fbpx
Wikipedia

Paleotempestology

January 31, 2023

"Tempestology" redirects here. For the generalized study of storms, see Meteorology. For the origins of storms and tropical cyclones, see Cyclogenesis and Tornadogenesis.

Paleotempestology is the study of past tropical cyclone activity by means of geological proxies as well as historical documentary records. The term was coined by American meteorologist Kerry Emanuel.

The usual approach in paleotempestology is the identification of deposits left by storms. Most commonly, these are overwash deposits in waterbodies close to the coast; other means are oxygen isotope ratio variations caused by tropical cyclone rainfall in trees or speleothems (cave deposits), and identifying beach ridges kicked up by storm waves. The occurrence rate of tropical cyclones can then be inferred from these deposits and sometimes also their intensity – typically the stronger events are the most easily recognizable ones –, by comparing them to deposits left by historical events.

Paleotempestological research has shown that in the Coast of the Gulf of Mexico and in Australia, the occurrence rate of intense tropical cyclones is about once every few centuries, and there are long-term variations in occurrence which are caused, for example, by shifts in their paths. Common problems in paleotempestology are confounding factors such as tsunami-generated deposits, and the fact that only some parts of the world have been investigated.

Definition and rationale

Paleotempestology is the estimation of tropical cyclone activity with the help of proxy data. The name was coined by Kerry Emanuel of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology;[1] the field has seen increased activity since the 1990s[2] and studies were first carried out in the United States of America[3] on the East Coast.[4]

The realisation that one cannot rely solely on historical records to infer past storm activity was a major driving force for the development of paleotempestology.[5] The historical record in many places is too short (one century at most) to properly determine the hazard produced by tropical cyclones, especially the rare very intense ones[1] which at times are undersampled by historical records;[6] in the United States, for example, only about 150 years of record are available, and only a small number of hurricanes classified as category 4 or 5 – the most destructive ones on the Saffir-Simpson scale – have come ashore, making it difficult to estimate the hazard level.[7] Such records may also not be representative for future weather patterns.[8][9]

Information about past tropical cyclone occurrences can be used to constrain how their occurrences may change in the future, or about how they respond to large-scale climate modes, such as sea surface temperature changes.[1] In general, the origin and behaviour of tropical cyclone systems is poorly understood,[10] and there is concern that human-caused global warming will increase the intensity of tropical cyclones and the frequency of strong events by increasing sea surface temperatures.[11][8]

Techniques

In general, paleotempestology is a complex field of science that overlaps with other disciplines like climatology and coastal geomorphology.[12] A number of techniques have been used to estimate the past hazards from tropical cyclones.[7] Many of these techniques have also been applied to studying extratropical storms, although research on this field is less advanced than on tropical cyclones.[4]

Overwash deposits

Overwash deposits in atolls, coastal lakes, marshes or reef flats are the most important paleoclimatological evidence of tropical cyclone strikes. When storms hit these areas, currents and waves can overtop barriers, erode these and other beach structures, and lay down deposits in the water bodies behind barriers.[13][2][14] Isolated breaches and especially widespread overtopping of coastal barriers during storms can generate fan-like, layered deposits behind the barrier. Individual layers can be correlated to particular storms in favourable circumstances; in addition they are often separated by a clear boundary from earlier sediments.[11] Such deposits have been observed in North Carolina after Hurricane Isabel in 2003, for example.[15] The intensity[3] and impacts of the tropical cyclone can also be inferred from overwash deposits[16] by comparing the deposits to these formed by known storms[3] and analyzing their lithology (their physical characteristics).[17] Additionally, thicker sediment layers usually correspond to stronger storm systems.[3] This procedure is not always clear-cut however.[18]

Several techniques have been applied to separate out storm overwash deposits from other sediments:

  • Compared to the normal sedimentation processes in such places, tropical cyclone deposits are rougher and can be detected with sieving, laser-dependent technologies[19] or x-ray fluorescence techniques.[20]
  • In sediment cores, deposits formed by tropical cyclones may be denser due to a larger proportion of mineral content associated with overwashes, which can be detected with x-ray fluorescence techniques.[21]
  • They may contain less organic matter than deposits formed through steady sedimentation, which can be detected by combusting the deposits and measuring the resulting mass loss.[22] This and sediment grain sizes are the most common research tools for sediment cores.[19]
  • A little used technique is the analysis of organic material in sediment cores; there are characteristic changes in carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios[23] after flooding and the entering of seawater, including a general increase in biological productivity.[24]
  • Overwash deposits can contain elements that do not normally occur at the site, such as strontium; this can be detected with x-ray fluorescence techniques.[20]
  • Overwash deposits have usually brighter colors than those generated during steady sedimentation.[3]
  • Storm surges can transport living structures into such deposits that do not normally occur in these settings. Droughts or the entry of water unrelated to a storm can confound such records, however. Thus, this method is often supplemented with other proxies. The most common living structure employed here are foraminifera, although bivalves, diatoms, dinoflagellates, ostracods and pollen have also been used.[25] Marine foraminifera, however, are not always present in deposits formed by historical storms.[26]

Generally, sites suitable for obtaining paleotempestology records are not found along the entire length of the coastline,[19] and depending on the properties of the site such as vegetation cover,[27] they might only track storms approaching from a certain direction.[17] Prerequisites for successful correlation of overwash deposits to tropical cyclones are:[28]

  • The absence of tsunamis in the region, as their deposits can usually not be easily distinguished from storm deposits.[28]
  • The investigation area should have low biological activity, as bioturbation can otherwise erase evidence of storm deposits. Low biological activity can be found in sites with high salt or low oxygen concentrations.[28]
  • A high geomorphic stability of the site.[28]
  • High sedimentation rates can facilitate the preservation of storm deposits.[28]
  • Tides can destroy layered storm deposits; thus non-tidal waterbodies are ideally used. In tidally active waterbodies, correlations involving various sediment cores can be applied.[29]

Dating and intensity determination

Various dating techniques can then be used to produce a chronology of tropical cyclone strikes at a given location and thus a recurrence rate;[2][14] for example, at Lake Shelby in Alabama a return period of once every 318 years was determined. The storms in the Lake Shelby record have windspeeds of over 190 kilometres per hour (120 mph)[30] as Hurricane Ivan which in 2004 made landfall in the region at that intensity did not leave a deposit.[31] Based on geological considerations the minimum windspeed of storms recorded there might be 230 kilometres per hour (143 mph).[30]

For dating purposes radiometric dating procedures involving carbon-14, cesium-137, and lead-210 are most commonly used, often in combination.[25] Uranium series dating,[32] optically stimulated luminescence,[33] and correlations to human land use can also be used in some places.[20]

Beach ridges

Beach ridges and cheniers[2] form when storm surges, storm waves or tides deposit debris in ridges, with one ridge typically corresponding to one storm.[34] Ridges can be formed by coral rubble where coral reefs lie at the coast,[35] and can contain complicated layer structures,[36] shells,[37] pumice,[38] and gravel.[39] A known example is the ridge that Cyclone Bebe generated on Funafuti atoll in 1971.[40]

Beach ridges are common on the deltaic shores of China, and are indicative of increased typhoon activity.[3] They have also been found on the Australian coast facing the Great Barrier Reef and are formed from reworked corals. The height of each ridge appears to correlate with the intensity of the storm that produced it, and thus the intensity of the forming storm can be inferred by numerical modelling and comparison to known storms[41] and known storm surges.[42] Ridges tend to be older the farther inland they are;[43] they can also be dated through optically stimulated luminescence[44] and radiocarbon dating.[38] In addition, no tsunami-generated beach ridges have been observed, and tsunamis are important confounding factors in paleotempestology.[45]

Wind-driven erosion or accumulation can alter the elevation of such ridges, and, in addition, the same ridge can be formed by more than one storm event[46] as has been observed in Australia.[47] Beach ridges can also shift around through non-storm processes after their formation[43] and can form through non-tropical cyclone processes.[48] Sedimentary texture can be used to infer the origin of a ridge from storm surges.[49]

Isotope ratios

Precipitation in tropical cyclones has a characteristic isotope composition with a depletion of heavy oxygen isotopes; carbon and nitrogen isotope data have also been used to infer tropical cyclone activity.[50] Corals can store oxygen isotope ratios which in turn reflect water temperatures, precipitation and evaporation;[51] these in turn can be related to tropical cyclone activity.[52] Fish otoliths and bivalves can also store such records,[53] as can trees where the oxygen isotope ratios of precipitation are reflected in the cellulose of trees, and can be inferred with the help of tree rings.[50] However, confounding factors like natural variation and soil properties also influence oxygen isotope ratios of tree cellulose. For these reasons, only the frequency of storms can be reliably estimated from tree ring isotopic records, not their intensity.[23]

Speleothems, deposits formed in caves through the dissolution and redeposition of dolomite and limestone, can store isotope signatures associated with tropical cyclones, especially in fast growing speleothems, areas with thin soils and speleothems which have undergone little alteration. Such deposits have a high temporal resolution, and are also protected from many confounding factors[23] although the extraction of annual layers has become possible only recently, with a two-week resolution (two separate layers correlated to two hurricanes that struck two weeks apart) achieved in one case.[54] However, the suitability of speleothems depends on the characteristics of the cave they are found in; caves that flood frequently may have their speleothems eroded or otherwise damaged, for example, making them less suitable for paleotempestology research.[55] Caves where speleothems form mainly during the offseason are also likely to miss tropical cyclones.[56] Very old records can be obtained from oxygen isotope ratios in rocks.[57]

Other techniques

Historical documents such as county gazettes in China, diaries, logbooks of travellers, official histories and old newspapers can contain information on tropical cyclones.[58] In China such records go back over a millennium,[3] while elsewhere it is usually confined to the last 130 years.[59] Such historical records however are often ambiguous or unclear.[1] The frequency of shipwrecks has been used to infer past tropical cyclone occurrence,[17] such as has been done with a database of shipwrecks that the Spaniards suffered in the Caribbean.[60]

Aside from oxygen isotope ratios,[50] tree rings can also record information on storm-caused plant damage or vegetation changes,[61] such as thin tree rings due to storm-induced damage to a tree canopy, and saltwater intrusion and the resulting slowdown in tree growth. The term "dendrotempestology" is used in this context.[62][60][63] Speleothems can also store trace elements which can signal tropical cyclone activity[64] and mud layers formed by storm-induced cave flooding.[55] Droughts on the other hand can cause groundwater levels to drop enough that subsequent storms cannot induce flooding and thus fail to leave a record, as has been noted in Yucatan.[65]

Other techniques:

  • Rhythmites in river mouths.[2] These are formed when storms resuspend sediments; the sediments when the storm wanes fall out and form the deposits, especially in places with high sediment supplies. Carbon isotope and chemical data can be used to distinguish them from non-storm sedimentation.[66]
  • Sand dunes at coastlines is influenced by storm surge height,[67] and sand splays can be formed when sand is swept off these dunes by storm surges and waves;[48] such deposits however are better studied in the context of tsunamis and there is no clear way to distinguish between tsunami- and storm-formed splays.[68]
  • Hummocky deposits in shallow seas,[2] known as tempestites.[69] The mechanics of their formation are still controversial,[70] and such deposits are prone to reworking which wipes out the traces of a storm.[13]
  • Boulders[71] and coral blocks can be moved by storms and such moved blocks can potentially be dated to obtain the age of the storm, if certain conditions are met.[72] They can be correlated to storms with the help of oxygen isotope excursions for example.[73] This technique has also been applied to islands formed by storm-moved blocks.[74]
  • Wave-driven erosion during storms can create scarps[75] which can be dated with the assistance of optically-stimulated luminescence.[76] Such scarps however tend to be altered over time – later storms can erode away older scarps, for example – and their preservation and formation is often strongly dependent on the local geology.[77]
  • Other techniques involve the identification of freshwater flood deposits by storms[73] such as humic acid[60][63] and other evidence in corals,[78] and lack of bromine – which is common in marine sediments – in flood-related deposits,[79] and oyster bed kills caused by sediments suspended by storms (oyster kills however can also be caused by non-storm phenomena).[80]
  • Luminescence of coral deposits has been used to infer tropical cyclone activity.[73]

Timespans

A database of tropical cyclones going back to 6,000 BC has been compiled for the western North Atlantic Ocean.[81] In the Gulf of Mexico, records go back five millennia[14] but only a few typhoon[a] records go back 5,000–6,000 years.[32] In general, tropical cyclone records do not go farther back than 5,000–6,000 years ago when the Holocene sea level rise levelled off; tropical cyclone deposits formed during sea level lowstands likely were reworked during sea level rise. Only tentative evidence exists of deposits from the last interglacial.[83] Tempestite deposits[84] and oxygen isotope ratios in much older rocks have also been used to infer the existence of tropical cyclone activity[57] as far back as the Jurassic.[84]

Results

Paleotempestological information has been used by the insurance industry in risk analysis[85] in order to set insurance rates.[63] The industry has also funded paleotempestological research.[86] Paleotempestology information is further of interest to archeologists, ecologists, and forest and water resource managers.[87]

Recurrence rates

The recurrence rate, the time gap between storms, is an important metric used to estimate tropical cyclone risk, and it can be determined by paleotempestological research. In the Gulf of Mexico, catastrophic hurricane strikes at given locations occur once about every 350 years in the last 3,800 years[14] or about 0.48%–0.39% annual frequency at any given site,[88] with a recurrence rate of 300 years or 0.33% annual probability at sites in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico;[89] category 3 or more storms occur at a rate of 3.9–0.1 category 3 or more storms per century in the northern Gulf of Mexico.[90] Elsewhere, tropical cyclones with intensities of category 4 or more occur about every 350 years in the Pearl River Delta (China),[91] one storm every 100–150 years at Funafuti and a similar rate in French Polynesia,[74] one category 3 or stronger every 471 years in St. Catherines Island (Georgia),[92] 0.3% each year for an intense storm in eastern Hainan,[93] one storm every 140–180 years in Nicaragua,[94] one intense storm every 200–300 years in the Great Barrier Reef[41] – formerly their recurrence rate was estimated to be one strong event every few millennia[95] – and one storm of category 2–4 intensity[96] every 190–270 years at Shark Bay in Western Australia.[97] Steady rates have been found for the Gulf of Mexico and the Coral Sea[98] for timespans of several millennia.[88]

