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Pseudohistory

Pseudohistory is a form of pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort or misrepresent the historical record, often by employing methods resembling those used in scholarly historical research. The related term cryptohistory is applied to pseudohistory derived from the superstitions intrinsic to occultism. Pseudohistory is related to pseudoscience and pseudoarchaeology, and usage of the terms may occasionally overlap. Although pseudohistory comes in many forms, scholars have identified many features that tend to be common in pseudohistorical works; one example is that the use of pseudohistory is almost always motivated by a contemporary political, religious, or personal agenda. Pseudohistory also frequently presents sensational claims or a big lie about historical facts which would require unwarranted revision of the historical record.[3]

Sonderaktion 1005 was a Nazi project with the explicit goal of hiding or destroying any evidence of the mass murder committed under Operation Reinhard. This was one of the earliest attempts at Holocaust denial, taking place while the genocide of the Jews was still ongoing. Scholars consider denial to be an integral part of genocide itself.[1]
The Lost Cause of the Confederacy is a negationist ideology which falsely claims that the spread of slavery was not the central cause of the American Civil War
The Iğdır Genocide Memorial and Museum in Turkey promotes the false narrative that Armenians committed genocide against Turks, rather than vice versa[2]

Another hallmark of pseudohistory is an underlying premise that scholars have a furtive agenda to suppress the promotor's thesis—a premise commonly corroborated by elaborate conspiracy theories. Works of pseudohistory often point exclusively to unreliable sources—including myths and legends, often treated as literal historical truth—to support the thesis being promoted while ignoring valid sources that contradict it. Sometimes a work of pseudohistory will adopt a position of historical relativism, insisting that there is really no such thing as historical truth and that any hypothesis is just as good as any other. Many works of pseudohistory conflate mere possibility with actuality, assuming that if something could have happened, then it did.

Notable examples of pseudohistory include British Israelism, the Lost Cause of the Confederacy, the Irish slaves myth, the witch-cult, Armenian genocide denial, Holocaust denial, the clean Wehrmacht myth, the 16th- and 17th-century Spanish Black Legend, and the claim that the Katyn massacre was not committed by the Soviet NKVD.

Definition and etymology edit

The term pseudohistory was coined in the early nineteenth century, which makes the word older than the related terms pseudo-scholarship and pseudoscience.[4] In an attestation from 1815, it is used to refer to the Contest of Homer and Hesiod, a purportedly historical narrative describing an entirely fictional contest between the Greek poets Homer and Hesiod.[5] The pejorative sense of the term, labelling a flawed or disingenuous work of historiography, is found in another 1815 attestation.[6] Pseudohistory is akin to pseudoscience in that both forms of falsification are achieved using the methodology that purports to, but does not, adhere to the established standards of research for the given field of intellectual enquiry of which the pseudoscience claims to be a part, and which offers little or no supporting evidence for its plausibility.[7]: 7–18 

Writers Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman define pseudohistory as "the rewriting of the past for present personal or political purposes".[8]: 2  Other writers take a broader definition; Douglas Allchin, a historian of science, contends that when the history of scientific discovery is presented in a simplified way, with drama exaggerated and scientists romanticized, this creates wrong stereotypes about how science works, and in fact constitutes pseudohistory, despite being based on real facts.[9]

Characteristics edit

Robert Todd Carroll has developed a list of criteria to identify pseudo-historic works. He states that:

Pseudohistory is purported history which:

  • Treats myths, legends, sagas and similar literature as literal truth
  • Is neither critical nor skeptical in its reading of ancient historians, taking their claims at face value and ignoring empirical or logical evidence contrary to the claims of the ancients
  • Is on a mission, not a quest, seeking to support some contemporary political or religious agenda rather than find out the truth about the past
  • Often denies that there is such a thing as historical truth, clinging to the extreme skeptical notion that only what is absolutely certain can be called 'true' and nothing is absolutely certain, so nothing is true
  • Often maintains that history is nothing but mythmaking and that different histories are not to be compared on such traditional academic standards as accuracy, empirical probability, logical consistency, relevancy, completeness, fairness or honesty, but on moral or political grounds
  • Is selective in its use of ancient documents, citing favorably those that fit with its agenda, and ignoring or interpreting away those documents which do not fit
  • Considers the possibility of something being true as sufficient to believe it is true if it fits with one's agenda
  • Often maintains that there is a conspiracy to suppress its claims because of racism, atheism or ethnocentrism, or because of opposition to its political or religious agenda[10]

Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke prefers the term "cryptohistory". He identifies two necessary elements as "a complete ignorance of the primary sources" and the repetition of "inaccuracies and wild claims".[11][12]

Other common characteristics of pseudohistory are:

  • The arbitrary linking of disparate events so as to form – in the theorist's opinion – a pattern. This is typically then developed into a conspiracy theory postulating a hidden agent responsible for creating and maintaining the pattern. For example, the pseudohistorical The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail links the Knights Templar, the medieval Grail Romances, the Merovingian Frankish dynasty and the artist Nicolas Poussin in an attempt to identify lineal descendants of Jesus.
  • Hypothesising the consequences of unlikely events that "could" have happened, thereby assuming tacitly that they did.
  • Sensationalism, or shock value
  • Cherry picking, or "law office history", evidence that helps the historical argument being made and suppressing evidence that hurts it.[13]

Categories and examples edit

The following are some common categories of pseudohistorical theory, with examples. Not all theories in a listed category are necessarily pseudohistorical; they are rather categories that seem to attract pseudohistorians.

Main Categories edit

Alternative chronologies edit

An alternative chronology is a revised sequence of events that deviates from the standard timeline of world history accepted by mainstream scholars. An example of an "alternative chronology" is Anatoly Fomenko's New Chronology, which claims that recorded history actually began around AD 800 and all events that allegedly occurred prior to that point either never really happened at all or are simply inaccurate retellings of events that happened later.[14] One of its outgrowths is the Tartary conspiracy theory. Other, less extreme examples, are the phantom time hypothesis, which asserts that the years AD 614–911 never took place; and the New Chronology of David Rohl, which claims that the accepted timelines for ancient Egyptian and Israelite history are wrong.[15]

Historical falsification edit

 
Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain, a scene from which is shown in this fifteenth-century illumination, was a popular work of pseudohistory during the Middle Ages.

In the eighth century, a forged document known as Donation of Constantine, which supposedly transferred authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the Pope, became widely circulated.[16] In the twelfth century, Geoffrey of Monmouth published the History of the Kings of Britain, a pseudohistorical work purporting to describe the ancient history and origins of the British people. The book synthesises earlier Celtic mythical traditions to inflate the deeds of the mythical King Arthur. The contemporary historian William of Newburgh wrote around 1190 that "it is quite clear that everything this man wrote about Arthur and his successors, or indeed about his predecessors from Vortigern onwards, was made up, partly by himself and partly by others".[17]

Historical revisionism edit

The Shakespeare authorship question is a fringe theory that claims that the works attributed to William Shakespeare were actually written by someone other than William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon.[18][19][20][21]

Another example of historical revisionism is the thesis, found in the writings of David Barton and others, asserting that the United States was founded as an exclusively Christian nation.[22][23][24] Mainstream historians instead support the traditional position, which holds that the American founding fathers intended for church and state to be kept separate.[25][26]

Confederate revisionists (a.k.a. Civil War revisionists), "Lost Cause" advocates, and Neo-Confederates argue that the Confederate States of America's prime motivation was the maintenance of states' rights and limited government, rather than the preservation and expansion of slavery.[27][28][29]

Connected to the Lost Cause is the Irish slaves myth, a pseudo-historical narrative which conflates the experiences of Irish indentured servants and enslaved Africans in the Americas. This myth, which was historically promoted by Irish nationalists such as John Mitchel, has in the modern-day been promoted by white supremacists in the United States to minimize the mistreatment experienced by African Americans (such as racism and segregation) and oppose demands for slavery reparations. The myth has also been used to obscure and downplay Irish involvement in the transatlantic slave trade.[30][31]

Historical Negationism edit

While closely related to previous categories, historical negationism / denialism specifically aims to outright deny the existence of confirmed events, often including various massacres and genocides.

