating[17] around 2.5 square kilometres (0.97 sq mi)[18] mostly in the form of three waterbodies[19] 5–15 centimetres (2.0–5.9 in) deep;[20] during the wet season larger areas can flood.[11] The largest of these, Laguna del Huasco[5] or Laguna Grande, borders the salar on its western and southern side.[16] Numerous springs surround the salar and form wetlands and water-filled ponds.[16] Some waterbodies are filled with saltwater, others with fresh water.[5] The lowest altitude of the salar is about 3,770 metres (12,370 ft).[8] A fault may cross the western side of Salar del Huasco.[21] The salt flat is surrounded by a mostly sandy ground[21] and two flat plains border it to the north and east, respectively: The Pampa Sillillica and the Pampa Rinconada.[22]

In prehistorical times, a large lake formed at Salar del Huasco[23] and left lake sediments,[24] tufa deposits[25] and shorelines. Water rose 15–18 metres (49–59 ft) and 30 metres (98 ft) above the present-day salar surface,[26] forming a 110 square kilometres (42 sq mi) lake. The maximum water depth may have reached 50–55 metres (164–180 ft).[24] A wave-cut terrace lies about 30 metres (98 ft) elevation above the salar,[25] and a river delta formed where the Collacagua River entered the lake.[27] The lake highstand has been correlated to Lake Tauca on the Altiplano,[24] and its eventual drying with the Holocene Climatic Optimum.[28] When it evaporated, it left the salts now in Salar del Huasco.[13][29]

Geology and watershed edit

The watershed of Salar de Huasco lies in the Altiplano and Andes, covering an area of about 1,500 square kilometres (580 sq mi).[6] It is surrounded by mountain chains with volcanoes, except to the west and south where the Altos de Pica highland delimits the basin. A valley runs north-south in the basin; the Collacagua river runs along its length and Salar del Huasco lies at its southern end. The basin probably formed in the Tertiary through tectonic processes, and was initially open to the east until volcanic activity at the beginning of the Quaternary closed it there. Volcanic rocks and sediments formed by the erosion of volcanic rocks and older outcrops filled the basin, which was affected by faulting[30] and the emplacement of ignimbrites,[31] the last of which was erupted 280,000 years ago.[24] It is a closed basin, meaning that water does not exit it except through evaporation.[32] Three separate aquifers have formed in the basin fill,[33] and are hydrologically connected both to the Collacagua River and the Salar del Huasco. These aquifers are an important water source to Salar del Huasco, helping it to maintain an open water surface,[18] and assuming lack of human interference would buffer the impacts of climate change on the salar.[34] There may be connections between these aquifers and these of Pica west of Salar del Huasco.[35]

The Collacagua River enters Salar del Huasco on its northern shore;[10] it is the principal watercourse of the region[36] and one of the few to permanently carry water,[37] but its waters do not reach the salar directly except during floods.[38] It is about 43 kilometres (27 mi) long and forms through the union of the easterly Piga and the northern Caquina rivers, far north from Salar del Huasco.[39] Otherwise, clockwise from north to south the Quebrada Huallacaibo, Quebrada Rinconada, Quebrada del Corregidor, Quebrada de Huasco and Quebrada Parilca and several nameless creeks join the salar.[40] Salar del Huasco is the principal source of water for the area.[20]

Climate, flora and fauna edit

The salar area has a cold desert climate[9] with a mean annual temperature not exceeding 5 °C (41 °F). Strong temperature variations between day and night, when temperatures can descend below −20 °C (−4 °F)[33] and frost develops around waterbodies.[41] Most precipitation falls during the (southern) summer months[10] when moist air arrives from the Atlantic Ocean via the Amazon.[42] Precipitation varies strongly between years, due to climate oscillations like the El Niño-Southern Oscillation;[43] at Collacagua, mean annual precipitation between 1961 and 2000 reached 134 millimetres (5.3 in)[44] but in the salar area itself it is likely less than 100 millimetres (3.9 in) per year.[45] The air is thin, insolation is high and strong winds blow.[46] During the ice ages, glaciers formed on the mountains and left moraines.[26]

The vegetation consists of a high-elevation steppe[33] and includes several endemic and globally important species, like Polylepis tarapacana and the yareta.[47] In the salar itself, there are surface sediments where most organic productivity is situated, and anaerobic sediments at depth.[48] Several plant communities are found, including bofedales wetlands with Oxychloe andina and Zameioscirpus atacamensis and salt meadows with Carex misera.[49] Mammals include Andean foxes, llamas, tuco-tucos, vicuñas[47] and vizcachas. Other animals[a] are Trichomycterus and Orestias fishes, the Peru water[52] and Telmatobius chusmisensis frogs,[53] Liolaemus lizards,[52] Biomphalaria snails[54] and oribatid mites.[55] These fish are also found in the Isluga River watershed; most likely they came to Huasco through a past connection with the Salar de Uyuni.[56]

Noted birds at Salar del Huasco include Andean avocets, Andean condors, Andean flamingos, Andean goose, Andean gulls, Andean lapwings, Andean negritos, Baird's sandpipers, black-crowned night herons, buff-winged cinclodes, Chilean flamingo, crested ducks, giant coots, James's flamingo, least seedsnipes, lesser yellowlegs, nandus, nuthatchers, Puna plovers, Puna teal, puna tinamous, silvery grebes, Wilson's phalaropes, yellow-billed pintail and yellow-billed teals.[b][61][6][47] There are more than three thousand flamingos at Salar del Huasco,[62] which is their nesting site.[20] Salar del Huasco is a major stopover for bird migrations[6][63] of American golden plovers, Baird's sandpipers, lesser yellowlegs and peregrine falcons.[47]

The ecosystem at Salar del Huasco is very diverse[64] and is used as a stand-in for other Chilean salar ecosystems.[65] Both the flora and fauna include numerous endemics and some species may yet be discovered. Other species are threatened species.[47] Humans hunt waterbirds, and overgrazing has occurred in the area, but overall human impact on Salar del Huasco's land ecosystem is small.[4]

Microbial ecosystems edit

Salar del Huasco has been investigated for its microbial inhabitants.[66] Their communities are dominated by bacteria[67] if viruses aren't counted,[68] with a number of unidentified genera.[69][70] Environmental conditions are extreme, with the lack of water, harsh climate, high insolation, intense wind-driven mixing, lack of oxygen at high elevations and plenty of toxic arsenic,[67][71] and the genomes of microbes found at Salar del Huasco show evidence of adaptations.[72] Various metabolic pathways have been identified in microbes from Salar del Huasco, with different prevalences in different parts of the salar.[73] Various antibiotic substances are produced by microbes from Salar del Huasco.[74] Some bacteria form microbial mats.[67] Salar del Huasco is the type locality of the choanoflagellate Salpingoeca huasca,[75] the gregarine Xiphocephalus ovatus[76] and the bacteria Streptomyces altiplanensis[77] and Streptomyces huasconensis.[78]

Human exploitation and conservation edit

Numerous archeological sites[c] are found around the salar. They go back to the last ice age, when the lake was larger and its environment drew hunter-gatherers to Salar del Huasco.[80] Populations persisted after it dried up.[81] Animal corrals and trails have been mapped around Salar del Huasco.[82] Later archaeological sites have been linked to the Inca presence in northern Chile;[83] El Tojo in the Huasco basin is the reference site for Inca activities in the region,[84] where an Inca road connected Pica with the Altiplano[84] and was frequently used in historic times.[28] In the 20th century, the area of the salar was used for pastures.[28]