However, it has also been found that the occurrence rates of tropical cyclone measured with instrumental data over historical time can be significantly different from the actual occurrent rate. In the past, tropical cyclones were far more frequent in the Great Barrier Reef[41] and the northern Gulf of Mexico than today;[99] in Apalachee Bay, strong storms occur every 40 years, not every 400 years as documented historically.[100] Serious storms in New York occurred twice in 300 years[101] not once every millennium or less.[102] In general, the area of Australia appears to be unusually inactive in recent times by the standards of the past 550–1500 years,[103] and the historical record underestimates the incidence of strong storms in Northeastern Australia.[104]

Long term fluctuations

Long-term variations of tropical cyclone activity have also been found. The Gulf of Mexico saw increased activity between 3,800 and 1,000 years ago with a fivefold increase of category 4–5 hurricane activity,[105] and activity at St. Catherines Island and Wassaw Island was also higher between 2,000 and 1,100 years ago.[106] This appears to be a stage of increased tropical cyclone activity spanning the region from New York to Puerto Rico,[107] while the last 1,000 years have been inactive both there and in the Gulf Coast.[108] Before 1400 AD, the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico were active while the East Coast of the United States was inactive, followed by a reversal that lasted until 1675 AD;[109] in an alternative interpretation, the US Atlantic coast and the Caribbean saw low activity between 950 AD and 1700 with a sudden increase around 1700.[32] It is unclear whether in the Atlantic hurricane activity is more regionally modulated or basin-wide.[110] Such fluctuations appear to mainly concern strong tropical cyclone systems, at least in the Atlantic; weaker systems have a more steady pattern of activity.[111] Rapid fluctuations over short timespans have also been observed.[87]

In the Atlantic Ocean, the so-called "Bermuda High" hypothesis stipulates that changes in the position of this anticyclone can cause storm paths to alternate between landfalls on the East Coast and the Gulf Coast[11][112] but also Nicaragua.[113] Paleotempestological data support this theory[114] although additional findings on Long Island and Puerto Rico have demonstrated that storm frequency is more complex[108] as active periods appear to correlate between the three sites.[115] A southward shift of the High has been inferred to have occurred 3,000[116]–1,000 years ago,[117] and has been linked with the "hurricane hyperactivity" period in the Gulf of Mexico between 3,400 and 1,000 years ago.[118] Conversely a decrease in hurricane activity is recorded after the mid-millennium period[119] and after 1,100 the Atlantic changes from a pattern of widespread activity to a more geographically confined one.[120] Between 1,100-1,450 the Bahamas and the Florida Gulf Coast were frequently struck while between 1,450-1,650 activity was higher in New England.[121] Furthermore, a tendency to a more northerly storm track may be associated with a strong North Atlantic Oscillation[122] while the Neoglacial cooling is associated with a southward shift.[118] In West Asia, high activity in the South China Sea coincides with low activity in Japan and vice versa.[123][124]

Role of climate modes

The influence of natural trends on tropical cyclone activity has been recognized in paleotempestology records, such as a correlation between Atlantic hurricane tracks[125] and activity with the status of the ITCZ;[126][127][128] position of the Loop Current (for Gulf of Mexico hurricanes);[88] North Atlantic Oscillation; sea surface temperatures[129] and the strength of the West African Monsoon;[130] and Australian cyclone activity and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation.[131] Increased insolation – either from solar activity[132] or from orbital variations – have been found to be detrimental to tropical cyclone activity in some regions.[133] In the first millennium AD, warmer sea surface temperatures in the Atlantic as well as more restricted anomalies may be responsible for stronger regional hurricane activity.[134] The climate mode dependency of tropical cyclone activity may be more pronounced in temperate regions where tropical cyclones find less favourable conditions.[135]

Among the known climate modes that influence tropical cyclone activity in paleotempestological records are ENSO phase variations, which influence tropical cyclone activity in Australia and the Atlantic,[136] but also their path as has been noted for typhoons.[137][138][139][140] More general global correlations have been found, such as a negative correlation between tropical cyclone activity in Japan and the North Atlantic[133] and correlation between the Atlantic and Australia on the one hand[141] and between Australia and French Polynesia on the other hand.[142]

Influence of long-term temperature variations

The effect of general climate variations have also been found. Hurricane[143] and typhoon tracks tend to shift north (e.g. Amur Bay) during warm periods and south (e.g. South China) during cold periods,[144] patterns that might be mediated by shifts in the subtropical anticyclones.[108] These patterns (northward shift with warming) has been observed as a consequence of human-induced global warming and the end of the Little Ice Age[143] but also after volcanic eruptions (southward shift with cooling);[145] some volcanic eruptions have been linked to decreased hurricane activity, although this observation is not universal.[146]

The Dark Ages Cold Period has been linked to decreased activity off Belize.[147] Initially the Medieval Climate Anomaly featured increased activity across the Atlantic, but later activity decreased along the US East Coast.[148] During the 1350 to present interval in the Little Ice Age, there were more but weaker storms in the Gulf of Mexico[149] while hurricane activity did not decrease in western Long Island.[115] Colder waters may have impeded tropical cyclone activity in the Gulf of Mexico during the Little Ice Age.[150] Increased hurricane activity during the last 300 years in the Caribbean may also correlate to the Little Ice Age.[151] The Little Ice Age may have been accompanied by more but weaker storms in the South China Sea relative to preceding or following periods.[152][153]

The response of tropical cyclones to future global warming is of great interest. The Holocene Climatic Optimum did not induce increased tropical cyclone strikes in Queensland and phases of higher hurricane activity on the Gulf Coast are not associated with global warming;[32] however warming has been correlated with typhoon activity in the Gulf of Thailand[154] and marine warming with typhoon activity in the South China Sea,[155] increased hurricane activity in Belize (which increased during the Medieval Warm Period)[156] and during the Mesozoic when carbon dioxide caused warming episodes[84] such as the Toarcian anoxic event.[157]

After-effects of tropical cyclones

A correlation between hurricane strikes and subsequent wildfire activity[158] and vegetation changes has been noted in the Alabamian[159] and Cuban paleotempestological record.[160] In St. Catherines Island, cultural activity ceased at the time of increased storm activity,[161] and both Taino settlement of the Bahamas[89] and Polynesian expansion across the Pacific may have been correlated to decreased tropical cyclone activity.[142] Tropical cyclone induced alteration in oxygen isotope ratios may mask isotope ratio variations caused by other climate phenomena, which may thus be misinterpreted.[162]

On the other hand, the Classic Maya collapse may coincide with, and have been caused by, a decrease in tropical cyclone activity.[163] Tropical cyclones are important for preventing droughts in the southeastern US.[164]

Other patterns

Sites in the Bahamas show more strong storms in the northern Bahamas than the southern ones, presumably because storms approaching the southern Bahamas have passed over the Greater Antilles before and have lost much of their intensity there.[165] Atmospheric conditions favourable for tropical cyclone activity in the "main development region"[b] of the Atlantic are correlated to unfavourable conditions along the East Coast.[167] The anti-correlation between Gulf of Mexico and Bahamas activity with the US East Coast activity may be due to active hurricane seasons - which tend to increase storm activity in the former - being accompanied by unfavourable climatological conditions along the East Coast.[168]

Problems

Paleotempestological reconstructions are subject to a number of limitations,[24] including the presence of sites suited for the obtainment of paleotempestological records,[19] changes in the hydrological properties of the site due to e.g. sea level rise[24] which increases the sensitivity to weaker storms[169] and "false positives" caused by for example non-tropical cyclone-related floods, sediment winnowing, wind-driven transport, tides, tsunamis,[24] bioturbation[17] and non-tropical storms such as nor'easters[170] or winter storm, the latter of which however usually result in lower surges.[171] In particular, tsunamis are a problem for paleotempestological studies in the Indian and Pacific Ocean;[172] one technique that has been used to differentiate the two is the identification of traces of runoff which occurs during storms but not during tsunamis.[173]

Not all of the world has been investigated with paleotempestological methods; among the places thus researched are Belize, the Carolinas of North America, northern coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, the northeastern United States,[19] (in a lesser measure) the South Pacific islands and tropical Australia.[59] Conversely China,[174] Cuba, Florida, Hispaniola, Honduras, the Lesser Antilles and North America north of Canada are poorly researched. The presence of research institutions active in paleotempestology and suitable sites for paleotempestological research and tropical cyclone landfalls may influence whether a given location is researched or not.[19] In the Atlantic Ocean, research has been concentrated on regions where hurricanes are common rather than more marginal areas.[175]

Paleotempestology records mostly record activity during the Holocene[174] and tend to record mainly catastrophic storms as these are the ones most likely to leave evidence.[6] In addition, as of 2017 there has been little effort in making comprehensive databases of paleotempestological data or in attempting regional reconstructions from local results.[175] Different sites have different intensity thresholds and thus capture different storm populations.[148]

Also, paleotempestological records, especially overwash records in marshes, are often grossly incomplete with questionable geochronology. Deposition mechanism are poorly documented, and it is often not clear how to identify storm deposits.[176] The magnitude of overwash deposits is fundamentally a function of storm surge height, which, however, is not a function of storm intensity.[72] Overwash deposits are regulated by the height of the overwashed barrier and there is no expectation that it will remain stable over time;[177] tropical cyclones themselves have been observed eroding such barriers[178] and such barrier height decreases (e.g. through storm erosion or sea level rise) may induce a spurious increase of tropical cyclone deposits over time.[179] Successive overwash deposits can be difficult to distinguish, and they are easily eroded by subsequent storms.[180] Storm deposits can vary strongly even a short distance from the landfall point,[181] even over few tens of metres,[182] and changes in tropical cyclone activity recorded at one site might simply reflect the stochastic nature of tropical cyclone landfalls.[167] In particular, in core tropical cyclone activity regions weather variations rather than large-scale modes may control tropical cyclone activity.[183]

Application to non-tropical storms

Paleotempestological research has been mostly carried out in low-latitude regions[184] but research in past storm activity has been conducted in the British Isles, France and the Mediterranean.[185] Increases in storm activity on the European Atlantic coast have been noted AD 1350–1650, AD 250–850, AD 950–550, 1550–1350 BC, 3550–3150 BC, and 5750–5150 BC.[186] In southern France, a recurrence rate of 0.2% per year of catastrophic storms has been inferred for the last 2,000 years.[187]

Storm records indicate increased storm activity during colder periods such as the Little Ice Age, Medieval Dark Age and Iron Age Cold Epoch.[188] During cold periods, increased temperature gradients between the polar and low-latitude regions increase baroclinic storm activity. Changes in the North Atlantic Oscillation may also play a role.[187]

Examples

Main article: List of paleotempestology records

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Typhoons are tropical cyclones in the West Pacific.[82]
  2. ^ The "main development region" is an area between 10° and 20° northern latitude and between 20° and 60° western longitude in the Atlantic where numerous hurricanes form.[166]