Some examples include denial of the Holocaust and denial of the Armenian Genocide.[32]

Psychohistory edit

Mainstream historians have categorized psychohistory as pseudohistory.[33][34] Psychohistory is an amalgam of psychology, history, and related social sciences and the humanities.[35] Its stated goal is to examine the "why" of history, especially the difference between stated intention and actual behavior. It also states as its goal the combination of the insights of psychology, especially psychoanalysis, with the research methodology of the social sciences and humanities to understand the emotional origin of the behavior of individuals, groups and nations, past and present.

Pseudoarchaeology edit

Pseudoarchaeology refers to a false interpretation of records, namely physical ones, often by unqualified or otherwise amateur archeologists. These interpretations are often baseless and seldom align with established consensus. Nazi archaeology is a prominent example of this technique.[36] Frequently, people who engage in pseudoarchaeology have a very strict interpretation of evidence and are unwilling to alter their stance, resulting in interpretations that often appear overly simplistic and fail to capture the complexity and nuance of the complete narrative.[37]

Various examples of pseudohistory edit

(These following examples can belong to a variety of the above mentioned categories, or ones not mentioned as well).

Ancient aliens, ancient technologies, and lost lands edit

Immanuel Velikovsky's books Worlds in Collision (1950), Ages in Chaos (1952), and Earth in Upheaval (1955), which became "instant bestsellers",[7] demonstrated that pseudohistory based on ancient mythology held potential for tremendous financial success[7] and became models of success for future works in the genre.[7]

In 1968, Erich von Däniken published Chariots of the Gods?, which claims that ancient visitors from outer space constructed the pyramids and other monuments. He has since published other books in which he makes similar claims. These claims have all been categorized as pseudohistory.[7]: 201  Similarly, Zechariah Sitchin has published numerous books claiming that a race of extraterrestrial beings from the Planet Nibiru known as the Anunnaki visited Earth in ancient times in search of gold, and that they genetically engineered humans to serve as their slaves. He claims that memories of these occurrences are recorded in Sumerian mythology, as well as other mythologies all across the globe. These speculations have likewise been categorized as pseudohistory.[38][39]

The ancient astronaut hypothesis was further popularized in the United States by the History Channel television series Ancient Aliens.[40] History professor Ronald H. Fritze observed that the pseudohistorical claims promoted by von Däniken and the Ancient Aliens program have a periodic popularity in the US:[7][41] "In a pop culture with a short memory and a voracious appetite, aliens and pyramids and lost civilizations are recycled like fashions."[7]: 201 [41]

The author Graham Hancock has sold over four million copies of books promoting the pseudohistorical thesis that all the major monuments of the ancient world, including Stonehenge, the Egyptian pyramids, and the moai of Easter Island, were built by a single ancient supercivilization,[42] which Hancock claims thrived from 15,000 to 10,000 BC and possessed technological and scientific knowledge equal to or surpassing that of modern civilization.[7] He first advanced the full form of this argument in his 1995 bestseller Fingerprints of the Gods,[7] which won popular acclaim, but scholarly disdain.[7] Christopher Knight has published numerous books, including Uriel's Machine (2000), expounding pseudohistorical assertions that ancient civilizations possessed technology far more advanced than the technology of today.[43][44][45][46]

The claim that a lost continent known as Lemuria once existed in the Pacific Ocean has likewise been categorized as pseudohistory.[7]: 11 

Furthermore, similar conspiracy theories promote the idea of embellished, fabricated accounts of historical civilizations, namely Khazaria and Tartaria.

Antisemitic pseudohistory edit

 
American edition of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion from 1934

The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion is a fraudulent work purporting to show a historical conspiracy for world domination by Jews.[47] The work was conclusively proven to be a forgery in August 1921, when The Times revealed that extensive portions of the document were directly plagiarized from Maurice Joly's 1864 satirical dialogue The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu,[48] as well as Hermann Goedsche's 1868 anti-Semitic novel Biarritz.[49]

The Khazar theory is an academic fringe theory that postulates that the bulk of European Jewry are of Central Asian (Turkic) origin. In spite of mainstream academic consensus conclusively rejecting it, this theory has been promoted in Anti-Semitic and some Anti-Zionist circles, arguing that Jews are an alien element both in Europe and in Palestine.

Holocaust denial and genocide denial in general are widely categorized as pseudohistory.[8]: 237 [50] Major proponents of Holocaust denial include David Irving and others, who argue that the Holocaust, Holodomor, Armenian genocide, Assyrian genocide, Greek genocide and other genocides did not occur, or were exaggerated greatly.[50]

Ethnocentric revisionism edit

Most Afrocentric (i.e. Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theories, see Ancient Egyptian race controversy) ideas have been identified as pseudohistorical,[51][52] alongside the "Indigenous Aryans" theories published by Hindu nationalists during the 1990s and 2000s.[53] The "crypto-history" developed within Germanic mysticism and Nazi occultism has likewise been placed under this categorization.[54] [55] Among leading Nazis, Heinrich Himmler is believed to have been influenced by occultism and according to one theory, developed the SS base at Wewelsburg in accordance with an esoteric plan.

The Sun Language Theory is a pseudohistorical ideology which argues that all languages are descended from a form of proto-Turkish.[56] The theory may have been partially devised in order to legitimize Arabic and Semitic loanwords occurring in the Turkish language by instead asserting that the Arabic and Semitic words were derived from the Turkish ones rather than vice versa.[57]

A large number of nationalist pseudohistorical theories deal with the legendary Ten Lost Tribes of ancient Israel. British-Israelism, also known as Anglo-Israelism, the most famous example of this type, has been conclusively refuted by mainstream historians using evidence from a vast array of different fields of study.[58][59][60]

Another form of ethnocentric revisionism is nationalistic pseudohistory. The "Ancient Macedonians continuity theory" is one such pseudohistorical theory, which postulates demographic, cultural and linguistic continuity between Macedonians of antiquity and the main ethnic group in present-day North Macedonia.[61][62] Also, the Bulgarian medieval dynasty of the Komitopules, which ruled the First Bulgarian Empire in its last decades, is presented as "Macedonian", ruling a "medieval Macedonian state", because of the location of its capitals in Macedonia.[63]

Dacianism is a Romanian pseudohistorical current that attempts to attribute far more influence over European and world history to the Dacians than that which they actually enjoyed.[64] Dacianist historiography claims that the Dacians held primacy over all other civilizations, including the Romans;[65] that the Dacian language was the origin of Latin and all other languages, such as Hindi and Babylonian;[66] and sometimes that the Zalmoxis cult has structural links to Christianity.[67] Dacianism was most prevalent in National Communist Romania, as the Ceaușescu regime portrayed the Dacians as insurgents defying an "imperialist" Rome; the Communist Party had formally attached "protochronism", as Dacianism was known, to Marxist ideology by 1974.[68]

Matriarchy edit

The consensus among academics is that no strictly matriarchal society is known to have existed.[69][70] Anthropologist Donald Brown's list of human cultural universals (viz., features shared by nearly all current human societies) includes men being the "dominant element" in public political affairs,[71] which is the contemporary opinion of mainstream anthropology.[72] Some societies are matrilineal or matrifocal but in fact have patriarchal power structures, which may be misidentified as matriarchal. The idea that matriarchal societies existed and they preceded patriarchal societies was first raised in the 19th-century among Western academics, but it has since been discredited.[72]

Despite this however, some second-wave feminists assert that a matriarchy preceded the patriarchy. The Goddess Movement and Riane Eisler's The Chalice and the Blade cite Venus figurines as evidence that societies of paleolithic and neolithic Europe were matriarchies that worshipped a goddess. This belief is not supported by mainstream academics.[73]