Tourists visit Salar del Huasco for its animal life and the spectacular environment,[4] and the salar is an important destination in the region.[85] The salar is well preserved[19] and the Chilean government has identified Huasco as an important environmental site;[63] in 1996 it was declared a Ramsar site.[86] The Salar del Huasco National Park was declared on 5 June 2010[15] only to be reversed in February 2014,[53] due to failure to involve the indigenous population in the process.[87] Numerous national organizations are involved in managing the site,[88] but they cannot always enforce protections.[89]

In the late 20th century, there were proposals to obtain water from Salar del Huasco for irrigation in Pica. A concession for the exploitation of the Huasco aquifer in 1889 was reduced again in 1890.[90] The copper mining industry of northern Chile requires water,[6] and the Collahuasi mining company obtained a licence to draw water from the salar[91] from the Chilean state despite the Ramsar protection.[92] As of 2020, water rights in the Huasco basin are held by the native people through the Asociación indígena Aymara Laguna del Huasco.[93] Water withdrawals have caused significant damage in the Salar del Huasco area;[94] whether they have effects on Pica is unclear[85] — the groundwater bodies are not connected but excessive withdrawals from Huasco could cause a shift in the underground drainage divide and thus reduce flows to Pica[95] — with communities in Pica concerned about potential water losses.[96] The salt flat has been evaluated as a source of sodium sulfate.[97]

Notes edit

  1. ^ Animals eaten by fish include beetles, caddisflies, cladocerans, copepods, crustaceans, flies, gastropods, odonata, oligochaetes, ostracods, planarians, rotifers and spiders[50][51]
  2. ^ Older research found American coots,[57] buff-breasted earthcreepers,[58] mountain caracaras,[59] ornate tinamous,[60] scale-throated earthcreepers and [58] white-banded mockingbirds[58]
  3. ^ With lithic artifacts.[79]

References edit

  1. ^ "Salar del Huasco". Ramsar Sites Information Service. from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
  2. ^ a b "The Annotated Ramsar List: Chile". Ramsar. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
  3. ^ Stoertz, George E.; Ericksen, George Edward (1974). "Geology of salars in Northern Chile". Professional Paper. doi:10.3133/pp811. ISSN 2330-7102. from the original on 2023-04-19. Retrieved 2018-11-24.
  4. ^ a b c Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo & Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002, p. 10.
  5. ^ a b c Sielfeld et al. 1996, p. 18.
  6. ^ a b c d e Acosta & Custodio 2008, p. 34.
  7. ^ Muñoz 2009, p. 3.
  8. ^ a b Muñoz 2009, p. 5.
  9. ^ a b Blin et al. 2022, p. 4.
  10. ^ a b c Acosta & Custodio 2008, p. 36.
  11. ^ a b Garcés 2000, p. 1159.
  12. ^ Dorador et al. 2010, p. 292.
  13. ^ a b Garcés Millas & López Julián 2013, p. 110.
  14. ^ Fontboté et al. 1990, p. 714.
  15. ^ a b Gardeweg & Sellés 2013, p. 33.
  16. ^ a b c Muñoz 2009, p. 68.
  17. ^ Farías 2020, p. 124.
  18. ^ a b Acosta & Custodio 2008, p. 39.
  19. ^ a b Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo & Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002, p. 7.
  20. ^ a b c Blin et al. 2022, p. 3.
  21. ^ a b Pavlopoulos, Evelpidou & Vassilopoulos 2009, p. 221.
  22. ^ Muñoz 2009, p. 23.
  23. ^ Muñoz 2009, p. 60.
  24. ^ a b c d Gardeweg & Sellés 2013, p. 31.
  25. ^ a b Brüggen 1929, p. 5.
  26. ^ a b Paskoff 1977, p. 3.
  27. ^ Gardeweg & Sellés 2013, p. 32.
  28. ^ a b c Núñez & Varela 1966, p. 11.
  29. ^ Núñez & Varela 1966, p. 10.
  30. ^ Acosta & Custodio 2008, p. 35.
  31. ^ Gardeweg & Sellés 2013, p. 5.
  32. ^ Pavlopoulos, Evelpidou & Vassilopoulos 2009, p. 219.
  33. ^ a b c Acosta & Custodio 2008, p. 37.
  34. ^ Blin et al. 2022, p. 16.
  35. ^ Uribe et al. 2015, p. 1539.
  36. ^ Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo & Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002, p. 8.
  37. ^ Muñoz 2009, p. 61.
  38. ^ Uribe et al. 2015, p. 1538.
  39. ^ Muñoz 2009, p. 65.
  40. ^ Muñoz 2009, p. 64.
  41. ^ Bowman 1924, p. 25.
  42. ^ Acosta & Custodio 2008, p. 42.
  43. ^ Uribe et al. 2015, p. 1537.
  44. ^ Acosta & Custodio 2008, pp. 36, 37.
  45. ^ Muñoz 2009, p. 128.
  46. ^ Muñoz 2009, p. 94.
  47. ^ a b c d e Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo & Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002, p. 9.
  48. ^ de la Fuente, Ordóñez & Pérez 2016, p. 553.
  49. ^ Morales Peillard 2011, p. 10.
  50. ^ Guzmán & Sielfeld 2009.
  51. ^ Riveros, Vila & Méndez 2012, p. 83.
  52. ^ a b Morales Peillard 2011, p. 13.
  53. ^ a b Lobos et al. 2021, p. 1.
  54. ^ Collado, Vila & Méndez 2011, p. 619.
  55. ^ Covarrubias & Mellado 1998, p. 40.
  56. ^ Vila 2006, p. 87.
  57. ^ Philippi, Johnson & Goodall 1944, p. 83.
  58. ^ a b c Philippi, Johnson & Goodall 1944, p. 99.
  59. ^ Philippi, Johnson & Goodall 1944, p. 81.
  60. ^ Philippi, Johnson & Goodall 1944, p. 73.
  61. ^ Sielfeld et al. 1996, pp. 20, 22.
  62. ^ Sielfeld et al. 1996, p. 22.
  63. ^ a b Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo & Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002, p. 5.
  64. ^ Castro-Severyn et al. 2021, p. 16.
  65. ^ Farías 2020, p. 123.
  66. ^ Demergasso et al. 2010, p. 2.
  67. ^ a b c Farías 2020, p. 125.
  68. ^ Farías 2020, p. 129.
  69. ^ Castro-Severyn et al. 2021, p. 12.
  70. ^ Dorador et al. 2010, p. 298.
  71. ^ Castro-Severyn et al. 2021, p. 2.
  72. ^ Farías 2020, pp. 131–132.
  73. ^ Castro-Severyn et al. 2021, p. 6.
  74. ^ Bull & Asenjo 2013, p. 1176.
  75. ^ Farías 2020, p. 130.
  76. ^ Nitsche et al. 2023, p. 10.
  77. ^ Cortés-Albayay et al. 2019, p. 2320.
  78. ^ Cortés-Albayay et al. 2019, p. 2320.
  79. ^ Atencio 1975, p. 61.
  80. ^ Morales Peillard 2011, p. 14.
  81. ^ Núñez, Grosjean & Cartajena 2002, p. 822.
  82. ^ Bowman 1909, p. 273.
  83. ^ Berenguer & Cáceres 2008, p. 128.
  84. ^ a b Berenguer & Cáceres 2008, p. 121.
  85. ^ a b Larraín & Poo 2010, p. 89.
  86. ^ Uribe et al. 2015, p. 1536.
  87. ^ García & Mulrennan 2020, p. 209.
  88. ^ Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo & Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002, p. 11.
  89. ^ Larraín & Poo 2010, p. 91.
  90. ^ Castro 2004.
  91. ^ Toledo & Sambolín 2019, p. 2.
  92. ^ Larraín & Poo 2010, p. 92.
  93. ^ Lizama-Allende et al. 2022, p. 19.
  94. ^ Leiva Gómez 2010.
  95. ^ Scheihing, Moya & Tröger 2017, p. 1850.
  96. ^ Larraín & Poo 2010, p. 96.
  97. ^ Gardeweg & Sellés 2013, p. 42.