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 172.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Fan & Liu 2008, p. 2908.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Fan & Liu 2008, p. 2910.
  4. ^ a b Goslin & Clemmensen 2017, p. 81.
  5. ^ Oliva et al. 2018, p. 1664.
  6. ^ a b Frappier et al. 2007, p. 529.
  7. ^ a b Liu 2004, p. 444.
  8. ^ a b Donnelly et al. 2014, p. 2.
  9. ^ Frappier et al. 2007, p. 530.
  10. ^ Donnelly 2009, p. 763.
  11. ^ a b c Donnelly 2009, p. 764.
  12. ^ Liu 2004, p. 447.
  13. ^ a b Xiong et al. 2018, p. 150.
  14. ^ a b c d Liu 2004, p. 445.
  15. ^ Liu 2010, p. 11.
  16. ^ Fan & Liu 2008, p. 2909.
  17. ^ a b c d Bregy et al. 2018, p. 28.
  18. ^ Oliva et al. 2018, p. 90.
  19. ^ a b c d e f Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 173.
  20. ^ a b c Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 180.
  21. ^ Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, pp. 179–180.
  22. ^ Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 177.
  23. ^ a b c Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 182.
  24. ^ a b c d Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 183.
  25. ^ a b Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 178.
  26. ^ Hippensteel & Garcia 2014, p. 1170.
  27. ^ Xiong et al. 2018, p. 155.
  28. ^ a b c d e Donnelly et al. 2014, p. 8.
  29. ^ Harris, Martin & Hippensteel 2005, p. 1033.
  30. ^ a b Elsner, Jagger & Liu 2008, p. 368.
  31. ^ Elsner, Jagger & Liu 2008, p. 369.
  32. ^ a b c d Fan & Liu 2008, p. 2917.
  33. ^ Brill et al. 2017, p. 135.
  34. ^ Hayne & Nott 2001, p. 509.
  35. ^ Nott 2015, p. 130.
  36. ^ Nott 2015, p. 133.
  37. ^ Nott 2015, p. 139.
  38. ^ a b Nott 2015, p. 141.
  39. ^ Nott 2015, p. 140.
  40. ^ Nott 2004, p. 435.
  41. ^ a b c Fan & Liu 2008, p. 2911.
  42. ^ Nott 2015, p. 144.
  43. ^ a b Nott 2015, p. 134.
  44. ^ Nott 2015, p. 136.
  45. ^ Brückner et al. 2016, p. 2819.
  46. ^ Goslin & Clemmensen 2017, p. 88,91.
  47. ^ Nott 2015, p. 135.
  48. ^ a b Nott 2004, p. 437.
  49. ^ Nott 2015, p. 138.
  50. ^ a b c Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 181.
  51. ^ Zinke et al. 2008, p. 11.
  52. ^ Zinke et al. 2008, p. 13.
  53. ^ Frappier et al. 2007, p. 533.
  54. ^ Fan & Liu 2008, p. 2914.
  55. ^ a b Frappier et al. 2014, p. 5149.
  56. ^ James, Banner & Hardt 2015.
  57. ^ a b Kolodny, Calvo & Rosenfeld 2009, p. 387.
  58. ^ Liu 2004, pp. 444–445.
  59. ^ a b Nott 2004, p. 433.
  60. ^ a b c Domínguez-Delmás, Harley & Trouet 2016, p. 3169.
  61. ^ Knapp, Maxwell & Soulé 2016, p. 312.
  62. ^ Grissino-Mayer, Miller & Mora 2010, p. 291.
  63. ^ a b c Travis 2000, p. 3.
  64. ^ Frappier et al. 2007, p. 532.
  65. ^ Frappier et al. 2014, p. 5152.
  66. ^ Fan & Liu 2008, p. 2912.
  67. ^ Frappier et al. 2007, p. 531.
  68. ^ Nott 2004, p. 438.
  69. ^ Liu 2010, p. 9.
  70. ^ Xiong et al. 2018, p. 152.
  71. ^ Woodruff, Donnelly & Okusu 2009, p. 1774.
  72. ^ a b Xiong et al. 2018, p. 157.
  73. ^ a b c Donnelly et al. 2014, p. 6.
  74. ^ a b Ford et al. 2018, p. 918.
  75. ^ Goslin & Clemmensen 2017, p. 91.
  76. ^ Goslin & Clemmensen 2017, p. 93.
  77. ^ Goslin & Clemmensen 2017, p. 95.
  78. ^ Brandon et al. 2013, p. 2994.
  79. ^ Astakhov et al. 2019, pp. 62–63.
  80. ^ Harris, Martin & Hippensteel 2005, p. 1034.
  81. ^ Oliva et al. 2018, p. 1665.
  82. ^ Astakhov et al. 2015, p. 383.
  83. ^ Nott 2004, p. 434.
  84. ^ a b c Krencker et al. 2015, p. 129.
  85. ^ Liu 2004, p. 446.
  86. ^ Travis 2000, p. 2.
  87. ^ a b Frappier et al. 2007, p. 534.
  88. ^ a b c Bregy et al. 2018, p. 39.
  89. ^ a b Park 2012, p. 900.
  90. ^ Williams 2013, p. 181.
  91. ^ Fan & Liu 2008, p. 2913.
  92. ^ Braun et al. 2017, p. 370.
  93. ^ Zhou et al. 2019, pp. 14–15.
  94. ^ McCloskey & Liu 2012, p. 462.
  95. ^ Hayne & Nott 2001, p. 510.
  96. ^ Nott 2011b, p. 722.
  97. ^ Nott 2011b, p. 713.
  98. ^ Nott 2004, p. 441.
  99. ^ Liu 2010, p. 59.
  100. ^ Muller et al. 2017, p. 23.
  101. ^ Sullivan et al. 2014, p. 7.
  102. ^ Sullivan et al. 2014, p. 1.
  103. ^ Muller et al. 2017, p. 5.
  104. ^ Muller et al. 2017, p. 9.
  105. ^ Williams 2013, p. 170.
  106. ^ Braun et al. 2017, p. 366.
  107. ^ Braun et al. 2017, p. 371.
  108. ^ a b c Fan & Liu 2008, p. 2918.
  109. ^ Wallace et al. 2019, p. 4.
  110. ^ Yao et al. 2020, p. 15.
  111. ^ McCloskey & Liu 2013, p. 279.
  112. ^ Liu 2010, p. 36.
  113. ^ McCloskey & Liu 2012, p. 463.
  114. ^ Liu 2010, p. 39.
  115. ^ a b Scileppi & Donnelly 2007, p. 22.
  116. ^ Volin et al. 2013, p. 17215.
  117. ^ Peros et al. 2015, p. 1492.
  118. ^ a b Park 2012, p. 892.
  119. ^ Rodysill et al. 2020, p. 7.
  120. ^ Wallace et al. 2021, p. 19.
  121. ^ Wallace et al. 2021, p. 2.
  122. ^ Liu 2010, p. 37.
  123. ^ Yue et al. 2019, p. 68.
  124. ^ Zhou et al. 2019, p. 11.
  125. ^ van Hengstum et al. 2014, p. 112.
  126. ^ Wallace et al. 2019, p. 8.
  127. ^ Muller et al. 2017, p. 36.
  128. ^ Kakuk et al. 2016, p. 7.
  129. ^ Muller et al. 2017, p. 21.
  130. ^ van Hengstum et al. 2014, p. 110-111.
  131. ^ Liu et al. 2016, p. 66.
  132. ^ Haig & Nott 2016, p. 2849.
  133. ^ a b Muller et al. 2017, p. 17.
  134. ^ Donnelly et al. 2015, p. 50.
  135. ^ Wallace et al. 2020, p. 14.
  136. ^ Denniston et al. 2015, p. 4578-4579.
  137. ^ Zhou et al. 2017, p. 7.
  138. ^ Cook et al. 2015, pp. 3–4.
  139. ^ Zhou et al. 2019, p. 2.
  140. ^ Yang et al. 2020, p. 2248.
  141. ^ Nott & Forsyth 2012, p. 4.
  142. ^ a b Toomey, Donnelly & Tierney 2016, p. 501.
  143. ^ a b Breitenbach et al. 2016, p. 6.
  144. ^ Astakhov et al. 2019, p. 69.
  145. ^ Breitenbach et al. 2016, p. 5.
  146. ^ Muller et al. 2017, pp. 26–28.
  147. ^ Schmitt et al. 2020, p. 11.
  148. ^ a b Wallace et al. 2021, p. 16.
  149. ^ van Hengstum et al. 2015, p. 53.
  150. ^ Rodysill et al. 2020, p. 9.
  151. ^ LeBlanc et al. 2017, p. 147.
  152. ^ Xiong et al. 2020, p. 1702.
  153. ^ Tao et al. 2021, p. 3.
  154. ^ Williams et al. 2016, p. 75.
  155. ^ Yue et al. 2019, p. 69.
  156. ^ Droxler, Bentley & Denommee 2014, p. 5.
  157. ^ Krencker et al. 2015, p. 120.
  158. ^ Liu 2010, p. 45.
  159. ^ Liu 2010, p. 46.
  160. ^ Peros et al. 2015, p. 1493.
  161. ^ Braun et al. 2017, p. 367.
  162. ^ Frappier 2013, p. 3642.
  163. ^ Medina-Elizalde et al. 2016, p. 1.
  164. ^ Knapp, Maxwell & Soulé 2016, pp. 319–320.
  165. ^ Wallace et al. 2021, p. 14.
  166. ^ Ercolani et al. 2015, p. 17.
  167. ^ a b Wallace et al. 2019, p. 5.
  168. ^ Wallace et al. 2021, p. 17.
  169. ^ Liu 2010, p. 14.
  170. ^ Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 185.
  171. ^ Liu 2010, p. 15.
  172. ^ Astakhov et al. 2019, p. 62.
  173. ^ Chagué-Goff et al. 2016, p. 346.
  174. ^ a b Du et al. 2016, p. 78.
  175. ^ a b Oliva, Peros & Viau 2017, p. 184.
  176. ^ Hippensteel 2010, p. 52.
  177. ^ Nott 2004, p. 439.
  178. ^ Nott 2004, p. 440.
  179. ^ Donnelly et al. 2014, p. 9.
  180. ^ Chaumillon et al. 2017, p. 164.
  181. ^ Harris, Martin & Hippensteel 2005, p. 1028.
  182. ^ Hippensteel & Garcia 2014, p. 1169.
  183. ^ Wallace et al. 2020, p. 13.
  184. ^ Dezileau et al. 2011, p. 290.
  185. ^ Pouzet et al. 2018, p. 432.
  186. ^ Pouzet et al. 2018, p. 446.
  187. ^ a b Dezileau et al. 2011, p. 295.
  188. ^ Pouzet et al. 2018, p. 445.