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories edit

Excluding the Norse colonization of the Americas and other reputable scholarship, most theories of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact have been classified as pseudohistory, including claims that the Americas were actually discovered by Arabs or Muslims.[74] Gavin Menzies' book 1421: The Year China Discovered the World, which argues for the idea that Chinese sailors discovered America, has also been categorized as a work of pseudohistory.[7]: 11 

Racist pseudohistory edit

Josiah Priest and other nineteenth-century American writers wrote pseudohistorical narratives that portrayed African Americans and Native Americans in an extremely negative light.[75] Priest's first book was The Wonders of Nature and Providence, Displayed (1826).[76][75] The book is regarded by modern critics as one of the earliest works of modern American pseudohistory.[75] Priest attacked Native Americans in American Antiquities and Discoveries of the West (1833)[77][75] and African-Americans in Slavery, As It Relates to the Negro (1843).[78][75] Other nineteenth-century writers, such as Thomas Gold Appleton, in his A Sheaf of Papers (1875), and George Perkins Marsh, in his The Goths in New England, seized upon false notions of Viking history to promote the superiority of white people (as well as to oppose the Catholic Church). Such misuse of Viking history and imagery reemerged in the twentieth century among some groups promoting white supremacy.[79]

A recent but unfounded claim by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu asserts that the Holocaust was promoted and encourage by Palestinian Muftis, rather than Nazi Germany. This claim has come under strong criticism from historians across the world.[80][81]

Communist pseudohistory edit

Communists and Putinists deny, downplay, or justify the mass repressions, artificial famines, and concentration camps in the Soviet Union and other communist regimes that claimed millions of human lives, saying that while such events took place, they have been exaggerated by opponents of the modern Russian state to discredit the legacy of Communism and the Soviet Union.[citation needed] Supporters of this viewpoint claim, among other things, that Joseph Stalin and other top Soviet leaders did not realize the scope of the killings, that the executions of prisoners were legally justifiable, and that prisoners in concentration camps performed important construction work that helped the Soviet Union economonically, particularly during World War II. Scholars point to overwhelming evidence that Stalin directly helped plan the mass killings, that many prisoners were sent to concentration camps extrajudicially, and that prisoners were often simply isolated in remote camps or given pointless and menial tasks.[82]

Anti-religious pseudohistory edit

The Christ myth theory claims that Jesus of Nazareth never existed as a historical figure and that his existence was invented by early Christians. This argument currently finds very little support among scholars and historians of all faiths and has been described as pseudohistorical.[83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92]

Likewise, some minority historian views assert that Muhammad either did not exist or was not central to founding Islam. [93]

Religious pseudohistory edit

The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (1982) by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln is a book that purports to show that certain historical figures, such as Godfrey of Bouillon, and contemporary aristocrats are the lineal descendants of Jesus. Mainstream historians have widely panned the book, categorizing it as pseudohistory,[94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101] and pointing out that the genealogical tables used in it are now known to be spurious.[102] Nonetheless, the book was an international best-seller[101] and inspired Dan Brown's bestselling mystery thriller novel The Da Vinci Code.[101][7]: 2–3 

Although historians and archaeologists consider the Book of Mormon to be an anachronistic invention of Joseph Smith, many members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe that it describes ancient historical events in the Americas.

Searches for Noah's Ark have also been categorized as pseudohistory.[103][104][105][106][107]

In her books, starting with The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921), English author Margaret Murray claimed that the witch trials in the early modern period were actually an attempt by chauvinistic Christians to annihilate a secret, pagan religion,[108] which she claimed worshipped a Horned God.[108] Murray's claims have now been widely rejected by respected historians.[109][110][108] Nonetheless, her ideas have become the foundation myth for modern Wicca, a contemporary Neopagan religion.[110][111] Belief in Murray's alleged witch-cult is still prevalent among Wiccans,[111] but is gradually declining.[111]

Hinduism edit

The belief that Ancient India was technologically advanced to the extent of being a nuclear power is gaining popularity in India.[112] Emerging extreme nationalist trends and ideologies based on Hinduism in the political arena promote these discussions. Vasudev Devnani, the education minister for the western state of Rajasthan, said in January 2017 that it was important to "understand the scientific significance" of the cow, as it was the only animal in the world to both inhale and exhale oxygen.[113] In 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi told a gathering of doctors and medical staff at a Mumbai hospital that the story of the Hindu god Ganesha showed genetic science existed in ancient India.[114] Many new age pseudohistorians who focus on converting mythological stories into history are well received among the crowd. Indian Science Congress ancient aircraft controversy is a related event when Capt. Anand J. Bodas, retired principal of a pilot training facility, claimed that aircraft more advanced than today's versions existed in ancient India at the Indian Science Congress.[115]

As a topic of study edit

Pseudohistory is offered as an undergraduate course in liberal arts settings, one example being in Claremont McKenna College.[116]

See also edit

References edit

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    • Marchand, Laure; Perrier, Guillaume (2015). Turkey and the Armenian Ghost: On the Trail of the Genocide. McGill-Queen's Press. pp. 111–112. ISBN 978-0-7735-9720-4. The Iğdır genocide monument is the ultimate caricature of the Turkish government's policy of denying the 1915 genocide by rewriting history and transforming victims into guilty parties.
    • Hovannisian 2001, p. 803. "... the unbending attitude of the Ankara government, in 1995 of a multi-volume work of the prime ministry's state archives titled Armenian Atrocities in the Caucasus and Anatolia According to Archival Documents. The purpose of the publication is not only to reiterate all previous denials but also to demonstrate that it was in fact the Turkish people who were the victims of a genocide perpetrated by the Armenians."
    • Cheterian 2015, pp. 65–66. "Some of the proponents of this official narrative have even gone so far as to claim that the Armenians were the real aggressors, and that Muslim losses were greater than those of the Armenians."
    • Gürpınar 2016, p. 234. "Maintaining that 'the best defence is a good offence', the new strategy involved accusing Armenians in response for perpetrating genocide against the Turks. The violence committed by the Armenian committees under the Russian occupation of Eastern Anatolia and massacring of tens of thousands of Muslims (Turks and Kurds) in revenge killings in 1916–17 was extravagantly displayed, magnified and decontextualized."
  3. ^ "Joseph Goebbels On the "Big Lie"". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2024-03-27.
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  6. ^ The Critical review: or, Annals of literature, Volume 1 ed. Tobias George Smollett, 1815, p. 152
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  15. ^ "In his book A Test of Time (1995), Rohl argues that the conventionally accepted dates for strata such as the Middle and Late Bronze Ages in Palestine are wrong" – in Daniel Jacobs, Shirley Eber, Francesca Silvani, Israel and The Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide, p. 424 (Rough Guides Ltd., 2nd rev. ed., 1998). ISBN 978-1-85828-248-0
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  42. ^ Sheiko, Konstantin (2012). Nationalist Imaginings of the Russian Past: Anatolii Fomenko and the Rise of Alternative History in Post-Communist Russia. Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics and Society. Vol. 86. Stuttgart, Germany: Ibidem-Verlag. p. 83. ISBN 978-3838259154.
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External links edit

  • Program in the History of Science and Technology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States.
  • Pseudohistory entry at Skeptic's Dictionary
  • The Hall of Ma'at
  • from the American Skeptic magazine.