Sources edit

  • Acosta, O.; Custodio, E. (2008). (Report) (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2024-02-06. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Atencio, Lautaro Núñez (1975). "Dinámica de grupos precerámicos en el perfil costa-altiplano, norte de Chile". Estudios Atacameños (En línea) (in Spanish) (3): 54–66. doi:10.22199/S07181043.1975.0003.00009. ISSN 0718-1043. from the original on 2024-02-06. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Berenguer, José; Cáceres, Iván (December 2008). "Los Inkas en el Altiplano Sur de Tarapaca: El Tojo Revisitado" (PDF). Chungará (Arica). 40 (2): 121–143. doi:10.4067/S0717-73562008000200002. ISSN 0717-7356. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  • Blin, Nicole; Hausner, Mark; Leray, Sarah; Lowry, Christopher; Suárez, Francisco (February 2022). "Potential impacts of climate change on an aquifer in the arid Altiplano, northern Chile: The case of the protected wetlands of the Salar del Huasco basin". Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies. 39: 100996. Bibcode:2022JHyRS..3900996B. doi:10.1016/j.ejrh.2022.100996. S2CID 245947512.
  • Bowman, Isaiah (1909). "Man and Climatic Change in South America". The Geographical Journal. 33 (3): 267–278. Bibcode:1909GeogJ..33..267B. doi:10.2307/1776900. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 1776900. from the original on 2024-02-06. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Bowman, I (1924). Desert trails of Atacama. American Geographical Society – via File:Isaiah Bowman - Desert Trails of Atacama (1924).pdf.
  • Brüggen, J. (April 1929). "Zur Glazialgeologie der chilenischen Anden". Geologische Rundschau. 20 (1): 1–35. Bibcode:1929GeoRu..20....1B. doi:10.1007/bf01805072. S2CID 128436981. from the original on 2024-01-07. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  • Bull, Alan T.; Asenjo, Juan A. (June 2013). "Microbiology of hyper-arid environments: recent insights from the Atacama Desert, Chile" (PDF). Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 103 (6): 1173–1179. doi:10.1007/s10482-013-9911-7. PMID 23564162. S2CID 254227183.
  • Castro, Luis (January 2004). "RECURSOS HÍDRICOS ALTOANDINOS, ESTRATEGIAS DE DESARROLLO ECONÓMICO Y ROYECTOS DE RIEGO: TARAPACÁ, 1880-1930". Chungará (Arica). 36 (1): 205–220. doi:10.4067/S0717-73562004000100006. ISSN 0717-7356. from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  • Castro-Severyn, Juan; Pardo-Esté, Coral; Mendez, Katterinne N.; Fortt, Jonathan; Marquez, Sebastian; Molina, Franck; Castro-Nallar, Eduardo; Remonsellez, Francisco; Saavedra, Claudia P. (3 September 2021). "Living to the High Extreme: Unraveling the Composition, Structure, and Functional Insights of Bacterial Communities Thriving in the Arsenic-Rich Salar de Huasco Altiplanic Ecosystem". Microbiology Spectrum. 9 (1): e0044421. doi:10.1128/Spectrum.00444-21. ISSN 2165-0497. PMC 8552739. PMID 34190603.
  • Collado, Gonzalo A.; Vila, Irma; Méndez, Marco A. (November 2011). "Monophyly, candidate species and vicariance in Biomphalaria snails (Mollusca: Planorbidae) from the Southern Andean Altiplano". Zoologica Scripta. 40 (6): 613–622. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2011.00491.x. S2CID 84024906.
  • Cortés-Albayay, Carlos; Dorador, Cristina; Schumann, Peter; Andrews, Barbara; Asenjo, Juan; Nouioui, Imen (2019). "Streptomyces huasconensis sp. nov., an haloalkalitolerant actinobacterium isolated from a high altitude saline wetland at the Chilean Altiplano". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 69 (8): 2315–2322. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.003468. ISSN 1466-5034. PMID 31135331. S2CID 167219564. from the original on 2023-09-28. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  • Cortés-Albayay, Carlos; Dorador, Cristina; Schumann, Peter; Schniete, Jana K.; Herron, Paul; Andrews, Barbara; Asenjo, Juan; Nouioui, Imen (2019). "Streptomyces altiplanensis sp. nov., an alkalitolerant species isolated from Chilean Altiplano soil, and emended description of Streptomyces chryseus (Krasil'nikov et al. 1965) Pridham 1970" (PDF). International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 69 (8): 2498–2505. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.003525. ISSN 1466-5034. PMID 31204968. S2CID 189944639. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  • Covarrubias, René; Mellado, Ignacio (1998). "ORIBÁTIDOS DE CHILE (ACARIÑA: ORIBATIDA) II. ESPECIES ASOCIADAS A PLANTAS ACUÁTICAS". Acta Entomológica Chilena (in Spanish). 22: 37–44. ISSN 0716-5072. from the original on 2024-02-06. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo; Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (April 2002). Proyecto CHI/01/G36. Conservación de la biodiversidad y manejo sustentable del Salar del Huasco: Plan detallado de trabajo (Report) (in Spanish). Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo. from the original on 2024-02-06. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • de la Fuente, Alberto; Ordóñez, César; Pérez, Rodrigo (June 2016). "Diffusional mass transfer coefficient at the water–sediment interface for wind-induced flow in very shallow lagoons". Environmental Fluid Mechanics. 16 (3): 539–558. Bibcode:2016EFM....16..539D. doi:10.1007/s10652-015-9437-9. S2CID 54910510.
  • Demergasso, Cecilia; Dorador, Cristina; Meneses, Daniela; Blamey, Jenny; Cabrol, Nathalie; Escudero, Lorena; Chong, Guillermo (June 2010). "Prokaryotic diversity pattern in high-altitude ecosystems of the Chilean Altiplano". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 115 (G2). Bibcode:2010JGRG..115.0D09D. doi:10.1029/2008JG000836.
  • Dorador, Cristina; Vila, Irma; Remonsellez, Francisco; Imhoff, Johannes F.; Witzel, Karl-Paul (19 April 2010). "Unique clusters of Archaea in Salar de Huasco, an athalassohaline evaporitic basin of the Chilean Altiplano: Archaeal diversity in Salar de Huasco". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 73 (2): 291–302. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2010.00891.x. PMID 20491927.
  • Farías, María Eugenia, ed. (2020). Microbial Ecosystems in Central Andes Extreme Environments: Biofilms, Microbial Mats, Microbialites and Endoevaporites. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-36192-1. ISBN 978-3-030-36191-4. S2CID 218912960. from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Fontboté, Lluís; Amstutz, G. Christian; Cardozo, Miguel; Cedillo, Esteban; Frutos, José, eds. (1990). Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-88282-1. ISBN 978-3-642-88284-5. from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Garcés, I. (2000). Geochemistry of Huasco salar, Chile. Origin of solutes and brine evolution. Proceedings of the 8th world salt symposium. Vol. 2.