General sources

  • Astakhov, A. S.; Kalugin, I. A.; Aksentov, K. I.; Dar’in, A. V. (April 2015). "Geochemical indicators of paleo-typhoons in shelf sediments". Geochemistry International. 53 (4): 383–388. doi:10.1134/S0016702915040023. ISSN 0016-7029. S2CID 140593833 – via ResearchGate.
  • Astakhov, A. S.; Dar’in, A. V.; Kalugin, I. A.; Aksentov, K. I. (2019-01-01). "Reconstructing the Frequency of Catastrophic Floods on the Western Coast of the Sea of Japan Based on Sedimentary Proxy". Russian Meteorology and Hydrology. 44 (1): 62–70. doi:10.3103/S1068373919010072. ISSN 1934-8096. S2CID 146559928.
  • Brandon, Christine M.; Woodruff, Jonathan D.; Lane, D. Phil; Donnelly, Jeffrey P. (August 2013). "Tropical cyclone wind speed constraints from resultant storm surge deposition: A 2500 year reconstruction of hurricane activity from St. Marks, FL: PALEO-HURRICANE ACTIVITY IN ST. MARKS, FL". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 14 (8): 2993–3008. doi:10.1002/ggge.20217. hdl:1912/6334. S2CID 49657980.
  • Braun, Erick; Meyer, Brian; Deocampo, Daniel; Kiage, Lawrence M. (September 2017). "A 3000 yr paleostorm record from St. Catherines Island, Georgia". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 196: 360–372. Bibcode:2017ECSS..196..360B. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2017.05.021.
  • Breitenbach, Sebastian F. M.; Awe, Jaime; Aquino, Valorie V.; Macpherson, Colin G.; Kennett, Douglas J.; Polyak, Victor; Harriet E. Ridley; Prufer, Keith M.; Liu, Kam-biu (2016-11-23). "Persistent northward North Atlantic tropical cyclone track migration over the past five centuries". Scientific Reports. 6: 37522. Bibcode:2016NatSR...637522B. doi:10.1038/srep37522. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5120344. PMID 27876831.
  • Bregy, Joshua C.; Wallace, Davin J.; Minzoni, Rebecca Totten; Cruz, Valerie J. (February 2018). "2500-year paleotempestological record of intense storms for the northern Gulf of Mexico, United States". Marine Geology. 396: 26–42. Bibcode:2018MGeol.396...26B. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2017.09.009.
  • Brill, D.; May, S.M.; Shah-Hosseini, M.; Rufer, D.; Schmidt, C.; Engel, M. (August 2017). "Luminescence dating of cyclone-induced washover fans at Point Lefroy (NW Australia)". Quaternary Geochronology. 41: 134–150. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2017.03.004.
  • Brückner, Helmut; Esser, Sascha; Gonzalo, Lia Anne; Dierick, Manuel; Opitz, Stephan; Pint, Anna; Reyes, Michelle; Engel, Max; May, Simon Matthias; Brill, Dominik (21 December 2016). "Typhoon Haiyan's sedimentary record in coastal environments of the Philippines and its paleotempestological implications". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 16 (12): 2799–2822. Bibcode:2016NHESS..16.2799B. doi:10.5194/nhess-16-2799-2016. ISSN 1561-8633.
  • Chagué-Goff, Catherine; Chan, Jordan Chi Hang; Goff, James; Gadd, Patricia (September 2016). "Late Holocene record of environmental changes, cyclones and tsunamis in a coastal lake, Mangaia, Cook Islands: Cyclones and tsunamis on Mangaia". Island Arc. 25 (5): 333–349. doi:10.1111/iar.12153. S2CID 132673825.
  • Chaumillon, Eric; Bertin, Xavier; Fortunato, André B.; Bajo, Marco; Schneider, Jean-Luc; Dezileau, Laurent; Walsh, John Patrick; Michelot, Agnès; Chauveau, Etienne (February 2017). "Storm-induced marine flooding: Lessons from a multidisciplinary approach". Earth-Science Reviews. 165: 151–184. Bibcode:2017ESRv..165..151C. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.12.005.
  • Cook, T. L.; Kundu, S.; Kanamaru, K.; Woodruff, J. D. (2015-01-01). "Depositional evidence for the Kamikaze typhoons and links to changes in typhoon climatology". Geology. 43 (1): 91–94. Bibcode:2015Geo....43...91W. doi:10.1130/G36209.1. ISSN 0091-7613.
  • Denniston, Rhawn F.; Villarini, Gabriele; Gonzales, Angelique N.; Wyrwoll, Karl-Heinz; Polyak, Victor J.; Ummenhofer, Caroline C.; Lachniet, Matthew S.; Wanamaker, Alan D.; Humphreys, William F.; Woods, David; Cugley, John (2015-04-14). "Extreme rainfall activity in the Australian tropics reflects changes in the El Niño/Southern Oscillation over the last two millennia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (15): 4576–4581. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.4576D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1422270112. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4403187. PMID 25825740.
  • Dezileau, L.; Sabatier, P.; Blanchemanche, P.; Joly, B.; Swingedouw, D.; Cassou, C.; Castaings, J.; Martinez, P.; Von Grafenstein, U. (1 January 2011). "Intense storm activity during the Little Ice Age on the French Mediterranean coast". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 299 (1): 289–297. Bibcode:2011PPP...299..289D. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.11.009. ISSN 0031-0182.
  • Domínguez-Delmás, Marta; Harley, Grant L.; Trouet, Valerie (2016-03-22). "Shipwreck rates reveal Caribbean tropical cyclone response to past radiative forcing". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (12): 3169–3174. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113.3169T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1519566113. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4812713. PMID 26951648.
  • Donnelly, Jeffrey P. (2009), "Paleotempestology, The Sedimentary Record of Intense Hurricanes", in Gornitz, Vivien (ed.), Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments, Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, Springer Netherlands, pp. 763–766, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4411-3_181, ISBN 9781402044113
  • Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Anderson, John B.; Woodruff, Jonathan D.; Wallace, Davin J. (15 January 2014). "Palaeohurricane reconstructions from sedimentary archives along the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and western North Atlantic Ocean margins". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 388 (1): 481–501. Bibcode:2014GSLSP.388..481W. doi:10.1144/SP388.12. ISSN 0305-8719. S2CID 129854044.
  • Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Hawkes, Andrea D.; Lane, Philip; MacDonald, Dana; Shuman, Bryan N.; Toomey, Michael R.; van Hengstum, Peter J.; Woodruff, Jonathan D. (February 2015). "Climate forcing of unprecedented intense-hurricane activity in the last 2000 years: DONNELLY ET AL". Earth's Future. 3 (2): 49–65. doi:10.1002/2014EF000274.
  • Droxler, A. W.; Bentley, S. J.; Denommee, K. C. (2014-01-27). "Climatic controls on hurricane patterns: a 1200-y near-annual record from Lighthouse Reef, Belize". Scientific Reports. 4: 3876. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E3876D. doi:10.1038/srep03876. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 3902391. PMID 24464265.
  • Du, Shuhuan; Li, Baosheng; Chen, Muhong; Xiang, Rong; Niu, Donefeng; Si, Yuejun (September 2016). "Paleotempestology evidence recorded by eolian deposition in the Bohai Sea coastal zone during the last interglacial period". Marine Geology. 379: 78–83. Bibcode:2016MGeol.379...78D. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2016.05.013.
  • Elsner, James B.; Jagger, Thomas H.; Liu, Kam-biu (February 2008). "Comparison of Hurricane Return Levels Using Historical and Geological Records". Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 47 (2): 368–374. Bibcode:2008JApMC..47..368E. doi:10.1175/2007JAMC1692.1. ISSN 1558-8424. S2CID 54786543.
  • Ercolani, Christian; Muller, Joanne; Collins, Jennifer; Savarese, Michael; Squiccimara, Louis (October 2015). "Intense Southwest Florida hurricane landfalls over the past 1000 years". Quaternary Science Reviews. 126: 17–25. Bibcode:2015QSRv..126...17E. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.08.008.
  • Fan, DaiDu; Liu, Kam-biu (1 October 2008). "Perspectives on the linkage between typhoon activity and global warming from recent research advances in paleotempestology". Chinese Science Bulletin. 53 (19): 2907–2922. Bibcode:2008SciBu..53.2907F. doi:10.1007/s11434-008-0341-2. ISSN 1861-9541 – via ResearchGate.
  • Ford, M. R.; Tuck, M.; Owen, S. D.; McLean, R. F.; Kench, P. S. (2018-10-01). "Storm-deposited coral blocks: A mechanism of island genesis, Tutaga island, Funafuti atoll, Tuvalu". Geology. 46 (10): 915–918. Bibcode:2018Geo....46..915K. doi:10.1130/G45045.1. ISSN 0091-7613. S2CID 135443385.
  • Frappier, Amy; Knutson, Thomas; Liu, Kam-Biu; Emanuel, Kerry (January 2007). "Perspective: coordinating paleoclimate research on tropical cyclones with hurricane-climate theory and modelling". Tellus A: Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography. 59 (4): 529–537. Bibcode:2007TellA..59..529F. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2007.00250.x. ISSN 1600-0870.
  • Frappier, Amy Benoit (September 2013). "Masking of interannual climate proxy signals by residual tropical cyclone rainwater: Evidence and challenges for low-latitude speleothem paleoclimatology: TROPICAL CYCLONE MASKING". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 14 (9): 3632–3647. doi:10.1002/ggge.20218.
  • Frappier, Amy Benoit; Pyburn, James; Pinkey-Drobnis, Aurora D.; Wang, Xianfeng; Corbett, D. Reide; Dahlin, Bruce H. (2014-07-28). "Two millennia of tropical cyclone-induced mud layers in a northern Yucatán stalagmite: Multiple overlapping climatic hazards during the Maya Terminal Classic "megadroughts": Frappier et al.: Mud and the Maya". Geophysical Research Letters. 41 (14): 5148–5157. doi:10.1002/2014GL059882. hdl:10356/104967. S2CID 53695062.
  • Volin, John C.; Stricker, Craig A.; Givnish, Thomas J.; Donovan, Joe J.; Hansen, Barbara C. S.; Glaser, Paul H. (22 October 2013). "Holocene dynamics of the Florida Everglades with respect to climate, dustfall, and tropical storms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (43): 17211–17216. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11017211G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1222239110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3808639. PMID 24101489.
  • Goslin, Jérôme; Clemmensen, Lars B. (October 2017). "Proxy records of Holocene storm events in coastal barrier systems: Storm-wave induced markers". Quaternary Science Reviews. 174: 80–119. Bibcode:2017QSRv..174...80G. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.08.026.
  • Grissino-Mayer, Henri D.; Miller, Dana L.; Mora, Claudia I. (2010), Stoffel, Markus; Bollschweiler, Michelle; Butler, David R.; Luckman, Brian H. (eds.), "Dendrotempestology and the Isotopic Record of Tropical Cyclones in Tree Rings of the Southeastern United States", Tree Rings and Natural Hazards: A State-of-Art, Advances in Global Change Research, Springer Netherlands, pp. 291–303, doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8736-2_28, ISBN 9789048187362
  • Haig, Jordahna Ellan‐Ann; Nott, Jonathan (2016-03-28). "Solar forcing over the last 1500 years and Australian tropical cyclone activity". Geophysical Research Letters. 43 (6): 2843–2850. Bibcode:2016GeoRL..43.2843H. doi:10.1002/2016GL068012. ISSN 0094-8276.
  • Harris, M. Scott; Martin, Ronald E.; Hippensteel, Scott P. (1 January 2005). "Records of prehistoric hurricanes on the South Carolina coast based on micropaleontological and sedimentological evidence, with comparison to other Atlantic Coast records: Discussion". GSA Bulletin. 117 (1–2): 250–253. Bibcode:2005GSAB..117..250H. doi:10.1130/B25535.1. ISSN 0016-7606.
  • Hayne, Matthew; Nott, Jonathan (October 2001). "High frequency of 'super-cyclones' along the Great Barrier Reef over the past 5,000 years". Nature. 413 (6855): 508–512. Bibcode:2001Natur.413..508N. doi:10.1038/35097055. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 11586356. S2CID 4309291.
  • Hippensteel, Scott (April 2010). "Paleotempestology and the pursuit of the perfect paleostorm proxy". GSA Today: 52–53. doi:10.1130/GSATG80GW.1.
  • Hippensteel, Scott P.; Garcia, William J. (2014-11-03). "Micropaleontological Evidence of Prehistoric Hurricane Strikes from Southeastern North Carolina". Journal of Coastal Research. 298: 1157–1172. doi:10.2112/jcoastres-d-12-00180.1. ISSN 0749-0208. S2CID 140185156 – via ResearchGate.
  • James, Eric W.; Banner, Jay L.; Hardt, Benjamin (April 2015). "A global model for cave ventilation and seasonal bias in speleothem palaeoclimate records". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 16 (4): 1049. Bibcode:2015GGG....16.1044J. doi:10.1002/2014GC005658. S2CID 13512563.
  • Kakuk, Brian; Albury, Nancy A.; Michael R. Toomey; Fall, Patricia L.; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Hengstum, Peter J. van (2016-02-24). "The intertropical convergence zone modulates intense hurricane strikes on the western North Atlantic margin". Scientific Reports. 6: 21728. Bibcode:2016NatSR...621728V. doi:10.1038/srep21728. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4764861. PMID 26906670.
  • Knapp, Paul A.; Maxwell, Justin T.; Soulé, Peter T. (2016-03-01). "Tropical cyclone rainfall variability in coastal North Carolina derived from longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.): AD 1771–2014". Climatic Change. 135 (2): 311–323. Bibcode:2016ClCh..135..311K. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1560-6. hdl:10.1007/s10584-015-1560-6. ISSN 1573-1480. S2CID 13861926.
  • Kolodny, Yehoshua; Calvo, Ran; Rosenfeld, Daniel (September 2009). ""Too low" δ18O of paleo-meteoric, low latitude, water; do paleo-tropical cyclones explain it?". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 280 (3–4): 387–395. Bibcode:2009PPP...280..387K. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.06.025.
  • Krencker, François-Nicolas; Bodin, Stéphane; Suan, Guillaume; Heimhofer, Ulrich; Kabiri, Lahcen; Immenhauser, Adrian (September 2015). "Toarcian extreme warmth led to tropical cyclone intensification". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 425: 120–130. Bibcode:2015E&PSL.425..120K. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.06.003.
  • LeBlanc, Allison R.; Kennedy, Lisa M.; Liu, Kam-biu; Lane, Chad S. (2017-08-01). "Linking hurricane landfalls, precipitation variability, fires, and vegetation response over the past millennium from analysis of coastal lagoon sediments, southwestern Dominican Republic". Journal of Paleolimnology. 58 (2): 135–150. Bibcode:2017JPall..58..135L. doi:10.1007/s10933-017-9965-z. ISSN 1573-0417. S2CID 132624091.