pseudohistory, form, pseudoscholarship, that, attempts, distort, misrepresent, historical, record, often, employing, methods, resembling, those, used, scholarly, historical, research, related, term, cryptohistory, applied, pseudohistory, derived, from, superst. Pseudohistory is a form of pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort or misrepresent the historical record often by employing methods resembling those used in scholarly historical research The related term cryptohistory is applied to pseudohistory derived from the superstitions intrinsic to occultism Pseudohistory is related to pseudoscience and pseudoarchaeology and usage of the terms may occasionally overlap Although pseudohistory comes in many forms scholars have identified many features that tend to be common in pseudohistorical works one example is that the use of pseudohistory is almost always motivated by a contemporary political religious or personal agenda Pseudohistory also frequently presents sensational claims or a big lie about historical facts which would require unwarranted revision of the historical record 3 Sonderaktion 1005 was a Nazi project with the explicit goal of hiding or destroying any evidence of the mass murder committed under Operation Reinhard This was one of the earliest attempts at Holocaust denial taking place while the genocide of the Jews was still ongoing Scholars consider denial to be an integral part of genocide itself 1 The Lost Cause of the Confederacy is a negationist ideology which falsely claims that the spread of slavery was not the central cause of the American Civil WarThe Igdir Genocide Memorial and Museum in Turkey promotes the false narrative that Armenians committed genocide against Turks rather than vice versa 2 Another hallmark of pseudohistory is an underlying premise that scholars have a furtive agenda to suppress the promotor s thesis a premise commonly corroborated by elaborate conspiracy theories Works of pseudohistory often point exclusively to unreliable sources including myths and legends often treated as literal historical truth to support the thesis being promoted while ignoring valid sources that contradict it Sometimes a work of pseudohistory will adopt a position of historical relativism insisting that there is really no such thing as historical truth and that any hypothesis is just as good as any other Many works of pseudohistory conflate mere possibility with actuality assuming that if something could have happened then it did Notable examples of pseudohistory include British Israelism the Lost Cause of the Confederacy the Irish slaves myth the witch cult Armenian genocide denial Holocaust denial the clean Wehrmacht myth the 16th and 17th century Spanish Black Legend and the claim that the Katyn massacre was not committed by the Soviet NKVD Contents 1 Definition and etymology 2 Characteristics 3 Categories and examples 3 1 Main Categories 3 1 1 Alternative chronologies 3 1 2 Historical falsification 3 1 3 Historical revisionism 3 1 4 Historical Negationism 3 1 5 Psychohistory 3 1 6 Pseudoarchaeology 3 2 Various examples of pseudohistory 3 2 1 Ancient aliens ancient technologies and lost lands 3 2 2 Antisemitic pseudohistory 3 2 3 Ethnocentric revisionism 3 2 4 Matriarchy 3 2 5 Pre Columbian trans oceanic contact theories 3 2 6 Racist pseudohistory 3 2 7 Communist pseudohistory 3 2 8 Anti religious pseudohistory 3 2 9 Religious pseudohistory 3 2 9 1 Hinduism 4 As a topic of study 5 See also 6 References 7 External linksDefinition and etymology editThe term pseudohistory was coined in the early nineteenth century which makes the word older than the related terms pseudo scholarship and pseudoscience 4 In an attestation from 1815 it is used to refer to the Contest of Homer and Hesiod a purportedly historical narrative describing an entirely fictional contest between the Greek poets Homer and Hesiod 5 The pejorative sense of the term labelling a flawed or disingenuous work of historiography is found in another 1815 attestation 6 Pseudohistory is akin to pseudoscience in that both forms of falsification are achieved using the methodology that purports to but does not adhere to the established standards of research for the given field of intellectual enquiry of which the pseudoscience claims to be a part and which offers little or no supporting evidence for its plausibility 7 7 18 Writers Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman define pseudohistory as the rewriting of the past for present personal or political purposes 8 2 Other writers take a broader definition Douglas Allchin a historian of science contends that when the history of scientific discovery is presented in a simplified way with drama exaggerated and scientists romanticized this creates wrong stereotypes about how science works and in fact constitutes pseudohistory despite being based on real facts 9 Characteristics editRobert Todd Carroll has developed a list of criteria to identify pseudo historic works He states that Pseudohistory is purported history which Treats myths legends sagas and similar literature as literal truth Is neither critical nor skeptical in its reading of ancient historians taking their claims at face value and ignoring empirical or logical evidence contrary to the claims of the ancients Is on a mission not a quest seeking to support some contemporary political or religious agenda rather than find out the truth about the past Often denies that there is such a thing as historical truth clinging to the extreme skeptical notion that only what is absolutely certain can be called true and nothing is absolutely certain so nothing is true Often maintains that history is nothing but mythmaking and that different histories are not to be compared on such traditional academic standards as accuracy empirical probability logical consistency relevancy completeness fairness or honesty but on moral or political grounds Is selective in its use of ancient documents citing favorably those that fit with its agenda and ignoring or interpreting away those documents which do not fit Considers the possibility of something being true as sufficient to believe it is true if it fits with one s agenda Often maintains that there is a conspiracy to suppress its claims because of racism atheism or ethnocentrism or because of opposition to its political or religious agenda 10 Nicholas Goodrick Clarke prefers the term cryptohistory He identifies two necessary elements as a complete ignorance of the primary sources and the repetition of inaccuracies and wild claims 11 12 Other common characteristics of pseudohistory are The arbitrary linking of disparate events so as to form in the theorist s opinion a pattern This is typically then developed into a conspiracy theory postulating a hidden agent responsible for creating and maintaining the pattern For example the pseudohistorical The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail links the Knights Templar the medieval Grail Romances the Merovingian Frankish dynasty and the artist Nicolas Poussin in an attempt to identify lineal descendants of Jesus Hypothesising the consequences of unlikely events that could have happened thereby assuming tacitly that they did Sensationalism or shock value Cherry picking or law office history evidence that helps the historical argument being made and suppressing evidence that hurts it 13 Categories and examples editFurther information Historical negationism and Pseudoarchaeology The following are some common categories of pseudohistorical theory with examples Not all theories in a listed category are necessarily pseudohistorical they are rather categories that seem to attract pseudohistorians Main Categories edit Alternative chronologies edit An alternative chronology is a revised sequence of events that deviates from the standard timeline of world history accepted by mainstream scholars An example of an alternative chronology is Anatoly Fomenko s New Chronology which claims that recorded history actually began around AD 800 and all events that allegedly occurred prior to that point either never really happened at all or are simply inaccurate retellings of events that happened later 14 One of its outgrowths is the Tartary conspiracy theory Other less extreme examples are the phantom time hypothesis which asserts that the years AD 614 911 never took place and the New Chronology of David Rohl which claims that the accepted timelines for ancient Egyptian and Israelite history are wrong 15 Historical falsification edit nbsp Geoffrey of Monmouth s History of the Kings of Britain a scene from which is shown in this fifteenth century illumination was a popular work of pseudohistory during the Middle Ages In the eighth century a forged document known as Donation of Constantine which supposedly transferred authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the Pope became widely circulated 16 In the twelfth century Geoffrey of Monmouth published the History of the Kings of Britain a pseudohistorical work purporting to describe the ancient history and origins of the British people The book synthesises earlier