  • Gardeweg, M.; Sellés, D. (2013). "Geología del área Collacagua–Rinconada, Región de Tarapacá". Carta Geológica de Chile, Serie Geología Básica (in Spanish). SERNAGEOMIN – via ResearchGate.
  • Garcés Millas, I.; López Julián, P. (2013). "Monitoreo geoquímico de un sistema evaporítico natural: salar de Huasco (Chile)". Revista Facultad de Ingeniería Universidad de Antioquia (52): 108–122. from the original on 2024-02-06. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • García, Magdalena; Mulrennan, Monica E. (2020). "Tracking the History of Protected Areas in Chile: Territorialization Strategies and Shifting State Rationalities". Journal of Latin American Geography. 19 (4): 199–234. doi:10.1353/lag.2020.0085.
  • Guzmán, Jonathan A.; Sielfeld, Walter (2009). "Dieta de Orestias Agassii (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1846) (Teleostei: Cyprinidontidae) del Salar del Huasco, Norte de Chile". Gayana (Concepción). 73 (1): 17–27. doi:10.4067/S0717-65382009000100004. ISSN 0717-6538. S2CID 84634803.
  • Larraín, Sara; Poo, Pamela (March 2010). Conflictos por el agua en Chile: Entre los derechos humanos y las reglas del mercado (in Spanish). Programa Chile Sustentable. ISBN 978-956-7889-426. from the original on 2021-10-19. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  • Leiva Gómez, Sandra (December 2010). "Empleos Verdes en la Gran Minería del Norte Grande de Chile". Umbrales. Revista del Postgrado Multidisciplinario en Ciencias del Desarrollo: 183. from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  • Lizama-Allende, Katherine; Rámila, Consuelo d. P.; Leiva, Eduardo; Guerra, Paula; Ayala, José (December 2022). "Evaluation of surface water quality in basins of the Chilean Altiplano-Puna and implications for water treatment and monitoring". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 194 (12): 926. Bibcode:2022EMnAs.194..926L. doi:10.1007/s10661-022-10628-1. PMC 9580442. PMID 36260192.
  • Lobos, Gabriel; Rebolledo, Nicolás; Salinas, Hugo; Fibla, Pablo; Saez, Paola A.; Mendez, Marco A. (5 February 2021). "Ecological features of Telmatobius chusmisensis (Anura: Telmatobiidae), a poorly known species from northern Chile". South American Journal of Herpetology. 20 (1). doi:10.2994/SAJH-D-18-00019.1.
  • Morales Peillard, Pablo (2011). (Report) (in Spanish). Universidad de Chile. Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas. Departamento de Economía Agraria. Archived from the original on 2022-05-25. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Muñoz, José (November 2009). (Report) (in Spanish). Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Archived from the original on 2022-08-09. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Nitsche, Frank; Carduck, Sarah; von Ameln, Joshua; Mach, Niclas; Dorador, Cristina; Predel, Reinhard; Rueckert, Sonja; Arndt, Hartmut (August 2023). "Gregarines from darkling beetles of the Atacama Desert, Atacamagregarina paposa gen. et sp. nov. from Scotobius and Xiphocephalus ovatus sp. nov. from Psectrascelis (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae)". European Journal of Protistology. 90: 126008. doi:10.1016/j.ejop.2023.126008. PMID 37536234. S2CID 260009377.
  • Núñez, Lautaro; Grosjean, Martin; Cartajena, Isabel (25 October 2002). "Human Occupations and Climate Change in the Puna de Atacama, Chile". Science. 298 (5594): 821–824. Bibcode:2002Sci...298..821N. doi:10.1126/science.1076449. PMID 12399589. S2CID 44604897.
  • Núñez, Lautaro; Varela, Julio (1966). "Complejo preagrícola en el Salar de Huasco (provincia de Tarapacá)". Estudios Arqueológicos (in Spanish). 2: 9–24.
  • Paskoff, Roland P. (July 1977). "Quaternary of Chile: The State of Research". Quaternary Research. 8 (1): 2–31. Bibcode:1977QuRes...8....2P. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(77)90054-0. S2CID 128552894.
  • Pavlopoulos, Kosmas; Evelpidou, Niki; Vassilopoulos, Andreas (2009). Mapping Geomorphological Environments. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-01950-0. ISBN 978-3-642-01949-4.
  • Sielfeld, Walter; Amado, N.; Herreros, Jorge; Peredo, R.; Rebolledo, A. (1996). "La avifauna del Salar de Huasco: primera región, Chile" (PDF). Boletín chileno de Ornitología (in Spanish). 3: 17–24. (PDF) from the original on 2024-02-06. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Philippi, Rodulfo A.; Johnson, Alfredo W.; Goodall, Jack D. (28 December 1944). "Expedición ornitológica al Norte de Chile". Boletín Museo Nacional de Historia Natural (in Spanish). 22: 65–120. doi:10.54830/bmnhn.v22.1944.663. ISSN 0719-935X. S2CID 264089222. from the original on 7 February 2024. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  • Riveros, José; Vila, Irma; Méndez, Marco A. (2012). "Nicho trófico de Orestias agassii (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1846) del sistema de arroyos del salar de Huasco (20°05'S; 68°15'W)". Gayana (Concepción). 76 (2): 79–91. doi:10.4067/S0717-65382012000300001. ISSN 0717-6538. from the original on 2023-06-02. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  • Scheihing, Konstantin W.; Moya, Claudio E.; Tröger, Uwe (September 2017). "Insights into Andean slope hydrology: reservoir characteristics of the thermal Pica spring system, Pampa del Tamarugal, northern Chile". Hydrogeology Journal. 25 (6): 1833–1852. Bibcode:2017HydJ...25.1833S. doi:10.1007/s10040-017-1533-0. S2CID 133067913.
  • Toledo, Hugo Romero; Sambolín, Aurora (1 April 2019). "611. Indigeneidad y territorio: los aymaras y quechuas en el Norte de Chile". Scripta Nova. Revista Electrónica de Geografía y Ciencias Sociales (in Spanish). 23. doi:10.1344/sn2019.23.20408. ISSN 1138-9788. S2CID 197724816. from the original on 7 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  • Uribe, Javier; Muñoz, José F.; Gironás, Jorge; Oyarzún, Ricardo; Aguirre, Evelyn; Aravena, Ramón (November 2015). "Assessing groundwater recharge in an Andean closed basin using isotopic characterization and a rainfall-runoff model: Salar del Huasco basin, Chile". Hydrogeology Journal. 23 (7): 1535–1551. Bibcode:2015HydJ...23.1535U. doi:10.1007/s10040-015-1300-z. S2CID 127896481. from the original on 2022-10-27. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  • Vila, Irma (2006). Macrófitas y vertebrados de los sistemas límnicos de Chile. Editorial Universitaria (in Spanish) – via Google Books.