  • Liu, Kam-Biu (2004), "Paleotempestology: Geographic Solutions to Hurricane Hazard Assessment and Risk Prediction", in Janelle, Donald G.; Warf, Barney; Hansen, Kathy (eds.), WorldMinds: Geographical Perspectives on 100 Problems: Commemorating the 100th Anniversary of the Association of American Geographers 1904–2004, Springer Netherlands, pp. 443–448, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-2352-1_72, ISBN 9781402023521
  • Liu, Kam-biu (2010). "Paleotempestology: The Science of Reconstructing Paleohurricane Activity" (PDF). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. La Paz, Baja California Sur.
  • Liu, Entao; Zhao, Jian-xin; Feng, Yue-xing; Leonard, Nicole D.; Clark, Tara R.; Roff, George (July 2016). "U-Th age distribution of coral fragments from multiple rubble ridges within the Frankland Islands, Great Barrier Reef: Implications for past storminess history". Quaternary Science Reviews. 143: 51–68. Bibcode:2016QSRv..143...51L. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.05.006.
  • McCloskey, Terrence Allen; Liu, Kam-biu (November 2012). "A sedimentary-based history of hurricane strikes on the southern Caribbean coast of Nicaragua". Quaternary Research. 78 (3): 454–464. Bibcode:2012QuRes..78..454M. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2012.07.003. ISSN 0033-5894. S2CID 128971084.
  • McCloskey, Terrence A; Liu, Kam-biu (2013-02-01). "A 7000 year record of paleohurricane activity from a coastal wetland in Belize". The Holocene. 23 (2): 278–291. Bibcode:2013Holoc..23..278M. doi:10.1177/0959683612460782. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 54759601.
  • Medina-Elizalde, Martín; Polanco-Martínez, Josué Moises; Lases-Hernández, Fernanda; Bradley, Raymond; Burns, Stephen (September 2016). "Testing the "tropical storm" hypothesis of Yucatan Peninsula climate variability during the Maya Terminal Classic Period". Quaternary Research. 86 (2): 111–119. Bibcode:2016QuRes..86..111M. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2016.05.006. ISSN 0033-5894. S2CID 133374197 – via ResearchGate.
  • Muller, Joanne; Collins, Jennifer M.; Gibson, Samantha; Paxton, Leilani (2017), Collins, Jennifer M.; Walsh, Kevin (eds.), "Recent Advances in the Emerging Field of Paleotempestology", Hurricanes and Climate Change: Volume 3, Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–33, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47594-3_1, ISBN 9783319475943, S2CID 133456333
  • Nott, Jonathan (May 2004). "Palaeotempestology: the study of prehistoric tropical cyclones—a review and implications for hazard assessment". Environment International. 30 (3): 433–447. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2003.09.010. PMID 14987874.
  • Nott, Jonathan (March 2011b). "A 6000 year tropical cyclone record from Western Australia". Quaternary Science Reviews. 30 (5–6): 713–722. Bibcode:2011QSRv...30..713N. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.12.004.
  • Nott, Jonathan; Forsyth, Anthony (2012-07-28). "Punctuated global tropical cyclone activity over the past 5,000 years: LONG-TERM TROPICAL CYCLONE ACTIVITY". Geophysical Research Letters. 39 (14): n/a. doi:10.1029/2012GL052236.
  • Nott, Jonathan F. (2015), "Palaeostorm Surges and Inundations", Coastal and Marine Hazards, Risks, and Disasters, Elsevier, pp. 129–152, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-396483-0.00005-4, ISBN 9780123964830
  • Oliva, Frank; Viau, Andre E; Peros, Matthew C; Bouchard, Marc (1 October 2018). "Paleotempestology database for the western North Atlantic basin". The Holocene. 28 (10): 1664–1671. Bibcode:2018Holoc..28.1664O. doi:10.1177/0959683618782598. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 135330739.
  • Oliva, Frank; Peros, Matthew; Viau, André (1 April 2017). "A review of the spatial distribution of and analytical techniques used in paleotempestological studies in the western North Atlantic Basin". Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment. 41 (2): 171–190. doi:10.1177/0309133316683899. ISSN 0309-1333. S2CID 132039002.
  • Oliva, F.; Peros, M.C.; Viau, A.E.; Reinhardt, E.G.; Nixon, F.C.; Morin, A. (December 2018). "A multi-proxy reconstruction of tropical cyclone variability during the past 800 years from Robinson Lake, Nova Scotia, Canada". Marine Geology. 406: 84–97. Bibcode:2018MGeol.406...84O. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2018.09.012. S2CID 135272487.
  • Park, Lisa E. (1 February 2012). "Comparing Two Long-Term Hurricane Frequency and Intensity Records from San Salvador Island, Bahamas". Journal of Coastal Research. 28 (4): 891. doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-11-00065.1. S2CID 130374181.
  • Peros, Matthew; Gregory, Braden; Matos, Felipe; Reinhardt, Eduard; Desloges, Joseph (2015-09-01). "Late-Holocene record of lagoon evolution, climate change, and hurricane activity from southeastern Cuba". The Holocene. 25 (9): 1483–1497. Bibcode:2015Holoc..25.1483P. doi:10.1177/0959683615585844. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 140169114.
  • Pouzet, Pierre; Maanan, Mohamed; Piotrowska, Natalia; Baltzer, Agnès; Stéphan, Pierre; Robin, Marc (1 August 2018). "Chronology of Holocene storm events along the European Atlantic coast: New data from the Island of Yeu, France" (PDF). Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment. 42 (4): 431–450. doi:10.1177/0309133318776500. ISSN 0309-1333. S2CID 134757491.
  • Rodysill, Jessica R.; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Sullivan, Richard; Lane, Philip D.; Toomey, Michael; Woodruff, Jonathan D.; Hawkes, Andrea D.; MacDonald, Dana; d’Entremont, Nicole; McKeon, Kelly; Wallace, Elizabeth; van Hengstum, Peter J. (5 November 2020). "Historically unprecedented Northern Gulf of Mexico hurricane activity from 650 to 1250 CE". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 19092. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1019092R. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-75874-0. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7645782. PMID 33154412.
  • Schmitt, Dominik; Gischler, Eberhard; Anselmetti, Flavio S.; Vogel, Hendrik (16 July 2020). "Caribbean cyclone activity: an annually-resolved Common Era record". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 11780. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1011780S. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-68633-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7367345. PMID 32678192.
  • Scileppi, Elyse; Donnelly, Jeffrey P. (June 2007). "Sedimentary evidence of hurricane strikes in western Long Island, New York: HURRICANE STRIKES IN NEW YORK". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 8 (6): n/a. doi:10.1029/2006GC001463. hdl:1912/1786. S2CID 52888698.
  • Sullivan, Richard M.; Jeffrey P. Donnelly; Woodruff, Jonathan D.; Brandon, Christine M. (2014-12-08). "How Unique was Hurricane Sandy? Sedimentary Reconstructions of Extreme Flooding from New York Harbor". Scientific Reports. 4: 7366. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E7366B. doi:10.1038/srep07366. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4258685. PMID 25482298.
  • Tao, Shichen; Liu, Kam-biu; Yu, Kefu; Shi, Qi; Yan, Hongqiang; Zhang, Huiling; Wang, Luo; Huang, Zhongzhou; Chen, Tegu (2021). "Poleward Shift in Tropical Cyclone Tracks in the Northwest Pacific During Warm Periods: Past and Future". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 36 (12): e2021PA004367. Bibcode:2021PaPa...36.4367T. doi:10.1029/2021PA004367. ISSN 2572-4525. S2CID 244697663.
  • Toomey, Michael R.; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Tierney, Jessica E. (April 2016). "South Pacific hydrologic and cyclone variability during the last 3000 years: PACIFIC RAINFALL AND CYCLONES". Paleoceanography. 31 (4): 491–504. doi:10.1002/2015PA002870. hdl:10150/614773.
  • Travis, John (2000). "Hunting prehistoric hurricanes: Storm-tossed sand offers a record of ancient cyclones". Science News. 157 (21): 333–335. doi:10.2307/4012513. ISSN 1943-0930. JSTOR 4012513.
  • Wallace, E.J.; Donnelly, J.P.; Hengstum, P.J.; Wiman, C.; Sullivan, R.M.; Winkler, T.S.; d’Entremont, N.E.; Toomey, M.; Albury, N. (19 October 2019). "Intense hurricane activity over the past 1500 years at South Andros Island, The Bahamas". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 34 (11): 1761–1783. Bibcode:2019PaPa...34.1761W. doi:10.1029/2019PA003665.
  • Wallace, E. J.; Coats, S.; Emanuel, K. A.; Donnelly, J. P. (6 December 2020). "Centennial‐scale shifts in storm frequency captured in paleohurricane records from The Bahamas arise predominantly from random variability". Geophysical Research Letters. 48. doi:10.1029/2020GL091145.
  • Wallace, E. J.; Donnelly, J. P.; Hengstum, P. J. van; Winkler, T. S.; McKeon, K.; MacDonald, D.; d'Entremont, N. E.; Sullivan, R. M.; Woodruff, J. D.; Hawkes, A. D.; Maio, C. (2021). "1,050 years of Hurricane Strikes on Long Island in The Bahamas". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 36 (3): e2020PA004156. Bibcode:2021PaPa...36.4156W. doi:10.1029/2020PA004156. ISSN 2572-4525. S2CID 233915635.
  • Wallace, Elizabeth; Donnelly, Jeffrey; van Hengstum, Peter; Winkler, Tyler; Dizon, Charmille; LaBella, Alexandra; Lopez, Isabella; d’Entremont, Nicole; Sullivan, Richard; Woodruff, Jonathan; Hawkes, Andrea; Maio, Christopher (15 September 2021). "Regional shifts in paleohurricane activity over the last 1500 years derived from blue hole sediments offshore of Middle Caicos Island". Quaternary Science Reviews. 268: 107126. Bibcode:2021QSRv..26807126W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107126. ISSN 0277-3791.
  • Williams, Harry F.L. (February 2013). "600-year sedimentary archive of hurricane strikes in a prograding beach ridge plain, southwestern Louisiana". Marine Geology. 336: 170–183. Bibcode:2013MGeol.336..170W. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2012.12.005.
  • Williams, Harry; Choowong, Montri; Phantuwongraj, Sumet; Surakietchai, Peerasit; Thongkhao, Thanakrit; Kongsen, Stapana; Simon, Eric (February 2016). "Geologic records of Holocene typhoon strikes on the Gulf of Thailand coast". Marine Geology. 372: 66–78. Bibcode:2016MGeol.372...66W. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2015.12.014.
  • Woodruff, Jonathan D.; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Okusu, Akiko (August 2009). "Exploring typhoon variability over the mid-to-late Holocene: evidence of extreme coastal flooding from Kamikoshiki, Japan". Quaternary Science Reviews. 28 (17–18): 1774–1785. Bibcode:2009QSRv...28.1774W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.02.005. hdl:1912/2988.
  • van Hengstum, Peter J.; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Toomey, Michael R.; Albury, Nancy A.; Lane, Philip; Kakuk, Brian (September 2014). "Heightened hurricane activity on the Little Bahama Bank from 1350 to 1650 AD". Continental Shelf Research. 86: 103–115. Bibcode:2014CSR....86..103V. doi:10.1016/j.csr.2013.04.032.
  • van Hengstum, Peter J.; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Kingston, Andrew W.; Williams, Bruce E.; Scott, David B.; Reinhardt, Eduard G.; Little, Shawna N.; Patterson, William P. (February 2015). "Low-frequency storminess signal at Bermuda linked to cooling events in the North Atlantic region". Paleoceanography. 30 (2): 52–76. Bibcode:2015PalOc..30...52V. doi:10.1002/2014PA002662. hdl:1912/7256. S2CID 128392417.
  • Xiong, Haixian; Huang, Guangqing; Fu, Shuqing; Qian, Peng (2018-06-01). "Progress in the Study of Coastal Storm Deposits". Ocean Science Journal. 53 (2): 149–164. Bibcode:2018OSJ....53..149X. doi:10.1007/s12601-018-0019-x. ISSN 2005-7172. S2CID 90195591.
  • Xiong, Haixian; Zong, Yongqiang; Huang, Guangqing; Fu, Shuqing (2020). "Seabed erosion and deposition related to the typhoon activity of the past millennium on the southeast coast of China". Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 45 (8): 1695–1704. Bibcode:2020ESPL...45.1695X. doi:10.1002/esp.4839. ISSN 1096-9837. S2CID 214031157.
  • Yang, Yang; Zhou, Liang; Normandeau, Alexandre; Jia, Jianjun; Yin, Qijun; Wang, Ya Ping; Shi, Benwei; Gao, Lei; Gao, Shu (1 November 2020). "Exploring records of typhoon variability in eastern China over the past 2000 years". GSA Bulletin. 132 (11–12): 2243–2252. Bibcode:2020GSAB..132.2243Y. doi:10.1130/B35600.1. ISSN 0016-7606. S2CID 216257826.
  • Yao, Qiang; Liu, Kam‐biu; Rodrigues, Erika; Bianchette, Thomas; Aragón‐Moreno, Alejandro Antonio; Zhang, Zhenqing (August 2020). "A Geochemical Record of Late‐Holocene Hurricane Events From the Florida Everglades". Water Resources Research. 56 (8). Bibcode:2020WRR....5626857Y. doi:10.1029/2019WR026857.
  • Yue, Yuanfu; Yu, Kefu; Tao, Shichen; Zhang, Huiling; Liu, Guohui; Wang, Ning; Jiang, Wei; Fan, Tianla; Lin, Wuhui (May 2019). "3500-year western Pacific storm record warns of additional storm activity in a warming warm pool". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 521: 57–71. Bibcode:2019PPP...521...57Y. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.02.009. S2CID 134190655.
  • Zinke, Jens; Latif, Mojib; Keenlyside, Noel; Dullo, Wolf-Christian; Pfeiffer, Miriam; Hetzinger, Steffen (2008-01-01). "Caribbean coral tracks Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation and past hurricane activity". Geology. 36 (1): 11–14. Bibcode:2008Geo....36...11H. doi:10.1130/G24321A.1. ISSN 0091-7613.
  • Zhou, Liang; Gao, Shu; Yang, Yang; Zhao, Yangyang; Han, Zhuochen; Li, Gaocong; Jia, Peihong; Yin, Yong (2017-04-01). "Typhoon events recorded in coastal lagoon deposits, southeastern Hainan Island". Acta Oceanologica Sinica. 36 (4): 37–45. doi:10.1007/s13131-016-0918-6. ISSN 1869-1099. S2CID 133346862.
  • Zhou, Liang; Yang, Yang; Wang, Zhanghua; Jia, Jianjun; Mao, Longjiang; Li, Zhanhai; Fang, Xin; Gao, Shu (1 October 2019). "Investigating ENSO and WPWP modulated typhoon variability in the South China Sea during the mid–late Holocene using sedimentological evidence from southeastern Hainan Island, China". Marine Geology. 416: 105987. Bibcode:2019MGeol.416j5987Z. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2019.105987. ISSN 0025-3227. S2CID 199843694.
  • Zhou, Liang; Gao, Shu; Jia, Jianjun; Zhang, Yuzhu; Yang, Yang; Mao, Longjiang; Fang, Xin; Shulmeister, James (1 October 2019). "Extracting historic cyclone data from coastal dune deposits in eastern Hainan Island, China". Sedimentary Geology. 392: 105524. Bibcode:2019SedG..39205524Z. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2019.105524. ISSN 0037-0738. S2CID 203103902.