Celtic mythical traditions to inflate the deeds of the mythical King Arthur The contemporary historian William of Newburgh wrote around 1190 that it is quite clear that everything this man wrote about Arthur and his successors or indeed about his predecessors from Vortigern onwards was made up partly by himself and partly by others 17 Historical revisionism edit The Shakespeare authorship question is a fringe theory that claims that the works attributed to William Shakespeare were actually written by someone other than William Shakespeare of Stratford upon Avon 18 19 20 21 Another example of historical revisionism is the thesis found in the writings of David Barton and others asserting that the United States was founded as an exclusively Christian nation 22 23 24 Mainstream historians instead support the traditional position which holds that the American founding fathers intended for church and state to be kept separate 25 26 Confederate revisionists a k a Civil War revisionists Lost Cause advocates and Neo Confederates argue that the Confederate States of America s prime motivation was the maintenance of states rights and limited government rather than the preservation and expansion of slavery 27 28 29 Connected to the Lost Cause is the Irish slaves myth a pseudo historical narrative which conflates the experiences of Irish indentured servants and enslaved Africans in the Americas This myth which was historically promoted by Irish nationalists such as John Mitchel has in the modern day been promoted by white supremacists in the United States to minimize the mistreatment experienced by African Americans such as racism and segregation and oppose demands for slavery reparations The myth has also been used to obscure and downplay Irish involvement in the transatlantic slave trade 30 31 Historical Negationism edit While closely related to previous categories historical negationism denialism specifically aims to outright deny the existence of confirmed events often including various massacres and genocides Some examples include denial of the Holocaust and denial of the Armenian Genocide 32 Psychohistory edit Main article Psychohistory Mainstream historians have categorized psychohistory as pseudohistory 33 34 Psychohistory is an amalgam of psychology history and related social sciences and the humanities 35 Its stated goal is to examine the why of history especially the difference between stated intention and actual behavior It also states as its goal the combination of the insights of psychology especially psychoanalysis with the research methodology of the social sciences and humanities to understand the emotional origin of the behavior of individuals groups and nations past and present Pseudoarchaeology edit Pseudoarchaeology refers to a false interpretation of records namely physical ones often by unqualified or otherwise amateur archeologists These interpretations are often baseless and seldom align with established consensus Nazi archaeology is a prominent example of this technique 36 Frequently people who engage in pseudoarchaeology have a very strict interpretation of evidence and are unwilling to alter their stance resulting in interpretations that often appear overly simplistic and fail to capture the complexity and nuance of the complete narrative 37 Various examples of pseudohistory edit These following examples can belong to a variety of the above mentioned categories or ones not mentioned as well Ancient aliens ancient technologies and lost lands edit Main article Ancient astronauts Immanuel Velikovsky s books Worlds in Collision 1950 Ages in Chaos 1952 and Earth in Upheaval 1955 which became instant bestsellers 7 demonstrated that pseudohistory based on ancient mythology held potential for tremendous financial success 7 and became models of success for future works in the genre 7 In 1968 Erich von Daniken published Chariots of the Gods which claims that ancient visitors from outer space constructed the pyramids and other monuments He has since published other books in which he makes similar claims These claims have all been categorized as pseudohistory 7 201 Similarly Zechariah Sitchin has published numerous books claiming that a race of extraterrestrial beings from the Planet Nibiru known as the Anunnaki visited Earth in ancient times in search of gold and that they genetically engineered humans to serve as their slaves He claims that memories of these occurrences are recorded in Sumerian mythology as well as other mythologies all across the globe These speculations have likewise been categorized as pseudohistory 38 39 The ancient astronaut hypothesis was further popularized in the United States by the History Channel television series Ancient Aliens 40 History professor Ronald H Fritze observed that the pseudohistorical claims promoted by von Daniken and the Ancient Aliens program have a periodic popularity in the US 7 41 In a pop culture with a short memory and a voracious appetite aliens and pyramids and lost civilizations are recycled like fashions 7 201 41 The author Graham Hancock has sold over four million copies of books promoting the pseudohistorical thesis that all the major monuments of the ancient world including Stonehenge the Egyptian pyramids and the moai of Easter Island were built by a single ancient supercivilization 42 which Hancock claims thrived from 15 000 to 10 000 BC and possessed technological and scientific knowledge equal to or surpassing that of modern civilization 7 He first advanced the full form of this argument in his 1995 bestseller Fingerprints of the Gods 7 which won popular acclaim but scholarly disdain 7 Christopher Knight has published numerous books including Uriel s Machine 2000 expounding pseudohistorical assertions that ancient civilizations possessed technology far more advanced than the technology of today 43 44 45 46 The claim that a lost continent known as Lemuria once existed in the Pacific Ocean has likewise been categorized as pseudohistory 7 11 Furthermore similar conspiracy theories promote the idea of embellished fabricated accounts of historical civilizations namely Khazaria and Tartaria Antisemitic pseudohistory edit See also Blood libel nbsp American edition of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion from 1934 The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion is a fraudulent work purporting to show a historical conspiracy for world domination by Jews 47 The work was conclusively proven to be a forgery in August 1921 when The Times revealed that extensive portions of the document were directly plagiarized from Maurice Joly s 1864 satirical dialogue The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu 48 as well as Hermann Goedsche s 1868 anti Semitic novel Biarritz 49 The Khazar theory is an academic fringe theory that postulates that the bulk of European Jewry are of Central Asian Turkic origin In spite of mainstream academic consensus conclusively rejecting it this theory has been promoted in Anti Semitic and some Anti Zionist circles arguing that Jews are an alien element both in Europe and in Palestine Holocaust denial and genocide denial in general are widely categorized as pseudohistory 8 237 50 Major proponents of Holocaust denial include David Irving and others who argue that the Holocaust Holodomor Armenian genocide Assyrian genocide Greek genocide and other genocides did not occur or were exaggerated greatly 50 Ethnocentric revisionism edit See also Historiography and nationalism and National mysticism Most Afrocentric i e Pre Columbian Africa Americas contact theories see Ancient Egyptian race controversy ideas have been identified as pseudohistorical 51 52 alongside the Indigenous Aryans theories published by Hindu nationalists during the 1990s and 2000s 53 The crypto history developed within Germanic mysticism and Nazi occultism has likewise been placed under this categorization 54 55 Among leading Nazis Heinrich Himmler is believed to have been influenced by occultism and according to one theory developed the SS base at Wewelsburg in accordance with an esoteric plan The Sun Language Theory is a pseudohistorical ideology which argues that all languages are descended from a form of proto Turkish 56 The theory may have been partially devised in order to legitimize Arabic and Semitic loanwords occurring in the Turkish language by instead asserting that the Arabic and Semitic words were derived from the Turkish ones rather than vice versa 57 A large number of nationalist pseudohistorical theories deal with the legendary Ten Lost Tribes of ancient Israel British Israelism also known as Anglo Israelism the most famous example of this type has been conclusively refuted by mainstream historians using evidence from a vast array of different fields of study 58 59 60 Another form of ethnocentric revisionism is nationalistic pseudohistory The Ancient Macedonians continuity theory is one such pseudohistorical theory which postulates demographic cultural and linguistic continuity between Macedonians of antiquity and the main ethnic group in present day North Macedonia 61 62 Also the Bulgarian medieval