May 02, 2024
salar, huasco, salt, flat, dotted, with, ponds, salt, marshes, seasonally, partially, covered, with, water, northern, chile, part, ramsar, site, several, years, national, park, area, significant, population, flamingos, locationtarapacá, region, chilecoordinate. Salar del Huasco is a salt flat dotted with ponds and salt marshes and seasonally partially covered with water in northern Chile It is part of Ramsar Site 874 2 and was for several years a national park The area has a significant population of flamingos 2 Salar del HuascoLocationTarapaca Region ChileCoordinates20 18 S 68 51 W 20 300 S 68 850 W 20 300 68 850Area1 100 49 km2 424 90 sq mi DesignationRamsar Site 1996 Ramsar WetlandOfficial nameSalar del HuascoDesignated2 December 1996Reference no 874 1 The salt flat is probably bordered by a fault on its western side and a river delta forms much of its northern edge it is now crisscrossed by stream channels In the Pleistocene the salt flat was covered by a lake that was identified through its clay and diatomite sediments and which has left well preserved shorelines and terraces 3 Contents 1 Lake 2 Geology and watershed 3 Climate flora and fauna 3 1 Microbial ecosystems 4 Human exploitation and conservation 5 Notes 6 References 6 1 SourcesLake editSalar del Huasco is in Pica commune 4 Iquique Province Tarapaca Region 5 of northern Chile about 150 kilometres 93 mi east of Iquique The area is largely uninhabited 6 owing to its harsh climate 7 The Chilean roads A 687 and A 685 pass close to Salar del Huasco 8 The salt covers a surface of about 50 60 square kilometres 19 23 sq mi 9 with a roughly rectangular shape the long sides extending northwest southeast 10 The component salts reach a maximum thickness of 1 5 metres 4 ft 11 in 11 and are distinct from sea salt 12 consisting mostly sodium chloride and sodium sulfate 13 such as mirabilite halite and gypsum clay and silt are transported into the salt flat by wind 14 At the centre of the salt flat the salt deposits are massive but to the edges they become thinner 15 The salt flat is covered by an intricate web of canals and lagoons which constitute areas with distinct flora and fauna 16 Open water covers an area fluctuating 17 around 2 5 square kilometres 0 97 sq mi 18 mostly in the form of three waterbodies 19 5 15 centimetres 2 0 5 9 in deep 20 during the wet season larger areas can flood 11 The largest of these Laguna del Huasco 5 or Laguna Grande borders the salar on its western and southern side 16 Numerous springs surround the salar and form wetlands and water filled ponds 16 Some waterbodies are filled with saltwater others with fresh water 5 The lowest altitude of the salar is about 3 770 metres 12 370 ft 8 A fault may cross the western side of Salar del Huasco 21 The salt flat is surrounded by a mostly sandy ground 21 and two flat plains border it to the north and east respectively The Pampa Sillillica and the Pampa Rinconada 22 In prehistorical times a large lake formed at Salar del Huasco 23 and left lake sediments 24 tufa deposits 25 and shorelines Water rose 15 18 metres 49 59 ft and 30 metres 98 ft above the present day salar surface 26 forming a 110 square kilometres 42 sq mi lake The maximum water depth may have reached 50 55 metres 164 180 ft 24 A wave cut terrace lies about 30 metres 98 ft elevation above the salar 25 and a river delta formed where the Collacagua River entered the lake 27 The lake highstand has been correlated to Lake Tauca on the Altiplano 24 and its eventual drying with the Holocene Climatic Optimum 28 When it evaporated it left the salts now in Salar del Huasco 13 29 Geology and watershed editThe watershed of Salar de Huasco lies in the Altiplano and Andes covering an area of about 1 500 square kilometres 580 sq mi 6 It is surrounded by mountain chains with volcanoes except to the west and south where the Altos de Pica highland delimits the basin A valley runs north south in the basin the Collacagua river runs along its length and Salar del Huasco lies at its southern end The basin probably formed in the Tertiary through tectonic processes and was initially open to the east until volcanic activity at the beginning of the Quaternary closed it there Volcanic rocks and sediments formed by the erosion of volcanic rocks and older outcrops filled the basin which was affected by faulting 30 and the emplacement of ignimbrites 31 the last of which was erupted 280 000 years ago 24 It is a closed basin meaning that water does not exit it except through evaporation 32 Three separate aquifers have formed in the basin fill 33 and are hydrologically connected both to the Collacagua River and the Salar del Huasco These aquifers are an important water source to Salar del Huasco helping it to maintain an open water surface 18 and assuming lack of human interference would buffer the impacts of climate change on the salar 34 There may be connections between these aquifers and these of Pica west of Salar del Huasco 35 The Collacagua River enters Salar del Huasco on its northern shore 10 it is the principal watercourse of the region 36 and one of the few to permanently carry water 37 but its waters do not reach the salar directly except during floods 38 It is about 43 kilometres 27 mi long and forms through the union of the easterly Piga and the northern Caquina rivers far north from Salar del Huasco 39 Otherwise clockwise from north to south the Quebrada Huallacaibo Quebrada Rinconada Quebrada del Corregidor Quebrada de Huasco and Quebrada Parilca and several nameless creeks join the salar 40 Salar del Huasco is the principal source of water for the area 20 Climate flora and fauna editThe salar area has a cold desert climate 9 with a mean annual temperature not exceeding 5 C 41 F Strong temperature variations between day and night when temperatures can descend below 20 C 4 F 33 and frost develops around waterbodies 41 Most precipitation falls during the southern summer months 10 when moist air arrives from the Atlantic Ocean via the Amazon 42 Precipitation varies strongly between years due to climate oscillations like the El Nino Southern Oscillation 43 at Collacagua mean annual precipitation between 1961 and 2000 reached 134 millimetres 5 3 in 44 but in the salar area itself it is likely less than 100 millimetres 3 9 in per year 45 The air is thin insolation is high and strong winds blow 46 During the ice ages glaciers formed on the mountains and left moraines 26 The vegetation consists of a high elevation steppe 33 and includes several endemic and globally important species like Polylepis tarapacana and the yareta 47 In the salar itself there are surface sediments where most organic productivity is situated and anaerobic sediments at depth 48 Several plant communities are found including bofedales wetlands with Oxychloe andina and Zameioscirpus atacamensis and salt meadows with Carex misera 49 Mammals include Andean foxes llamas tuco tucos vicunas 47 and vizcachas Other animals