Further reading

  • Elsner, James B.; Kara, A. Birol (1999). Hurricanes of the North Atlantic: Climate and Society. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 49–51, 378. ISBN 978-0-19-512508-5.
  • Huang, Yun (2009-01-01). "Sediment records of modern and prehistoric hurricane strikes in Weeks Bay, Alabama". LSU Master's Theses. doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.1922. S2CID 135330841.
  • Kar, Devyani (2010-01-01). "Integration of paleotempestology with coastal risk and vulnerability assessment: case studies from the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua". LSU Doctoral Dissertations. doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.2009. S2CID 134409924.
  • Knowles, Jason (2004-01-01). "Coastal lake-sediment records of prehistoric hurricane strikes in Honduras and Turks and Caicos Islands of the Caribbean basin". LSU Master's Theses. doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.3433. S2CID 134921929.
  • Liu, Kam-biu (2004). "Paleotempestology: Principles, Methods, and Examples from Gulf Coast Lake Sediments". In Murnane, R. J.; Liu, Kam-biu (eds.). Hurricanes and Typhoons: Past, Present, and Future. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 13–57. ISBN 978-0-231-12388-4.
  • Liu, Kam-biu (2007). "Paleotempestology". In Elias, Scott A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science. Vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 1978–1986. ISBN 978-0-444-51922-1.
  • Nott, Jonathan (2004). "Palaeotempestology: the study of prehistoric tropical cyclones—a review and implications for hazard assessment". Environment International. 30 (3): 433–447. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2003.09.010. PMID 14987874.
  • Revkin, Andrew C. (July 24, 2001). "Experts Unearth a Stormy Past". The New York Times.