dynasty of the Komitopules which ruled the First Bulgarian Empire in its last decades is presented as Macedonian ruling a medieval Macedonian state because of the location of its capitals in Macedonia 63 Dacianism is a Romanian pseudohistorical current that attempts to attribute far more influence over European and world history to the Dacians than that which they actually enjoyed 64 Dacianist historiography claims that the Dacians held primacy over all other civilizations including the Romans 65 that the Dacian language was the origin of Latin and all other languages such as Hindi and Babylonian 66 and sometimes that the Zalmoxis cult has structural links to Christianity 67 Dacianism was most prevalent in National Communist Romania as the Ceaușescu regime portrayed the Dacians as insurgents defying an imperialist Rome the Communist Party had formally attached protochronism as Dacianism was known to Marxist ideology by 1974 68 Matriarchy edit Main article Matriarchy The consensus among academics is that no strictly matriarchal society is known to have existed 69 70 Anthropologist Donald Brown s list of human cultural universals viz features shared by nearly all current human societies includes men being the dominant element in public political affairs 71 which is the contemporary opinion of mainstream anthropology 72 Some societies are matrilineal or matrifocal but in fact have patriarchal power structures which may be misidentified as matriarchal The idea that matriarchal societies existed and they preceded patriarchal societies was first raised in the 19th century among Western academics but it has since been discredited 72 Despite this however some second wave feminists assert that a matriarchy preceded the patriarchy The Goddess Movement and Riane Eisler s The Chalice and the Blade cite Venus figurines as evidence that societies of paleolithic and neolithic Europe were matriarchies that worshipped a goddess This belief is not supported by mainstream academics 73 Pre Columbian trans oceanic contact theories edit Main article Pre Columbian trans oceanic contact Excluding the Norse colonization of the Americas and other reputable scholarship most theories of pre Columbian trans oceanic contact have been classified as pseudohistory including claims that the Americas were actually discovered by Arabs or Muslims 74 Gavin Menzies book 1421 The Year China Discovered the World which argues for the idea that Chinese sailors discovered America has also been categorized as a work of pseudohistory 7 11 Racist pseudohistory edit Josiah Priest and other nineteenth century American writers wrote pseudohistorical narratives that portrayed African Americans and Native Americans in an extremely negative light 75 Priest s first book was The Wonders of Nature and Providence Displayed 1826 76 75 The book is regarded by modern critics as one of the earliest works of modern American pseudohistory 75 Priest attacked Native Americans in American Antiquities and Discoveries of the West 1833 77 75 and African Americans in Slavery As It Relates to the Negro 1843 78 75 Other nineteenth century writers such as Thomas Gold Appleton in his A Sheaf of Papers 1875 and George Perkins Marsh in his The Goths in New England seized upon false notions of Viking history to promote the superiority of white people as well as to oppose the Catholic Church Such misuse of Viking history and imagery reemerged in the twentieth century among some groups promoting white supremacy 79 A recent but unfounded claim by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu asserts that the Holocaust was promoted and encourage by Palestinian Muftis rather than Nazi Germany This claim has come under strong criticism from historians across the world 80 81 Communist pseudohistory edit Main article Mass killings under communist regimes Communists and Putinists deny downplay or justify the mass repressions artificial famines and concentration camps in the Soviet Union and other communist regimes that claimed millions of human lives saying that while such events took place they have been exaggerated by opponents of the modern Russian state to discredit the legacy of Communism and the Soviet Union citation needed Supporters of this viewpoint claim among other things that Joseph Stalin and other top Soviet leaders did not realize the scope of the killings that the executions of prisoners were legally justifiable and that prisoners in concentration camps performed important construction work that helped the Soviet Union economonically particularly during World War II Scholars point to overwhelming evidence that Stalin directly helped plan the mass killings that many prisoners were sent to concentration camps extrajudicially and that prisoners were often simply isolated in remote camps or given pointless and menial tasks 82 Anti religious pseudohistory edit See also Bible conspiracy theory and Christ Myth Theory The Christ myth theory claims that Jesus of Nazareth never existed as a historical figure and that his existence was invented by early Christians This argument currently finds very little support among scholars and historians of all faiths and has been described as pseudohistorical 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 Likewise some minority historian views assert that Muhammad either did not exist or was not central to founding Islam 93 Religious pseudohistory edit The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail 1982 by Michael Baigent Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln is a book that purports to show that certain historical figures such as Godfrey of Bouillon and contemporary aristocrats are the lineal descendants of Jesus Mainstream historians have widely panned the book categorizing it as pseudohistory 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 and pointing out that the genealogical tables used in it are now known to be spurious 102 Nonetheless the book was an international best seller 101 and inspired Dan Brown s bestselling mystery thriller novel The Da Vinci Code 101 7 2 3 Although historians and archaeologists consider the Book of Mormon to be an anachronistic invention of Joseph Smith many members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints LDS Church believe that it describes ancient historical events in the Americas Searches for Noah s Ark have also been categorized as pseudohistory 103 104 105 106 107 In her books starting with The Witch Cult in Western Europe 1921 English author Margaret Murray claimed that the witch trials in the early modern period were actually an attempt by chauvinistic Christians to annihilate a secret pagan religion 108 which she claimed worshipped a Horned God 108 Murray s claims have now been widely rejected by respected historians 109 110 108 Nonetheless her ideas have become the foundation myth for modern Wicca a contemporary Neopagan religion 110 111 Belief in Murray s alleged witch cult is still prevalent among Wiccans 111 but is gradually declining 111 Hinduism edit The belief that Ancient India was technologically advanced to the extent of being a nuclear power is gaining popularity in India 112 Emerging extreme nationalist trends and ideologies based on Hinduism in the political arena promote these discussions Vasudev Devnani the education minister for the western state of Rajasthan said in January 2017 that it was important to understand the scientific significance of the cow as it was the only animal in the world to both inhale and exhale oxygen 113 In 2014 Prime Minister Narendra Modi told a gathering of doctors and medical staff at a Mumbai hospital that the story of the Hindu god Ganesha showed genetic science existed in ancient India 114 Many new age pseudohistorians who focus on converting mythological stories into history are well received among the crowd Indian Science Congress ancient aircraft controversy is a related event when Capt Anand J Bodas retired principal of a pilot training facility claimed that aircraft more advanced than today s versions existed in ancient India at the Indian Science Congress 115 As a topic of study editPseudohistory is offered as an undergraduate course in liberal arts settings one example being in Claremont McKenna College 116 See also editBig lie Propaganda technique List of pseudohistorians Pseudoscientific metrology DisinformationReferences edit Herf Jeffrey 2006 The Jewish Enemy Nazi Propaganda during the World War II and the Holocaust Harvard University Press p 127 ISBN 978 0 674038 59 2 Marchand Laure Perrier Guillaume 2015 Turkey and the Armenian Ghost On the Trail of the Genocide McGill Queen s Press pp 111 112 ISBN 978 0 7735 9720 4 The Igdir genocide monument is the ultimate caricature of the Turkish government s policy of denying the 1915 genocide by rewriting history and transforming victims into guilty parties Hovannisian 2001 p 803 the unbending attitude of the Ankara government in 1995 of a multi volume work of the prime ministry s state archives titled Armenian Atrocities in the Caucasus and Anatolia According to Archival Documents The purpose of the publication is not only to reiterate