a are Trichomycterus and Orestias fishes the Peru water 52 and Telmatobius chusmisensis frogs 53 Liolaemus lizards 52 Biomphalaria snails 54 and oribatid mites 55 These fish are also found in the Isluga River watershed most likely they came to Huasco through a past connection with the Salar de Uyuni 56 Noted birds at Salar del Huasco include Andean avocets Andean condors Andean flamingos Andean goose Andean gulls Andean lapwings Andean negritos Baird s sandpipers black crowned night herons buff winged cinclodes Chilean flamingo crested ducks giant coots James s flamingo least seedsnipes lesser yellowlegs nandus nuthatchers Puna plovers Puna teal puna tinamous silvery grebes Wilson s phalaropes yellow billed pintail and yellow billed teals b 61 6 47 There are more than three thousand flamingos at Salar del Huasco 62 which is their nesting site 20 Salar del Huasco is a major stopover for bird migrations 6 63 of American golden plovers Baird s sandpipers lesser yellowlegs and peregrine falcons 47 The ecosystem at Salar del Huasco is very diverse 64 and is used as a stand in for other Chilean salar ecosystems 65 Both the flora and fauna include numerous endemics and some species may yet be discovered Other species are threatened species 47 Humans hunt waterbirds and overgrazing has occurred in the area but overall human impact on Salar del Huasco s land ecosystem is small 4 Microbial ecosystems edit Salar del Huasco has been investigated for its microbial inhabitants 66 Their communities are dominated by bacteria 67 if viruses aren t counted 68 with a number of unidentified genera 69 70 Environmental conditions are extreme with the lack of water harsh climate high insolation intense wind driven mixing lack of oxygen at high elevations and plenty of toxic arsenic 67 71 and the genomes of microbes found at Salar del Huasco show evidence of adaptations 72 Various metabolic pathways have been identified in microbes from Salar del Huasco with different prevalences in different parts of the salar 73 Various antibiotic substances are produced by microbes from Salar del Huasco 74 Some bacteria form microbial mats 67 Salar del Huasco is the type locality of the choanoflagellate Salpingoeca huasca 75 the gregarine Xiphocephalus ovatus 76 and the bacteria Streptomyces altiplanensis 77 and Streptomyces huasconensis 78 Human exploitation and conservation editNumerous archeological sites c are found around the salar They go back to the last ice age when the lake was larger and its environment drew hunter gatherers to Salar del Huasco 80 Populations persisted after it dried up 81 Animal corrals and trails have been mapped around Salar del Huasco 82 Later archaeological sites have been linked to the Inca presence in northern Chile 83 El Tojo in the Huasco basin is the reference site for Inca activities in the region 84 where an Inca road connected Pica with the Altiplano 84 and was frequently used in historic times 28 In the 20th century the area of the salar was used for pastures 28 Tourists visit Salar del Huasco for its animal life and the spectacular environment 4 and the salar is an important destination in the region 85 The salar is well preserved 19 and the Chilean government has identified Huasco as an important environmental site 63 in 1996 it was declared a Ramsar site 86 The Salar del Huasco National Park was declared on 5 June 2010 15 only to be reversed in February 2014 53 due to failure to involve the indigenous population in the process 87 Numerous national organizations are involved in managing the site 88 but they cannot always enforce protections 89 In the late 20th century there were proposals to obtain water from Salar del Huasco for irrigation in Pica A concession for the exploitation of the Huasco aquifer in 1889 was reduced again in 1890 90 The copper mining industry of northern Chile requires water 6 and the Collahuasi mining company obtained a licence to draw water from the salar 91 from the Chilean state despite the Ramsar protection 92 As of 2020 update water rights in the Huasco basin are held by the native people through the Asociacion indigena Aymara Laguna del Huasco 93 Water withdrawals have caused significant damage in the Salar del Huasco area 94 whether they have effects on Pica is unclear 85 the groundwater bodies are not connected but excessive withdrawals from Huasco could cause a shift in the underground drainage divide and thus reduce flows to Pica 95 with communities in Pica concerned about potential water losses 96 The salt flat has been evaluated as a source of sodium sulfate 97 Notes edit Animals eaten by fish include beetles caddisflies cladocerans copepods crustaceans flies gastropods odonata oligochaetes ostracods planarians rotifers and spiders 50 51 Older research found American coots 57 buff breasted earthcreepers 58 mountain caracaras 59 ornate tinamous 60 scale throated earthcreepers and 58 white banded mockingbirds 58 With lithic artifacts 79 References edit Salar del Huasco Ramsar Sites Information Service Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 Retrieved 25 April 2018 a b The Annotated Ramsar List Chile Ramsar Archived from the original on 15 April 2013 Retrieved 7 May 2012 Stoertz George E Ericksen George Edward 1974 Geology of salars in Northern Chile Professional Paper doi 10 3133 pp811 ISSN 2330 7102 Archived from the original on 2023 04 19 Retrieved 2018 11 24 a b c Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo amp Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002 p 10 a b c Sielfeld et al 1996 p 18 a b c d e Acosta amp Custodio 2008 p 34 Munoz 2009 p 3 a b Munoz 2009 p 5 a b Blin et al 2022 p 4 a b c Acosta amp Custodio 2008 p 36 a b Garces 2000 p 1159 Dorador et al 2010 p 292 a b Garces Millas amp Lopez Julian 2013 p 110 Fontbote et al 1990 p 714 a b Gardeweg amp Selles 2013 p 33 a b c Munoz 2009 p 68 Farias 2020 p 124 a b Acosta amp Custodio 2008 p 39 a b Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo amp Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002 p 7 a b c Blin et al 2022 p 3 a b Pavlopoulos Evelpidou amp Vassilopoulos 2009 p 221 Munoz 2009 p 23 Munoz 2009 p 60 a b c d Gardeweg amp Selles 2013 p 31 a b Bruggen 1929 p 5 a b Paskoff 1977 p 3 Gardeweg amp Selles 2013 p 32 a b c Nunez amp Varela 1966 p 11 Nunez amp Varela 1966 p 10 Acosta amp Custodio 2008 p 35 Gardeweg amp Selles 2013 p 5 Pavlopoulos Evelpidou amp Vassilopoulos 2009 p 219 a b c Acosta amp Custodio 2008 p 37 Blin et al 2022 p 16 Uribe et al 2015 p 1539 Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo amp Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002 p 8 Munoz 2009 p 61 Uribe et al 2015 p 1538 Munoz 2009 p 65 Munoz 2009 p 64 Bowman 1924 p 25 Acosta amp Custodio 2008 p 42 Uribe et al 2015 p 1537 Acosta amp Custodio 2008 pp 36 37 Munoz 2009 p 128 Munoz 2009 p 94 a b c d e Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo amp Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002 p 9 de