External links

  • Western North Atlantic Basin 8,000 Year palaeotempestology Database 2018
  • palaeotempestology Resource Center
  • Shipwrecks, tree rings and hurricanes

January 31, 2023
paleotempestology, tempestology, redirects, here, generalized, study, storms, meteorology, origins, storms, tropical, cyclones, cyclogenesis, tornadogenesis, study, past, tropical, cyclone, activity, means, geological, proxies, well, historical, documentary, r. Tempestology redirects here For the generalized study of storms see Meteorology For the origins of storms and tropical cyclones see Cyclogenesis and Tornadogenesis Paleotempestology is the study of past tropical cyclone activity by means of geological proxies as well as historical documentary records The term was coined by American meteorologist Kerry Emanuel The usual approach in paleotempestology is the identification of deposits left by storms Most commonly these are overwash deposits in waterbodies close to the coast other means are oxygen isotope ratio variations caused by tropical cyclone rainfall in trees or speleothems cave deposits and identifying beach ridges kicked up by storm waves The occurrence rate of tropical cyclones can then be inferred from these deposits and sometimes also their intensity typically the stronger events are the most easily recognizable ones by comparing them to deposits left by historical events Paleotempestological research has shown that in the Coast of the Gulf of Mexico and in Australia the occurrence rate of intense tropical cyclones is about once every few centuries and there are long term variations in occurrence which are caused for example by shifts in their paths Common problems in paleotempestology are confounding factors such as tsunami generated deposits and the fact that only some parts of the world have been investigated Contents 1 Definition and rationale 2 Techniques 2 1 Overwash deposits 2 1 1 Dating and intensity determination 2 2 Beach ridges 2 3 Isotope ratios 2 4 Other techniques 2 5 Timespans 3 Results 3 1 Recurrence rates 3 2 Long term fluctuations 3 3 Role of climate modes 3 4 Influence of long term temperature variations 3 5 After effects of tropical cyclones 3 6 Other patterns 4 Problems 5 Application to non tropical storms 6 Examples 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9 1 Citations 9 2 General sources 10 Further reading 11 External linksDefinition and rationale EditPaleotempestology is the estimation of tropical cyclone activity with the help of proxy data The name was coined by Kerry Emanuel of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1 the field has seen increased activity since the 1990s 2 and studies were first carried out in the United States of America 3 on the East Coast 4 The realisation that one cannot rely solely on historical records to infer past storm activity was a major driving force for the development of paleotempestology 5 The historical record in many places is too short one century at most to properly determine the hazard produced by tropical cyclones especially the rare very intense ones 1 which at times are undersampled by historical records 6 in the United States for example only about 150 years of record are available and only a small number of hurricanes classified as category 4 or 5 the most destructive ones on the Saffir Simpson scale have come ashore making it difficult to estimate the hazard level 7 Such records may also not be representative for future weather patterns 8 9 Information about past tropical cyclone occurrences can be used to constrain how their occurrences may change in the future or about how they respond to large scale climate modes such as sea surface temperature changes 1 In general the origin and behaviour of tropical cyclone systems is poorly understood 10 and there is concern that human caused global warming will increase the intensity of tropical cyclones and the frequency of strong events by increasing sea surface temperatures 11 8 Techniques EditIn general paleotempestology is a complex field of science that overlaps with other disciplines like climatology and coastal geomorphology 12 A number of techniques have been used to estimate the past hazards from tropical cyclones 7 Many of these techniques have also been applied to studying extratropical storms although research on this field is less advanced than on tropical cyclones 4 Overwash deposits Edit Overwash deposits in atolls coastal lakes marshes or reef flats are the most important paleoclimatological evidence of tropical cyclone strikes When storms hit these areas currents and waves can overtop barriers erode these and other beach structures and lay down deposits in the water bodies behind barriers 13 2 14 Isolated breaches and especially widespread overtopping of coastal barriers during storms can generate fan like layered deposits behind the barrier Individual layers can be correlated to particular storms in favourable circumstances in addition they are often separated by a clear boundary from earlier sediments 11 Such deposits have been observed in North Carolina after Hurricane Isabel in 2003 for example 15 The intensity 3 and impacts of the tropical cyclone can also be inferred from overwash deposits 16 by comparing the deposits to these formed by known storms 3 and analyzing their lithology their physical characteristics 17 Additionally thicker sediment layers usually correspond to stronger storm systems 3 This procedure is not always clear cut however 18 Several techniques have been applied to separate out storm overwash deposits from other sediments Compared to the normal sedimentation processes in such places tropical cyclone deposits are rougher and can be detected with sieving laser dependent technologies 19 or x ray fluorescence techniques 20 In sediment cores deposits formed by tropical cyclones may be denser due to a larger proportion of mineral content associated with overwashes which can be detected with x ray fluorescence techniques 21 They may contain less organic matter than deposits formed through steady sedimentation which can be detected by combusting the deposits and measuring the resulting mass loss 22 This and sediment grain sizes are the most common research tools for sediment cores 19 A little used technique is the analysis of organic material in sediment cores there are characteristic changes in carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios 23 after flooding and the entering of seawater including a general increase in biological productivity 24 Overwash deposits can contain elements that do not normally occur at the site such as strontium this can be detected with x ray fluorescence techniques 20 Overwash deposits have usually brighter colors than those generated during steady sedimentation 3 Storm surges can transport living structures into such deposits that do not normally occur in these settings Droughts or the entry of water unrelated to a storm can confound such records however Thus this method is often supplemented with other proxies The most common living structure employed here are foraminifera although bivalves diatoms dinoflagellates ostracods and pollen have also been used 25 Marine foraminifera however are not always present in deposits formed by historical storms 26 Generally sites suitable for obtaining paleotempestology records are not found along the entire length of the coastline 19 and depending on the properties of the site such as vegetation cover 27 they might only track storms approaching from a certain direction 17 Prerequisites for successful correlation of overwash deposits to tropical cyclones are 28 The absence of tsunamis in the region as their deposits can usually not be easily distinguished from storm deposits 28 The investigation area should have low biological activity as bioturbation can otherwise erase evidence of storm deposits Low biological activity can be found in sites with high salt or low oxygen concentrations 28 A high geomorphic stability of the site 28 High sedimentation rates can facilitate the preservation of storm deposits 28 Tides can destroy layered storm deposits thus non tidal waterbodies are ideally used In tidally active waterbodies correlations involving various sediment cores can be applied 29 Dating and intensity determination Edit Various dating techniques can then be used to produce a chronology of tropical cyclone strikes at a given location and thus a recurrence rate 2 14 for example at Lake Shelby in Alabama a return period of once every 318 years was determined The storms in the Lake Shelby record have windspeeds of over 190 kilometres per hour 120 mph 30 as Hurricane Ivan which in 2004 made landfall in the region at that intensity did not leave a deposit 31 Based on geological considerations the minimum windspeed of storms recorded there might be 230 kilometres per hour 143 mph 30 For dating purposes radiometric dating procedures involving carbon 14 cesium 137 and lead 210 are most commonly used often in combination 25 Uranium series dating 32 optically stimulated luminescence 33 and correlations to human land use can also be used in some places 20 Beach ridges Edit Beach ridges and cheniers 2 form when storm surges storm waves or tides deposit debris in ridges with one ridge typically corresponding to one storm 34 Ridges can be formed by coral rubble where coral reefs lie at the coast 35 and can contain complicated layer structures 36 shells 37 pumice 38 and gravel 39 A known example is the ridge that Cyclone Bebe generated on Funafuti atoll in 1971 40 Beach ridges are common on the deltaic shores of China and are indicative of increased typhoon activity 3 They have also been found on the Australian coast facing the Great Barrier Reef and are formed from reworked corals The height of each ridge appears to correlate with the intensity of the storm that produced it and thus the intensity of the forming storm can be inferred by numerical modelling and comparison to known storms 41 and known storm surges 42 Ridges tend to be older the farther inland they are 43 they can also be dated through optically stimulated luminescence 44 and radiocarbon dating 38 In addition no tsunami generated beach ridges have been observed and tsunamis are important confounding factors in paleotempestology 45 Wind driven erosion or accumulation can alter the elevation of such ridges and in addition the same ridge can be formed by more than one storm event 46 as has been observed in Australia 47 Beach ridges can also shift around through non storm processes after their formation 43 and can form through non tropical cyclone processes 48 Sedimentary texture can be used to infer the origin of a ridge from storm surges 49 Isotope ratios Edit Precipitation in tropical cyclones has a characteristic isotope composition with a depletion of heavy oxygen isotopes carbon and nitrogen isotope data have also been used to infer tropical cyclone activity 50 Corals can store oxygen isotope ratios which in turn reflect water temperatures precipitation and evaporation 51 these in turn can be related to tropical cyclone activity 52 Fish otoliths and bivalves can also store such records 53 as can trees where the oxygen isotope ratios of precipitation are reflected in the cellulose of trees and can be inferred with the help of tree rings 50 However confounding factors like natural variation and soil properties also influence oxygen isotope ratios of tree cellulose For these reasons only the frequency of storms can be reliably estimated from tree ring isotopic records not their intensity 23 Speleothems deposits formed in caves through the dissolution and redeposition of dolomite and limestone can store isotope signatures associated with tropical cyclones especially in fast growing speleothems areas with thin soils and speleothems which have undergone little alteration Such deposits have a high temporal resolution and are also protected from many confounding factors 23 although the extraction of annual layers has become possible only recently with a two week resolution two separate layers correlated to two hurricanes that struck two weeks apart achieved in one case 54 However the suitability of speleothems depends on the characteristics of the cave they are found in caves that flood frequently may have their speleothems eroded or otherwise damaged for example making them less suitable for paleotempestology research 55 Caves where speleothems form mainly during the offseason are also likely to miss tropical cyclones 56 Very old records can be obtained from oxygen isotope ratios in rocks 57 Other techniques Edit Historical documents such as county gazettes in China diaries logbooks of travellers official histories and old newspapers can contain information on tropical cyclones 58 In China such records go back over a millennium 3 while elsewhere it is usually confined to the last 130 years 59 Such historical records however are often ambiguous or unclear 1 The frequency of shipwrecks has been used to infer past tropical cyclone occurrence 17 such as has been done with a database of shipwrecks that the Spaniards suffered in the Caribbean 60 Aside from oxygen isotope ratios 50 tree rings can also record information on storm caused plant damage or vegetation changes 61 such as thin tree rings due to storm induced damage to a tree canopy and saltwater intrusion and the resulting slowdown in tree growth The term dendrotempestology is used in this context 62 60 63 Speleothems can also store trace elements which can signal tropical cyclone activity 64 and mud layers formed by storm induced cave flooding 55 Droughts on the other hand can cause groundwater levels to drop enough that subsequent storms cannot induce flooding and thus fail to leave a record as has been noted in Yucatan 65 Other techniques Rhythmites in river mouths 2 These are formed when storms resuspend sediments the sediments when the storm wanes fall out and form the deposits especially in places with high sediment supplies Carbon isotope and chemical data can be used to distinguish them from non storm sedimentation 66 Sand dunes at coastlines is influenced by storm surge height 67 and sand splays can be formed when sand is swept off these dunes by storm surges and waves 48 such deposits however are better studied in the context of tsunamis and there is no clear way to distinguish between tsunami and storm formed splays 68 Hummocky deposits in shallow seas 2 known as tempestites 69 The mechanics of their formation are still controversial 70 and such deposits are prone to reworking which wipes out the traces of a storm 13 Boulders 71 and coral blocks can be moved by storms and such moved blocks can potentially be dated to obtain the age of the storm if certain conditions are met 72 They can be correlated to storms with the help of oxygen isotope excursions for example 73 This technique has also been applied to islands formed by storm moved blocks 74 Wave driven erosion during storms can create scarps 75 which can be dated with the assistance of optically stimulated luminescence 76 Such scarps however tend to be altered over time later storms can erode away older scarps for example and their preservation and formation is often strongly dependent on the local geology 77 Other techniques involve the identification of freshwater flood deposits by storms 73 such as humic acid 60 63 and other evidence in corals 78 and lack of bromine which is common in marine sediments in flood related deposits 79 and oyster bed kills caused by sediments suspended by storms oyster kills however can also be caused by non storm phenomena 80 Luminescence of coral deposits has been used to infer tropical cyclone activity 73 Timespans Edit A database of tropical cyclones going back to 6 000 BC has been compiled for the western North Atlantic Ocean 81 In the Gulf of Mexico records go back five millennia 14 but only a few typhoon a records go back 5 000 6 000 years 32 In general tropical cyclone records do not go farther back than 5 000 6 000 years ago when the Holocene sea level rise levelled off tropical cyclone deposits formed during sea level lowstands likely were reworked during sea level rise Only tentative evidence exists of deposits from the last interglacial 83 Tempestite deposits 84 and oxygen isotope ratios in much older rocks have also been used to infer the existence of tropical cyclone activity 57 as far back as the Jurassic 84 Results EditPaleotempestological information has been used by the insurance industry in risk analysis 85 in order to set insurance rates 63 The industry has also funded paleotempestological research 86 Paleotempestology information is further of interest to archeologists ecologists and forest and water resource managers 87 Recurrence rates Edit The recurrence rate the time gap between storms is an important metric used to estimate tropical cyclone risk and it can be determined by paleotempestological research In the Gulf of Mexico catastrophic hurricane strikes at given locations occur once about every 350 years in the last 3 800 years 14 or about 0 48 0 39 annual frequency at any given site 88 with a recurrence rate of 300 years or 0 33 annual probability at sites in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico 89 category 3 or more storms occur at a rate of 3 9 0 1 category 3 or more storms per century in the northern Gulf of Mexico 90 Elsewhere tropical cyclones with intensities of category 4 or more occur about every 350 years in the Pearl River Delta China 91 one storm every 100 150 years at Funafuti and a similar rate in French Polynesia 74 one category 3 or stronger every 471 years in St Catherines Island Georgia 92 0 3 each year for an intense storm in eastern Hainan 93 one storm every 140 180 years in Nicaragua 94 one intense storm every 200 300 years in the Great Barrier Reef 41 formerly their recurrence rate was estimated to be one strong event every few millennia 95 and one storm of category 2 4 intensity 96 every 190 270 years at Shark Bay in Western Australia 97 Steady rates have been found for the Gulf of Mexico and the Coral Sea 98 for timespans of several millennia 88 However it has also been found that the occurrence rates of tropical cyclone measured with instrumental data over historical time can be significantly different from the actual occurrent rate In the past tropical cyclones were far more frequent in the Great Barrier Reef 41 and the northern Gulf of Mexico than today 99 in Apalachee Bay strong storms occur every 40 years not every 400 years as documented historically 100 Serious storms in New York occurred twice in 300 years 101 not once every millennium or less 102 In general the area of Australia appears to be unusually inactive in recent times by the standards of the past 550 1500 years 103 and the historical record underestimates the incidence of strong storms in Northeastern Australia 104 Long term fluctuations Edit Long term variations of tropical cyclone activity have also been found The Gulf of Mexico saw increased activity between 3 800 and 1 000 years ago with a fivefold increase of category 4 5 hurricane activity 105 and activity at St Catherines Island and Wassaw Island was also higher between 2 000 and 1 100 years ago 106 This appears to be a stage of increased tropical cyclone activity spanning the region from New York to Puerto Rico 107 while the last 1 000 years have been inactive both there and in the Gulf Coast 108 Before 1400 AD the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico were active while the East Coast of the United States was inactive followed by a reversal that lasted until 1675 AD 109 in an alternative interpretation the US Atlantic coast and the Caribbean saw low activity between 950 AD and 1700 with a sudden increase around 1700 32 It is unclear whether in the Atlantic hurricane activity is more regionally modulated or basin wide 110 Such fluctuations appear to mainly concern strong tropical cyclone systems at least in the Atlantic weaker systems have a more steady pattern of activity 111 Rapid fluctuations over short timespans have also been observed 87 In the Atlantic Ocean the so called Bermuda High hypothesis stipulates that changes in the position of this anticyclone can cause storm paths to alternate between landfalls on the East Coast and the Gulf Coast 11 112 but also Nicaragua 113 Paleotempestological data support this theory 114 although additional findings on Long Island and Puerto Rico have demonstrated that storm frequency is more complex 108 as active periods appear to correlate between the three sites 115 A southward shift of the High has been inferred to have occurred 3 000 116 1 000 years ago 117 and has been linked with the hurricane hyperactivity period in the Gulf of Mexico between 3 400 and 1 000 years ago 118 Conversely a decrease in hurricane activity is recorded after the mid millennium period 119 and after 1 100 the Atlantic changes from a pattern of widespread activity to a more geographically confined one 120 Between 1 100 1 450 the Bahamas and the Florida Gulf Coast were frequently struck while between 1 450 1 650 activity was higher in New England 121 Furthermore a tendency to a more northerly storm track may be associated with a strong North Atlantic Oscillation 122 while the Neoglacial cooling is associated with a southward shift 118 In West Asia high activity in the South China Sea coincides with low activity in Japan and vice versa 123 124 Role of climate modes Edit The influence of natural trends on tropical cyclone activity has been recognized in paleotempestology records such as a correlation between Atlantic hurricane tracks 125 and activity with the status of the ITCZ 126 127 128 position of the Loop Current for Gulf of Mexico hurricanes 88 North Atlantic Oscillation sea surface temperatures 129 and the strength of the West African Monsoon 130 and Australian cyclone activity and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation 131 Increased insolation either from solar activity 132 or from orbital variations have been found to be detrimental to tropical cyclone activity in some regions 133 In the first millennium AD warmer sea surface temperatures in the Atlantic as well as more restricted anomalies may be responsible for stronger regional hurricane activity 134 The climate mode dependency of tropical cyclone activity may be more pronounced in temperate regions where tropical cyclones find less favourable conditions 135 Among the known climate modes that influence tropical cyclone activity in paleotempestological records are ENSO phase variations which influence tropical cyclone activity in Australia and the Atlantic 136 but also their path as has been noted for typhoons 137 138 139 140 More general global correlations have been found such as a negative correlation between tropical