all previous denials but also to demonstrate that it was in fact the Turkish people who were the victims of a genocide perpetrated by the Armenians harvnb error no target CITEREFHovannisian2001 help Cheterian 2015 pp 65 66 Some of the proponents of this official narrative have even gone so far as to claim that the Armenians were the real aggressors and that Muslim losses were greater than those of the Armenians harvnb error no target CITEREFCheterian2015 help Gurpinar 2016 p 234 Maintaining that the best defence is a good offence the new strategy involved accusing Armenians in response for perpetrating genocide against the Turks The violence committed by the Armenian committees under the Russian occupation of Eastern Anatolia and massacring of tens of thousands of Muslims Turks and Kurds in revenge killings in 1916 17 was extravagantly displayed magnified and decontextualized harvnb error no target CITEREFGurpinar2016 help Joseph Goebbels On the Big Lie www jewishvirtuallibrary org Retrieved 2024 03 27 Monthly magazine and British register Volume 55 February 1823 p 449 in reference to John Galt Ringan Gilhaize Or The Covenanters Oliver amp Boyd 1823 1 C A Elton Remains of Hesiod the Ascraean 1815 p xix The Critical review or Annals of literature Volume 1 ed Tobias George Smollett 1815 p 152 a b c d e f g h i j k l m Fritze Ronald H 2009 Invented Knowledge False History Fake Science and Pseudo Religions London Reaktion Books ISBN 978 1 86189 430 4 a b Shermer Michael Grobman Alex 2009 Denying History Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do They Say It Oakland University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 26098 6 Allchin D 2004 Pseudohistory and pseudoscience PDF Science amp Education 1 13 179 195 Bibcode 2004Sc amp Ed 13 179A doi 10 1023 B SCED 0000025563 35883 e9 S2CID 7378302 Archived from the original PDF on 2008 05 12 Retrieved 2007 02 20 Carroll Robert Todd The skeptic s dictionary Hoboken John Wiley amp Sons 2003 p 305 Goodrick Clarke 1985 224 225 Nicholas Goodrick Clarke The Occult Roots of Nazism p 225 Tauris Parke Paperbacks 2005 ed ISBN 978 1 86064 973 8 Ellis Joseph J American Dialogue The Founders and Us New York Alfred A Knopf 2018 p 168 Novikov S P 2000 Pseudohistory and pseudomathematics fantasy in our life Russian Mathematical Surveys 55 2 365 368 Bibcode 2000RuMaS 55 365N doi 10 1070 RM2000v055n02ABEH000287 S2CID 250892348 In his book A Test of Time 1995 Rohl argues that the conventionally accepted dates for strata such as the Middle and Late Bronze Ages in Palestine are wrong in Daniel Jacobs Shirley Eber Francesca Silvani Israel and The Palestinian Territories The Rough Guide p 424 Rough Guides Ltd 2nd rev ed 1998 ISBN 978 1 85828 248 0 Before Jon Stewart Columbia Journalism Review Retrieved February 19 2017 Thorpe Lewis The History of the Kings of Britain p 17 Hope Warren and Kim Holston The Shakespeare Controversy 2009 2nd ed 3 In short this is a history written in opposition to the current prevailing view Potter Lois Marlowe onstage in Constructing Christopher Marlowe James Alan Downie and J T Parnell eds 2000 2001 paperback ed 88 101 100 The possibility that Shakespeare may not really be Shakespeare comic in the context of literary history and pseudo history is understandable in this world of double agents Aaronovitch David The anti Stratfordians in Voodoo Histories 2010 226 229 There is however a psychological or anthropological question to be answered about our consumption of pseudo history and pseudoscience I have now plowed through enough of these books to be able to state that as a genre they are badly written and in their anxiety to establish their dubious neo scholarly credentials incredibly tedious Why do we read bad history books that have the added lack of distinction of not being in any way true or useful Kathman David Shakespeare Authorship Page Shakespeare scholars regard Oxfordianism as pseudo scholarship which arbitrarily discards the methods used by real historians In order to support their beliefs Oxfordians resort to a number of tactics which will be familiar to observers of other forms of pseudo history and pseudo science Specter Arlen Spring 1995 Defending the wall Maintaining church state separation in America Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 18 2 575 590 dead link Leopold Jason 14 January 2008 House Passes Considers Evangelical Resolutions www baltimorechronicle com Retrieved 30 April 2019 Boston Theological Institute Newsletter Volume XXXIV No 17 Richard V Pierard January 25 2005 Boston Rob 2007 Dissecting the religious right s favorite Bible Curriculum Americans United for Separation of Church and State American Humanist Association Retrieved on April 9 2013 Harvey Paul 10 May 2011 Selling the Idea of a Christian Nation David Barton s Alternate Intellectual Universe Religion Dispatches Retrieved April 9 2013 David Barton December 2008 Confronting Civil War Revisionism Why the South Went To War Wall Builders Retrieved 30 December 2013 Barrett Brown 27 December 2010 Neoconfederate civil war revisionism Those who commemorate the South s fallen heroes are entitled to do so but not to deny that slavery was the war s prime cause TheGuardian com Retrieved 30 December 2013 Howard Swint Confederate revisionism warps U S history Charleston Daily Mail June 15 2011 Archived from the original on 31 December 2013 Retrieved 30 December 2013 Linehan Hugh Sinn Fein not allowing facts derail good Irish slaves yarn The Irish Times Retrieved 2021 03 30 Kennedy Liam 2015 Unhappy the Land The Most Oppressed People Ever the Irish Dublin Irish Academic Press p 19 ISBN 978 1785370472 academic oup com https academic oup com book 37362 chapter abstract 331336915 redirectedFrom fulltext Retrieved 2024 03 27 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Missing or empty title help Barzun Jacques 1989 Clio and the Doctors Psycho History Quanto History and History Chicago University of Chicago Press p 3 ISBN 978 0226038513 Retrieved 30 July 2017 Hunt Lynn 2002 Psychology Pschoanalysis and Historical Thought The Misfortunes of Psychohistory In Kramer Lloyd S and Maza Sarah C ed A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell Publishing pp 337 357 ISBN 0 631 21714 2 Paul H Elovitz Ed Psychohistory for the Twenty First Century 2013 pp 1 3 What did the Nazis have to do with archaeology HowStuffWorks 1970 01 01 Retrieved 2024 03 27 Fagan Garrett G 1963 Archaeological Fantasies how pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and misleads the public Routledge p 27 ISBN 0 415 30593 4 Michael S Heiser The Myth of a Sumerian 12th Planet PDF Archived from the original PDF on 20 November 2008 Retrieved 30 July 2017 Carroll Robert T 1994 2009 Zecharia Sitchin and The Earth Chronicles The Skeptic s Dictionary John Wiley amp Sons Retrieved 30 July 2017 Fritze Ronald H November 2009 On the Perils and Pleasures of Confronting Pseudohistory Historically Speaking 10 5 2 5 doi 10 1353 hsp 0 0067 ISSN 1941 4188 S2CID 144988932 a b Fritze Ronald 8 July 2009 Ronald H Fritze On his book Invented Knowledge False History Fake Science and Pseudo Religions Cover Interview July 08 2009 Rorotoko com Retrieved July 17 2012 Sheiko Konstantin 2012 Nationalist Imaginings of the Russian Past Anatolii Fomenko and the Rise of Alternative History in Post Communist Russia Soviet and Post Soviet Politics and Society Vol 86 Stuttgart Germany Ibidem Verlag p 83 ISBN 978 3838259154 Merriman Nick editor Public Archaeology Routledge 2004 p 260 Tonkin S 2003 Uriel s Machine a Commentary on some of the Astronomical Assertions Merriman Nick ed 2004 The comforts of unreason the importance and relevance of alternative archaeology Public Archaeology London Routledge p 260 ISBN 978 0415258890 Tonkin Stephen 2003 Uriel s Machine a Commentary on some of the Astronomical Assertions The Astronomical Unit Retrieved 21 November 2013 Protocols of the Elders of Zion encyclopedia ushmm org Retrieved May 28 2020 Philip Graves August 16 18 1921 The truth about The Protocols The Times London Segel Binjamin W 1996 1926 Levy Richard S ed A Lie and a Libel The History of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion University of Nebraska Press p 97 ISBN 0 8032 9245 7 a b Lipstadt Deborah E 1994 Denying the Holocaust The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory New York Plume p 215 ISBN 0 452 27274 2 Sherwin Elisabeth Clarence Walker encourages black Americans to discard Afrocentrism Davis Community Network Retrieved 2007 11 13 Ortiz de Montellano Bernardo amp Gabriel Haslip Viera amp Warren Barbour 1997 They were NOT here before Columbus Afrocentric hyper diffusionism in the 1990s Ethnohistory 44 2 Duke University Press 199 234 doi 10 2307 483368 JSTOR 483368 Nanda Meera January March 2005 Response to my critics PDF Social Epistemology 19 1 147 191 doi 10 1080 02691720500084358 S2CID 10045510 Sokal Alan 2006 Pseudoscience and Postmodernism Antagonists or Fellow Travelers In Fagan Garrett ed Archaeological Fantasies How pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and misleads the public Routledge ISBN 0 415 30592 6 Nicholas Goodrick