la Fuente Ordonez amp Perez 2016 p 553 Morales Peillard 2011 p 10 Guzman amp Sielfeld 2009 Riveros Vila amp Mendez 2012 p 83 a b Morales Peillard 2011 p 13 a b Lobos et al 2021 p 1 Collado Vila amp Mendez 2011 p 619 Covarrubias amp Mellado 1998 p 40 Vila 2006 p 87 Philippi Johnson amp Goodall 1944 p 83 a b c Philippi Johnson amp Goodall 1944 p 99 Philippi Johnson amp Goodall 1944 p 81 Philippi Johnson amp Goodall 1944 p 73 Sielfeld et al 1996 pp 20 22 Sielfeld et al 1996 p 22 a b Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo amp Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002 p 5 Castro Severyn et al 2021 p 16 Farias 2020 p 123 Demergasso et al 2010 p 2 a b c Farias 2020 p 125 Farias 2020 p 129 Castro Severyn et al 2021 p 12 Dorador et al 2010 p 298 Castro Severyn et al 2021 p 2 Farias 2020 pp 131 132 Castro Severyn et al 2021 p 6 Bull amp Asenjo 2013 p 1176 Farias 2020 p 130 Nitsche et al 2023 p 10 Cortes Albayay et al 2019 p 2320 Cortes Albayay et al 2019 p 2320 Atencio 1975 p 61 Morales Peillard 2011 p 14 Nunez Grosjean amp Cartajena 2002 p 822 Bowman 1909 p 273 Berenguer amp Caceres 2008 p 128 a b Berenguer amp Caceres 2008 p 121 a b Larrain amp Poo 2010 p 89 Uribe et al 2015 p 1536 Garcia amp Mulrennan 2020 p 209 Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo amp Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo 2002 p 11 Larrain amp Poo 2010 p 91 Castro 2004 Toledo amp Sambolin 2019 p 2 Larrain amp Poo 2010 p 92 Lizama Allende et al 2022 p 19 Leiva Gomez 2010 Scheihing Moya amp Troger 2017 p 1850 Larrain amp Poo 2010 p 96 Gardeweg amp Selles 2013 p 42 Sources edit Acosta O Custodio E 2008 Impactos ambientales de las extracciones de agua subterranea en el Salar del Huasco norte de Chile Report in Spanish Archived from the original on 2024 02 06 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Atencio Lautaro Nunez 1975 Dinamica de grupos preceramicos en el perfil costa altiplano norte de Chile Estudios Atacamenos En linea in Spanish 3 54 66 doi 10 22199 S07181043 1975 0003 00009 ISSN 0718 1043 Archived from the original on 2024 02 06 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Berenguer Jose Caceres Ivan December 2008 Los Inkas en el Altiplano Sur de Tarapaca El Tojo Revisitado PDF Chungara Arica 40 2 121 143 doi 10 4067 S0717 73562008000200002 ISSN 0717 7356 Retrieved 2024 02 08 Blin Nicole Hausner Mark Leray Sarah Lowry Christopher Suarez Francisco February 2022 Potential impacts of climate change on an aquifer in the arid Altiplano northern Chile The case of the protected wetlands of the Salar del Huasco basin Journal of Hydrology Regional Studies 39 100996 Bibcode 2022JHyRS 3900996B doi 10 1016 j ejrh 2022 100996 S2CID 245947512 Bowman Isaiah 1909 Man and Climatic Change in South America The Geographical Journal 33 3 267 278 Bibcode 1909GeogJ 33 267B doi 10 2307 1776900 ISSN 0016 7398 JSTOR 1776900 Archived from the original on 2024 02 06 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Bowman I 1924 Desert trails of Atacama American Geographical Society via File Isaiah Bowman Desert Trails of Atacama 1924 pdf Bruggen J April 1929 Zur Glazialgeologie der chilenischen Anden Geologische Rundschau 20 1 1 35 Bibcode 1929GeoRu 20 1B doi 10 1007 bf01805072 S2CID 128436981 Archived from the original on 2024 01 07 Retrieved 2024 02 08 Bull Alan T Asenjo Juan A June 2013 Microbiology of hyper arid environments recent insights from the Atacama Desert Chile PDF Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 103 6 1173 1179 doi 10 1007 s10482 013 9911 7 PMID 23564162 S2CID 254227183 Castro Luis January 2004 RECURSOS HIDRICOS ALTOANDINOS ESTRATEGIAS DE DESARROLLO ECONoMICO Y ROYECTOS DE RIEGO TARAPACA 1880 1930 Chungara Arica 36 1 205 220 doi 10 4067 S0717 73562004000100006 ISSN 0717 7356 Archived from the original on 2024 02 08 Retrieved 2024 02 08 Castro Severyn Juan Pardo Este Coral Mendez Katterinne N Fortt Jonathan Marquez Sebastian Molina Franck Castro Nallar Eduardo Remonsellez Francisco Saavedra Claudia P 3 September 2021 Living to the High Extreme Unraveling the Composition Structure and Functional Insights of Bacterial Communities Thriving in the Arsenic Rich Salar de Huasco Altiplanic Ecosystem Microbiology Spectrum 9 1 e0044421 doi 10 1128 Spectrum 00444 21 ISSN 2165 0497 PMC 8552739 PMID 34190603 Collado Gonzalo A Vila Irma Mendez Marco A November 2011 Monophyly candidate species and vicariance in Biomphalaria snails Mollusca Planorbidae from the Southern Andean Altiplano Zoologica Scripta 40 6 613 622 doi 10 1111 j 1463 6409 2011 00491 x S2CID 84024906 Cortes Albayay Carlos Dorador Cristina Schumann Peter Andrews Barbara Asenjo Juan Nouioui Imen 2019 Streptomyces huasconensis sp nov an haloalkalitolerant actinobacterium isolated from a high altitude saline wetland at the Chilean Altiplano International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 69 8 2315 2322 doi 10 1099 ijsem 0 003468 ISSN 1466 5034 PMID 31135331 S2CID 167219564 Archived from the original on 2023 09 28 Retrieved 2024 02 08 Cortes Albayay Carlos Dorador Cristina Schumann Peter Schniete Jana K Herron Paul Andrews Barbara Asenjo Juan Nouioui Imen 2019 Streptomyces altiplanensis sp nov an alkalitolerant species isolated from Chilean Altiplano soil and emended description of Streptomyces chryseus Krasil nikov et al 1965 Pridham 1970 PDF International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 69 8 2498 2505 doi 10 1099 ijsem 0 003525 ISSN 1466 5034 PMID 31204968 S2CID 189944639 Retrieved 2024 02 08 Covarrubias Rene Mellado Ignacio 1998 ORIBATIDOS DE CHILE ACARINA ORIBATIDA II ESPECIES ASOCIADAS A PLANTAS ACUATICAS Acta Entomologica Chilena in Spanish 22 37 44 ISSN 0716 5072 Archived from the original on 2024 02 06 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo April 2002 Proyecto CHI 01 G36 Conservacion de la biodiversidad y manejo sustentable del Salar del Huasco Plan detallado de trabajo Report in Spanish Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo Archived from the original on 2024 02 06 Retrieved 2024 02 06 de la Fuente Alberto Ordonez Cesar Perez Rodrigo June 2016 Diffusional mass transfer coefficient at the water sediment interface for wind induced flow in very shallow lagoons Environmental Fluid Mechanics 16 3 539 558 Bibcode 2016EFM 16 539D doi 10 1007 s10652 015 9437 9 S2CID 54910510 Demergasso Cecilia Dorador Cristina Meneses Daniela Blamey Jenny Cabrol Nathalie Escudero Lorena Chong Guillermo June 2010 Prokaryotic diversity pattern in high altitude ecosystems of the Chilean Altiplano Journal of Geophysical Research Biogeosciences 115 G2 Bibcode 2010JGRG 115 0D09D doi 10 1029 2008JG000836 Dorador Cristina Vila Irma Remonsellez Francisco Imhoff Johannes F Witzel Karl Paul 19 April 2010 Unique clusters of Archaea in Salar de Huasco an athalassohaline evaporitic basin of the Chilean Altiplano Archaeal diversity in Salar de Huasco FEMS Microbiology Ecology 73 2 291 302 doi 10 1111 j 1574 