Clarke 1985 The Occult Roots of Nazism Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology The Ariosophists of Austria and Germany 1890 1935 Wellingborough England The Aquarian Press ISBN 0 85030 402 4 Several reprints Expanded with a new Preface 2004 I B Tauris amp Co ISBN 1 86064 973 4 Kristkoiz Suzanne 2021 04 21 The Utilisation of Historically Revisionist Narratives by the FPO and the AfD E International Relations Retrieved 2024 03 27 Ayturk Ilker November 2004 Turkish Linguists against the West The Origins of Linguistic Nationalism in Ataturk s Turkey PDF Middle Eastern Studies 40 6 London Frank Cass amp Co Routledge 1 25 doi 10 1080 0026320042000282856 hdl 11693 49528 ISSN 0026 3206 OCLC 86539631 S2CID 144968896 Zuckermann Ghil ad 2003 Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1403917232 2 p 165 Melton J Gordon 2005 Encyclopedia of Protestantism New York Facts on File Inc p 107 ISBN 0 8160 5456 8 Cross Frank Leslie Livingstone Elizabeth A 2005 The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0192802903 Shapiro Faydra L 2015 Christian Zionism Navigating the Jewish Christian Border Eugene OR Cascade Books p 151 Anastas Vangeli Nation building ancient Macedonian style the origins and the effects of the so called antiquization in Macedonia doi 10 1080 00905992 2010 532775 Published online by Cambridge University Press 20 November 2018 Todorovic Milos 2019 Nationalistic Pseudohistory in the Balkans Skeptic Magazine 24 4 Retrieved 26 January 2020 Svetozar Rajak Konstantina E Botsiou Eirini Karamouzi Evanthis Hatzivassiliou ed The Balkans in the Cold War Security Conflict and Cooperation in the Contemporary World Springer 2017 ISBN 1137439033 p 313 Boia Lucian 1997 Istorie și mit in conștiința romanească Bucharest Romania Humanitas pp 160 161 Boia 1997 pp 149 151 Doar o vorbă SĂȚ I mai spun George Pruteanu in Romanian 26 March 1996 Retrieved 21 January 2020 Boia 1997 p 169 Boia 1997 pp 120 154 156 Goldberg Steven The Inevitability of Patriarchy William Morrow amp Co 1973 Eller 2000 harvp error no target CITEREFEller2000 help Brown Donald E Human Universals Philadelphia Temple University Press 1991 p 137 a b The view of matriarchy as constituting a stage of cultural development now is generally discredited Furthermore the consensus among modern anthropologists and sociologists is that a strictly matriarchal society never existed Encyclopaedia Britannica 2007 entry Matriarchy Ruth Whitehouse The Mother Goddess Hypothesis and Its Critics in Handbook of Gender in Archaeology Sarah Milledge Nelson ed pp 756 758 Did Muslims Visit America Before Columbus hnn us a b c d e Williams Stephen 1991 Fantastic Archaeology The Wild Side of North American Prehistory Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press Priest Josiah 1826 The Wonders of Nature and Providence Displayed Albany E amp E Hosford Priest Josiah 1835 American Antiquities and Discoveries in the West Albany Hoffman and White Priest Josiah 1843 Slavery As It Relates to the Negro Albany C van Bethuysen amp Co Regal Brian 2019 Everything Means Something in Viking Skeptical Inquirer Vol 43 no 6 Center for Inquiry pp 44 47 Botelho Greg 2015 10 21 Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu criticized for saying Holocaust was mufti s idea not Hitler s CNN Retrieved 2024 04 01 Germany tells Netanyahu We are responsible for the Holocaust BBC News 2015 10 22 Retrieved 2024 04 01 Mne govoryat chto repressij v SSSR ne bylo Kak s etim sporit In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship Bart Ehrman a secular agnostic wrote He certainly existed as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity Christian or non Christian agrees B Ehrman 2011 Forged writing in the name of God ISBN 978 0 06 207863 6 p 285 Robert M Price an atheist who denies the existence of Jesus agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars Robert M Price Jesus at the Vanishing Point in The Historical Jesus Five Views edited by James K Beilby amp Paul Rhodes Eddy 2009 InterVarsity ISBN 028106329X p 61 Michael Grant a classicist states that In recent years no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus or at any rate very few and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger indeed very abundant evidence to the contrary in Jesus An Historian s Review of the Gospels by Michael Grant 2004 ISBN 1898799881 p 200 Richard A Burridge states There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church s imagination that there never was a Jesus at all I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that anymore in Jesus Now and Then by Richard A Burridge and Graham Gould 2004 ISBN 0802809774 p 34 Did Jesus exist Bart Ehrman 2012 Chapter 1 Sykes Stephen W 2007 Paul s understanding of the death of Jesus Sacrifice and Redemption Cambridge University Press pp 35 36 ISBN 978 0 521 04460 8 Mark Allan Powell 1998 Jesus as a Figure in History How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee Westminster John Knox Press p 168 ISBN 978 0 664 25703 3 James L Houlden 2003 Jesus in History Thought and Culture Entries A J ABC CLIO ISBN 978 1 57607 856 3 Robert E Van Voorst 2000 Jesus Outside the New Testament An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence Wm B Eerdmans Publishing pp 14 16 ISBN 978 0 8028 4368 5 Dickson John 24 December 2012 Best of 2012 The irreligious assault on the historicity of Jesus Abc net au Retrieved 17 June 2014 Review of Crossroads to Islam The Origins of the Arab Religion and the Arab State Bryn Mawr Classical Review ISSN 1055 7660 Thompson Damian 2008 Counterknowledge How We Surrendered to Conspiracy Theories Quack Medicine Bogus Science and Fake History Atlantic Books ISBN 978 1 84354 675 7 Jarnac Pierre 1985 Histoire du Tresor de Rennes le Chateau Saleilles P Jarnac Jarnac Pierre 1988 Les Archives de Rennes le Chateau Editions Belisane Describing The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail as a monument of mediocrity Chaumeil Jean Luc 1994 La Table d Isis ou Le Secret de la Lumiere Editions Guy Tredaniel Etchegoin Marie France Lenoir Frederic 2004 Code Da Vinci L Enquete Robert Laffont Bedu Jean Jacques 2005 Les sources secretes du Da Vinci Code Editions du Rocher Sanchez Da Motta Bernardo 2005 Do Enigma de Rennes le Chateau ao Priorado de Siao Historia de um Mito Moderno Esquilo Morley Neville 1999 Writing Ancient History Cornell University Press p 19 ISBN 0 8014 8633 5 a b c Miller Laura 22 February 2004 The Last Word The Da Vinci Con The New York Times Laura Miller 2006 Dan Burstein ed Secrets of the Code Vanguard Press p 405 ISBN 978 1 59315 273 4 Fagan Brian M Beck Charlotte 1996 The Oxford Companion to Archaeology Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 507618 4 Cline Eric H 2009 Biblical Archaeology A Very Short Introduction Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 974107 6 Feder Kenneth L 2010 Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology From Atlantis to the Walam Olum Santa Barbara California ABC CLIO ISBN 978 0 313 37919 2 Rickard Bob Michell John 2000 Arkeology Unexplained Phenomena A Rough Guide Special London Rough Guides pp 179 83 ISBN 1 85828 589 5 Dietz Robert S Ark Eology A Frightening Example of Pseudo Science in Geotimes 38 9 Sept 1993 p 4 a b c Purkiss Diane 1996 The Witch in History Early Modern and Twentieth Century Representations Abingdon England Routledge p 62 ISBN 978 0415087629 Russell Jeffrey B Alexander Brooks 2007 A New History of Witchcraft Sorcerers Heretics and Pagans London Thames and Hudson p 154 ISBN 978 0 500 28634 0 a b Simpson Jacqueline 1994 Margaret Murray Who Believed Her and Why Folklore 105 1 2 89 96 doi 10 1080 0015587x 1994 9715877 a b c Rabinovitch Shelley Lewis James 2002 The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo Paganism New York Kensington Publishing Corporation pp 32 35 ISBN 0 8065 2407 3 Kumar Ruchi 12 October 2018 The Threat of Pseudoscience in India Undark Retrieved 2 March 2019 Cow only animal to inhale and exhale oxygen Rajasthan minister Hindustan Times 16 January 2017 Archived from the original on 27 April 2019 Maseeh Rahman 28 October 2014 Indian prime minister claims genetic science existed in ancient times The Guardian Retrieved 26 April 2019 Lakshmi Rama 4 January 2015 Indians invented planes 7 000 years ago and other startling claims at the Science Congress The Washington Post Retrieved 30 April 2019 Examination of pseudohistory and how to uncover trustworthy accounts focus of next Modern China Lecture CSUSB News inside csusb edu Archived from the original on 2019 12 22 Retrieved 2019 04 26 External links edit nbsp Look up pseudohistory in Wiktionary the free dictionary Pseudohistory and Pseudoscience Program in the History of Science and Technology University of Minnesota Minneapolis Minnesota United States Pseudohistory entry at Skeptic s Dictionary The Hall of Ma at The Restoration of History from the American Skeptic magazine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pseudohistory amp oldid 1218975706, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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