6941 2010 00891 x PMID 20491927 Farias Maria Eugenia ed 2020 Microbial Ecosystems in Central Andes Extreme Environments Biofilms Microbial Mats Microbialites and Endoevaporites Cham Springer International Publishing doi 10 1007 978 3 030 36192 1 ISBN 978 3 030 36191 4 S2CID 218912960 Archived from the original on 2024 02 08 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Fontbote Lluis Amstutz G Christian Cardozo Miguel Cedillo Esteban Frutos Jose eds 1990 Stratabound Ore Deposits in the Andes Berlin Heidelberg Springer Berlin Heidelberg doi 10 1007 978 3 642 88282 1 ISBN 978 3 642 88284 5 Archived from the original on 2024 02 08 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Garces I 2000 Geochemistry of Huasco salar Chile Origin of solutes and brine evolution Proceedings of the 8th world salt symposium Vol 2 Gardeweg M Selles D 2013 Geologia del area Collacagua Rinconada Region de Tarapaca Carta Geologica de Chile Serie Geologia Basica in Spanish SERNAGEOMIN via ResearchGate Garces Millas I Lopez Julian P 2013 Monitoreo geoquimico de un sistema evaporitico natural salar de Huasco Chile Revista Facultad de Ingenieria Universidad de Antioquia 52 108 122 Archived from the original on 2024 02 06 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Garcia Magdalena Mulrennan Monica E 2020 Tracking the History of Protected Areas in Chile Territorialization Strategies and Shifting State Rationalities Journal of Latin American Geography 19 4 199 234 doi 10 1353 lag 2020 0085 Guzman Jonathan A Sielfeld Walter 2009 Dieta de Orestias Agassii Cuvier amp Valenciennes 1846 Teleostei Cyprinidontidae del Salar del Huasco Norte de Chile Gayana Concepcion 73 1 17 27 doi 10 4067 S0717 65382009000100004 ISSN 0717 6538 S2CID 84634803 Larrain Sara Poo Pamela March 2010 Conflictos por el agua en Chile Entre los derechos humanos y las reglas del mercado in Spanish Programa Chile Sustentable ISBN 978 956 7889 426 Archived from the original on 2021 10 19 Retrieved 2024 02 08 Leiva Gomez Sandra December 2010 Empleos Verdes en la Gran Mineria del Norte Grande de Chile Umbrales Revista del Postgrado Multidisciplinario en Ciencias del Desarrollo 183 Archived from the original on 2024 02 08 Retrieved 2024 02 07 Lizama Allende Katherine Ramila Consuelo d P Leiva Eduardo Guerra Paula Ayala Jose December 2022 Evaluation of surface water quality in basins of the Chilean Altiplano Puna and implications for water treatment and monitoring Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 194 12 926 Bibcode 2022EMnAs 194 926L doi 10 1007 s10661 022 10628 1 PMC 9580442 PMID 36260192 Lobos Gabriel Rebolledo Nicolas Salinas Hugo Fibla Pablo Saez Paola A Mendez Marco A 5 February 2021 Ecological features of Telmatobius chusmisensis Anura Telmatobiidae a poorly known species from northern Chile South American Journal of Herpetology 20 1 doi 10 2994 SAJH D 18 00019 1 Morales Peillard Pablo 2011 Valoracion economica de 4 humedales altoandinos de la I region Huasco Coposa Caya y Lirima Report in Spanish Universidad de Chile Facultad de Ciencias Agronomicas Departamento de Economia Agraria Archived from the original on 2022 05 25 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Munoz Jose November 2009 Levantamiento Hidrogeologico para el desarrollo de nuevas fuentes de agua en areas prioritarias de la Zona Norte de Chile regiones XV I II y III etapa 2 Informe final Parte VIII Sistema Piloto I Region Salar del Huasco Report in Spanish Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile Archived from the original on 2022 08 09 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Nitsche Frank Carduck Sarah von Ameln Joshua Mach Niclas Dorador Cristina Predel Reinhard Rueckert Sonja Arndt Hartmut August 2023 Gregarines from darkling beetles of the Atacama Desert Atacamagregarina paposa gen et sp nov from Scotobius and Xiphocephalus ovatus sp nov from Psectrascelis Coleoptera Tenebrionidae European Journal of Protistology 90 126008 doi 10 1016 j ejop 2023 126008 PMID 37536234 S2CID 260009377 Nunez Lautaro Grosjean Martin Cartajena Isabel 25 October 2002 Human Occupations and Climate Change in the Puna de Atacama Chile Science 298 5594 821 824 Bibcode 2002Sci 298 821N doi 10 1126 science 1076449 PMID 12399589 S2CID 44604897 Nunez Lautaro Varela Julio 1966 Complejo preagricola en el Salar de Huasco provincia de Tarapaca Estudios Arqueologicos in Spanish 2 9 24 Paskoff Roland P July 1977 Quaternary of Chile The State of Research Quaternary Research 8 1 2 31 Bibcode 1977QuRes 8 2P doi 10 1016 0033 5894 77 90054 0 S2CID 128552894 Pavlopoulos Kosmas Evelpidou Niki Vassilopoulos Andreas 2009 Mapping Geomorphological Environments Berlin Heidelberg Springer Berlin Heidelberg doi 10 1007 978 3 642 01950 0 ISBN 978 3 642 01949 4 Sielfeld Walter Amado N Herreros Jorge Peredo R Rebolledo A 1996 La avifauna del Salar de Huasco primera region Chile PDF Boletin chileno de Ornitologia in Spanish 3 17 24 Archived PDF from the original on 2024 02 06 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Philippi Rodulfo A Johnson Alfredo W Goodall Jack D 28 December 1944 Expedicion ornitologica al Norte de Chile Boletin Museo Nacional de Historia Natural in Spanish 22 65 120 doi 10 54830 bmnhn v22 1944 663 ISSN 0719 935X S2CID 264089222 Archived from the original on 7 February 2024 Retrieved 6 February 2024 Riveros Jose Vila Irma Mendez Marco A 2012 Nicho trofico de Orestias agassii Cuvier amp Valenciennes 1846 del sistema de arroyos del salar de Huasco 20 05 S 68 15 W Gayana Concepcion 76 2 79 91 doi 10 4067 S0717 65382012000300001 ISSN 0717 6538 Archived from the original on 2023 06 02 Retrieved 2024 02 06 Scheihing Konstantin W Moya Claudio E Troger Uwe September 2017 Insights into Andean slope hydrology reservoir characteristics of the thermal Pica spring system Pampa del Tamarugal northern Chile Hydrogeology Journal 25 6 1833 1852 Bibcode 2017HydJ 25 1833S doi 10 1007 s10040 017 1533 0 S2CID 133067913 Toledo Hugo Romero Sambolin Aurora 1 April 2019 611 Indigeneidad y territorio los aymaras y quechuas en el Norte de Chile Scripta Nova Revista Electronica de Geografia y Ciencias Sociales in Spanish 23 doi 10 1344 sn2019 23 20408 ISSN 1138 9788 S2CID 197724816 Archived from the original on 7 February 2024 Retrieved 8 February 2024 Uribe Javier Munoz Jose F Gironas Jorge Oyarzun Ricardo Aguirre Evelyn Aravena Ramon November 2015 Assessing groundwater recharge in an Andean closed basin using isotopic characterization and a rainfall runoff model Salar del Huasco basin Chile Hydrogeology Journal 23 7 1535 1551 Bibcode 2015HydJ 23 1535U doi 10 1007 s10040 015 1300 z S2CID 127896481 Archived from the original on 2022 10 27 Retrieved 2024 02 08 Vila Irma 2006 Macrofitas y vertebrados de los sistemas limnicos de Chile Editorial Universitaria in Spanish via Google Books Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Salar del Huasco amp oldid 1216188826, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.