cyclone activity in Japan and the North Atlantic 133 and correlation between the Atlantic and Australia on the one hand 141 and between Australia and French Polynesia on the other hand 142 Influence of long term temperature variations Edit The effect of general climate variations have also been found Hurricane 143 and typhoon tracks tend to shift north e g Amur Bay during warm periods and south e g South China during cold periods 144 patterns that might be mediated by shifts in the subtropical anticyclones 108 These patterns northward shift with warming has been observed as a consequence of human induced global warming and the end of the Little Ice Age 143 but also after volcanic eruptions southward shift with cooling 145 some volcanic eruptions have been linked to decreased hurricane activity although this observation is not universal 146 The Dark Ages Cold Period has been linked to decreased activity off Belize 147 Initially the Medieval Climate Anomaly featured increased activity across the Atlantic but later activity decreased along the US East Coast 148 During the 1350 to present interval in the Little Ice Age there were more but weaker storms in the Gulf of Mexico 149 while hurricane activity did not decrease in western Long Island 115 Colder waters may have impeded tropical cyclone activity in the Gulf of Mexico during the Little Ice Age 150 Increased hurricane activity during the last 300 years in the Caribbean may also correlate to the Little Ice Age 151 The Little Ice Age may have been accompanied by more but weaker storms in the South China Sea relative to preceding or following periods 152 153 The response of tropical cyclones to future global warming is of great interest The Holocene Climatic Optimum did not induce increased tropical cyclone strikes in Queensland and phases of higher hurricane activity on the Gulf Coast are not associated with global warming 32 however warming has been correlated with typhoon activity in the Gulf of Thailand 154 and marine warming with typhoon activity in the South China Sea 155 increased hurricane activity in Belize which increased during the Medieval Warm Period 156 and during the Mesozoic when carbon dioxide caused warming episodes 84 such as the Toarcian anoxic event 157 After effects of tropical cyclones Edit A correlation between hurricane strikes and subsequent wildfire activity 158 and vegetation changes has been noted in the Alabamian 159 and Cuban paleotempestological record 160 In St Catherines Island cultural activity ceased at the time of increased storm activity 161 and both Taino settlement of the Bahamas 89 and Polynesian expansion across the Pacific may have been correlated to decreased tropical cyclone activity 142 Tropical cyclone induced alteration in oxygen isotope ratios may mask isotope ratio variations caused by other climate phenomena which may thus be misinterpreted 162 On the other hand the Classic Maya collapse may coincide with and have been caused by a decrease in tropical cyclone activity 163 Tropical cyclones are important for preventing droughts in the southeastern US 164 Other patterns Edit Sites in the Bahamas show more strong storms in the northern Bahamas than the southern ones presumably because storms approaching the southern Bahamas have passed over the Greater Antilles before and have lost much of their intensity there 165 Atmospheric conditions favourable for tropical cyclone activity in the main development region b of the Atlantic are correlated to unfavourable conditions along the East Coast 167 The anti correlation between Gulf of Mexico and Bahamas activity with the US East Coast activity may be due to active hurricane seasons which tend to increase storm activity in the former being accompanied by unfavourable climatological conditions along the East Coast 168 Problems EditPaleotempestological reconstructions are subject to a number of limitations 24 including the presence of sites suited for the obtainment of paleotempestological records 19 changes in the hydrological properties of the site due to e g sea level rise 24 which increases the sensitivity to weaker storms 169 and false positives caused by for example non tropical cyclone related floods sediment winnowing wind driven transport tides tsunamis 24 bioturbation 17 and non tropical storms such as nor easters 170 or winter storm the latter of which however usually result in lower surges 171 In particular tsunamis are a problem for paleotempestological studies in the Indian and Pacific Ocean 172 one technique that has been used to differentiate the two is the identification of traces of runoff which occurs during storms but not during tsunamis 173 Not all of the world has been investigated with paleotempestological methods among the places thus researched are Belize the Carolinas of North America northern coasts of the Gulf of Mexico the northeastern United States 19 in a lesser measure the South Pacific islands and tropical Australia 59 Conversely China 174 Cuba Florida Hispaniola Honduras the Lesser Antilles and North America north of Canada are poorly researched The presence of research institutions active in paleotempestology and suitable sites for paleotempestological research and tropical cyclone landfalls may influence whether a given location is researched or not 19 In the Atlantic Ocean research has been concentrated on regions where hurricanes are common rather than more marginal areas 175 Paleotempestology records mostly record activity during the Holocene 174 and tend to record mainly catastrophic storms as these are the ones most likely to leave evidence 6 In addition as of 2017 update there has been little effort in making comprehensive databases of paleotempestological data or in attempting regional reconstructions from local results 175 Different sites have different intensity thresholds and thus capture different storm populations 148 Also paleotempestological records especially overwash records in marshes are often grossly incomplete with questionable geochronology Deposition mechanism are poorly documented and it is often not clear how to identify storm deposits 176 The magnitude of overwash deposits is fundamentally a function of storm surge height which however is not a function of storm intensity 72 Overwash deposits are regulated by the height of the overwashed barrier and there is no expectation that it will remain stable over time 177 tropical cyclones themselves have been observed eroding such barriers 178 and such barrier height decreases e g through storm erosion or sea level rise may induce a spurious increase of tropical cyclone deposits over time 179 Successive overwash deposits can be difficult to distinguish and they are easily eroded by subsequent storms 180 Storm deposits can vary strongly even a short distance from the landfall point 181 even over few tens of metres 182 and changes in tropical cyclone activity recorded at one site might simply reflect the stochastic nature of tropical cyclone landfalls 167 In particular in core tropical cyclone activity regions weather variations rather than large scale modes may control tropical cyclone activity 183 Application to non tropical storms EditPaleotempestological research has been mostly carried out in low latitude regions 184 but research in past storm activity has been conducted in the British Isles France and the Mediterranean 185 Increases in storm activity on the European Atlantic coast have been noted AD 1350 1650 AD 250 850 AD 950 550 1550 1350 BC 3550 3150 BC and 5750 5150 BC 186 In southern France a recurrence rate of 0 2 per year of catastrophic storms has been inferred for the last 2 000 years 187 Storm records indicate increased storm activity during colder periods such as the Little Ice Age Medieval Dark Age and Iron Age Cold Epoch 188 During cold periods increased temperature gradients between the polar and low latitude regions increase baroclinic storm activity Changes in the North Atlantic Oscillation may also play a role 187 Examples EditMain article List of paleotempestology recordsSee also EditTropical cyclone Tropical cyclone observation Tropical cyclones and climate changeNotes Edit Typhoons are tropical cyclones in the West Pacific 82 The main development region is an area between 10 and 20 northern latitude and between 20 and 60 western longitude in the Atlantic where numerous hurricanes form 166 References EditCitations Edit a b c d Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 172 a b c d e f Fan amp Liu 2008 p 2908 a b c d e f g Fan amp Liu 2008 p 2910 a b Goslin amp Clemmensen 2017 p 81 Oliva et al 2018 p 1664 a b Frappier et al 2007 p 529 a b Liu 2004 p 444 a b Donnelly et al 2014 p 2 Frappier et al 2007 p 530 Donnelly 2009 p 763 a b c Donnelly 2009 p 764 Liu 2004 p 447 a b Xiong et al 2018 p 150 a b c d Liu 2004 p 445 Liu 2010 p 11 Fan amp Liu 2008 p 2909 a b c d Bregy et al 2018 p 28 Oliva et al 2018 p 90 a b c d e f Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 173 a b c Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 180 Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 pp 179 180 Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 177 a b c Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 182 a b c d Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 183 a b Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 178 Hippensteel amp Garcia 2014 p 1170 Xiong et al 2018 p 155 a b c d e Donnelly et al 2014 p 8 Harris Martin amp Hippensteel 2005 p 1033 a b Elsner Jagger amp Liu 2008 p 368 Elsner Jagger amp Liu 2008 p 369 a b c d Fan amp Liu 2008 p 2917 Brill et al 2017 p 135 Hayne amp Nott 2001 p 509 Nott 2015 p 130 Nott 2015 p 133 Nott 2015 p 139 a b Nott 2015 p 141 Nott 2015 p 140 Nott 2004 p 435 a b c Fan amp Liu 2008 p 2911 Nott 2015 p 144 a b Nott 2015 p 134 Nott 2015 p 136 Bruckner et al 2016 p 2819 Goslin amp Clemmensen 2017 p 88 91 Nott 2015 p 135 a b Nott 2004 p 437 Nott 2015 p 138 a b c Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 181 Zinke et al 2008 p 11 Zinke et al 2008 p 13 Frappier et al 2007 p 533 Fan amp Liu 2008 p 2914 a b Frappier et al 2014 p 5149 James Banner amp Hardt 2015 a b Kolodny Calvo amp Rosenfeld 2009 p 387 Liu 2004 pp 444 445 a b Nott 2004 p 433 a b c Dominguez Delmas Harley amp Trouet 2016 p 3169 Knapp Maxwell amp Soule 2016 p 312 Grissino Mayer Miller amp Mora 2010 p 291 a b c Travis 2000 p 3 Frappier et al 2007 p 532 Frappier et al 2014 p 5152 Fan amp Liu 2008 p 2912 Frappier et al 2007 p 531 Nott 2004 p 438 Liu 2010 p 9 Xiong et al 2018 p 152 Woodruff Donnelly amp Okusu 2009 p 1774 a b Xiong et al 2018 p 157 a b c Donnelly et al 2014 p 6 a b Ford et al 2018 p 918 Goslin amp Clemmensen 2017 p 91 Goslin amp Clemmensen 2017 p 93 Goslin amp Clemmensen 2017 p 95 Brandon et al 2013 p 2994 Astakhov et al 2019 pp 62 63 Harris Martin amp Hippensteel 2005 p 1034 Oliva et al 2018 p 1665 Astakhov et al 2015 p 383 Nott 2004 p 434 a b c Krencker et al 2015 p 129 Liu 2004 p 446 Travis 2000 p 2 a b Frappier et al 2007 p 534 a b c Bregy et al 2018 p 39 a b Park 2012 p 900 Williams 2013 p 181 Fan amp Liu 2008 p 2913 Braun et al 2017 p 370 Zhou et al 2019 pp 14 15 McCloskey amp Liu 2012 p 462 Hayne amp Nott 2001 p 510 Nott 2011b p 722 Nott 2011b p 713 Nott 2004 p 441 Liu 2010 p 59 Muller et al 2017 p 23 Sullivan et al 2014 p 7 Sullivan et al 2014 p 1 Muller et al 2017 p 5 Muller et al 2017 p 9 Williams 2013 p 170 Braun et al 2017 p 366 Braun et al 2017 p 371 a b c Fan amp Liu 2008 p 2918 Wallace et al 2019 p 4 Yao et al 2020 p 15 McCloskey amp Liu 2013 p 279 Liu 2010 p 36 McCloskey amp Liu 2012 p 463 Liu 2010 p 39 a b Scileppi amp Donnelly 2007 p 22 Volin et al 2013 p 17215 Peros et al 2015 p 1492 a b Park 2012 p 892 Rodysill et al 2020 p 7 Wallace et al 2021 p 19 Wallace et al 2021 p 2 Liu 2010 p 37 Yue et al 2019 p 68 Zhou et al 2019 p 11 van Hengstum et al 2014 p 112 Wallace et al 2019 p 8 Muller et al 2017 p 36 Kakuk et al 2016 p 7 Muller et al 2017 p 21 van Hengstum et al 2014 p 110 111 Liu et al 2016 p 66 Haig amp Nott 2016 p 2849 a b Muller et al 2017 p 17 Donnelly et al 2015 p 50 Wallace et al 2020 p 14 Denniston et al 2015 p 4578 4579 Zhou et al 2017 p 7 Cook et al 2015 pp 3 4 Zhou et al 2019 p 2 Yang et al 2020 p 2248 Nott amp Forsyth 2012 p 4 a b Toomey Donnelly amp Tierney 2016 p 501 a b Breitenbach et al 2016 p 6 Astakhov et al 2019 p 69 Breitenbach et al 2016 p 5 Muller et al 2017 pp 26 28 Schmitt et al 2020 p 11 a b Wallace et al 2021 p 16 van Hengstum et al 2015 p 53 Rodysill et al 2020 p 9 LeBlanc et al 2017 p 147 Xiong et al 2020 p 1702 Tao et al 2021 p 3 Williams et al 2016 p 75 Yue et al 2019 p 69 Droxler Bentley amp Denommee 2014 p 5 Krencker et al 2015 p 120 Liu 2010 p 45 Liu 2010 p 46 Peros et al 2015 p 1493 Braun et al 2017 p 367 Frappier 2013 p 3642 Medina Elizalde et al 2016 p 1 Knapp Maxwell amp Soule 2016 pp 319 320 Wallace et al 2021 p 14 Ercolani et al 2015 p 17 a b Wallace et al 2019 p 5 Wallace et al 2021 p 17 Liu 2010 p 14 Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 185 Liu 2010 p 15 Astakhov et al 2019 p 62 Chague Goff et al 2016 p 346 a b Du et al 2016 p 78 a b Oliva Peros amp Viau 2017 p 184 Hippensteel 2010 p 52 Nott 2004 p 439 Nott 2004 p 440 Donnelly et al 2014 p 9 Chaumillon et al 2017 p 164 Harris Martin amp Hippensteel 2005 p 1028 Hippensteel amp Garcia 2014 p 1169 Wallace et al 2020 p 13 Dezileau et al 2011 p 290 Pouzet et al 2018 p 432 Pouzet et al 2018 p 446 a b Dezileau et al 2011 p 295 Pouzet et al 2018 p 445 General sources Edit Astakhov A S Kalugin I A Aksentov K I Dar in A V April 2015 Geochemical indicators of paleo typhoons in shelf sediments Geochemistry International 53 4 383 388 doi 10 1134 S0016702915040023 ISSN 0016 7029 S2CID 140593833 via ResearchGate Astakhov A S Dar in A V Kalugin I A Aksentov K I 2019 01 01 Reconstructing the Frequency of Catastrophic Floods on the Western Coast of the Sea of Japan Based on Sedimentary Proxy Russian Meteorology and Hydrology 44 1 62 70 doi 10 3103 S1068373919010072 ISSN 1934 8096 S2CID 146559928 Brandon Christine M Woodruff Jonathan D Lane D Phil Donnelly Jeffrey P August 2013 Tropical cyclone wind speed constraints from resultant storm surge deposition A 2500 year reconstruction of hurricane activity from St Marks FL PALEO HURRICANE ACTIVITY IN ST MARKS FL Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 14 8 2993 3008 doi 10 1002 ggge 20217 hdl 1912 6334 S2CID 49657980 Braun Erick Meyer Brian Deocampo Daniel Kiage Lawrence M September 2017 A 3000 yr paleostorm record from St Catherines Island Georgia Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 196 360 372 Bibcode 2017ECSS 196 360B doi 10 1016 j ecss 2017 05 021 Breitenbach Sebastian F M Awe Jaime Aquino Valorie V Macpherson Colin G Kennett Douglas J Polyak Victor Harriet E Ridley Prufer Keith M Liu Kam biu 2016 11 23 Persistent northward North Atlantic tropical cyclone track migration over the past five centuries Scientific Reports 6 37522 Bibcode 2016NatSR 637522B doi 10 1038 srep37522 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 5120344 PMID 27876831 Bregy Joshua C Wallace Davin J Minzoni Rebecca Totten Cruz Valerie J February 2018 2500 year paleotempestological record of intense storms for the northern Gulf of Mexico United States Marine Geology 396 26 42 Bibcode 2018MGeol 396 26B doi 10 1016 j margeo 2017 09 009 Brill D May S M Shah Hosseini M Rufer D Schmidt C Engel M August 2017 Luminescence dating of cyclone induced washover fans at Point Lefroy NW Australia Quaternary Geochronology 41 134 150 doi 10 1016 j quageo 2017 03 004 Bruckner Helmut Esser Sascha Gonzalo Lia Anne Dierick Manuel Opitz Stephan Pint Anna Reyes Michelle Engel Max May Simon Matthias Brill Dominik 21 December 2016 Typhoon Haiyan s sedimentary record in coastal environments of the Philippines and its paleotempestological implications Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 16 12 2799 2822 Bibcode 2016NHESS 16 2799B doi 10 5194 nhess 16 2799 2016 ISSN 1561 8633 Chague Goff Catherine Chan Jordan Chi Hang Goff James Gadd Patricia September 2016 Late Holocene record of environmental changes cyclones and tsunamis in a coastal lake Mangaia Cook Islands Cyclones and tsunamis on Mangaia Island Arc 25 5 333 349 doi 10 1111 iar 12153 S2CID 132673825 Chaumillon Eric Bertin Xavier Fortunato Andre B Bajo Marco Schneider Jean Luc Dezileau Laurent Walsh John Patrick Michelot Agnes Chauveau Etienne February 2017 Storm induced marine flooding Lessons from a multidisciplinary approach Earth Science Reviews 165 151 184 Bibcode 2017ESRv 165 151C doi 10 1016 j earscirev 2016 12 005 Cook T L Kundu S Kanamaru K Woodruff J D 2015 01 01 Depositional evidence for the Kamikaze typhoons and links to changes in typhoon climatology Geology 43 1 91 94 Bibcode 2015Geo 43 91W doi 10 1130 G36209 1 ISSN 0091 7613 Denniston Rhawn F Villarini Gabriele Gonzales Angelique N Wyrwoll Karl Heinz Polyak Victor J Ummenhofer Caroline C Lachniet Matthew S Wanamaker Alan D Humphreys William F Woods David Cugley John 2015 04 14 Extreme rainfall activity in the Australian tropics reflects changes in the El Nino Southern Oscillation over the last two millennia Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112 15 4576 4581 Bibcode 2015PNAS 112 4576D doi 10 1073 pnas 1422270112 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 4403187 PMID 25825740 Dezileau L Sabatier P Blanchemanche P Joly B Swingedouw D Cassou C Castaings J Martinez P Von Grafenstein U 1 January 2011 Intense storm activity during the Little Ice Age on the French Mediterranean coast Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 299 1 289 297 Bibcode 2011PPP 299 289D doi 10 1016 j palaeo 2010 11 009 ISSN 0031 0182 Dominguez Delmas Marta Harley Grant L Trouet Valerie 2016 03 22 Shipwreck rates reveal Caribbean tropical cyclone response to past radiative forcing Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113 12 3169 3174 Bibcode 2016PNAS 113 3169T doi 10 1073 pnas 1519566113 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 4812713 PMID 26951648 Donnelly Jeffrey P 2009 Paleotempestology The Sedimentary Record of Intense Hurricanes in Gornitz Vivien ed Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series Springer Netherlands pp 763 766 doi 10 1007 978 1 4020 4411 3 181 ISBN 9781402044113 Donnelly Jeffrey P Anderson John B Woodruff Jonathan D Wallace Davin J 15 January 2014 Palaeohurricane reconstructions from sedimentary archives along the Gulf of Mexico Caribbean Sea and western North Atlantic Ocean margins Geological Society London Special Publications 388 1 481 501 Bibcode 2014GSLSP 388 481W doi 10 1144 SP388 12 ISSN 0305 8719 S2CID 129854044 Donnelly Jeffrey P Hawkes Andrea D Lane Philip MacDonald Dana Shuman Bryan N Toomey Michael R van Hengstum Peter J Woodruff Jonathan D February 2015 Climate forcing of unprecedented intense hurricane activity in the last 2000 years DONNELLY ET AL Earth s Future 3 2 49 65 doi 10 1002 2014EF000274 Droxler A W Bentley S J Denommee K C 2014 01 27 Climatic controls on hurricane patterns a 1200 y near annual record from Lighthouse Reef Belize Scientific Reports 4 3876 Bibcode 2014NatSR 4E3876D doi 10 1038 srep03876 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 3902391 PMID 24464265 Du Shuhuan Li Baosheng Chen Muhong Xiang Rong Niu Donefeng Si Yuejun September 2016 Paleotempestology evidence recorded by eolian deposition in the Bohai Sea coastal zone during the last interglacial period Marine Geology 379 78 83 Bibcode 2016MGeol 379 78D doi 10 1016 j margeo 2016 05 013 Elsner James B Jagger Thomas H Liu Kam biu February 2008 Comparison of Hurricane Return Levels Using Historical and Geological Records Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 47 2 368 374 Bibcode 2008JApMC 47 368E doi 10 1175 2007JAMC1692 1 ISSN 1558 8424 S2CID 54786543 Ercolani Christian Muller Joanne Collins Jennifer Savarese Michael Squiccimara Louis October 2015 Intense Southwest Florida hurricane landfalls over the past 1000 years Quaternary Science Reviews 126 17 25 Bibcode 2015QSRv 126 17E doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2015 08 008 Fan DaiDu Liu Kam biu 1 October 2008 Perspectives on the linkage between typhoon activity and global warming from recent research advances in paleotempestology Chinese Science Bulletin 53 19 2907 2922 Bibcode 2008SciBu 53 2907F doi 10 1007 s11434 008 0341 2 ISSN 1861 9541 via ResearchGate Ford M R Tuck M Owen S D McLean R F Kench P S 2018 10 01 Storm deposited coral blocks A mechanism of island genesis Tutaga island Funafuti atoll Tuvalu Geology 46 10 915 918 Bibcode 2018Geo 46 915K doi 10 1130 G45045 1 ISSN 0091 7613 S2CID 135443385 Frappier Amy Knutson Thomas Liu Kam Biu Emanuel Kerry January 2007 Perspective coordinating paleoclimate research on tropical cyclones with hurricane climate theory and modelling Tellus A Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography 59 4 529 537 Bibcode 2007TellA 59 529F doi 10 1111 j 1600 0870 2007 00250 x ISSN 1600 0870 Frappier Amy Benoit September 2013 Masking of interannual climate proxy signals by residual tropical cyclone rainwater Evidence and challenges for low latitude speleothem paleoclimatology TROPICAL CYCLONE MASKING Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 14 9 3632 3647 doi 10 1002 ggge 20218 Frappier Amy Benoit Pyburn James Pinkey Drobnis Aurora D Wang Xianfeng Corbett D Reide Dahlin Bruce H 2014 07 28 Two millennia of tropical cyclone induced mud layers in a northern Yucatan stalagmite Multiple overlapping climatic hazards during the Maya Terminal Classic megadroughts Frappier et al Mud and the Maya Geophysical Research Letters 41 14 5148 5157 doi 10 1002 2014GL059882 hdl 10356 104967 S2CID 53695062 Volin John C Stricker Craig A Givnish Thomas J Donovan Joe J Hansen Barbara C S Glaser Paul H 22 October 2013 Holocene dynamics of the Florida Everglades with respect to climate dustfall and tropical storms Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 43 17211 17216 Bibcode 2013PNAS 11017211G doi 10 1073 pnas 1222239110 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 3808639 PMID 24101489 Goslin Jerome Clemmensen Lars B October 2017 Proxy records of Holocene storm events in coastal barrier systems Storm wave induced markers Quaternary Science Reviews 174 80 119 Bibcode 2017QSRv 174 80G doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2017 08 026 Grissino Mayer Henri D Miller Dana L Mora Claudia I 2010 Stoffel Markus Bollschweiler Michelle Butler David R Luckman Brian H eds Dendrotempestology and the Isotopic Record of Tropical Cyclones in Tree Rings of the Southeastern United States Tree Rings and Natural Hazards A State of Art Advances in Global Change Research Springer Netherlands pp 291 303 doi 10 1007 978 90 481 8736 2 28 ISBN 9789048187362 Haig Jordahna Ellan Ann Nott Jonathan 2016 03 28 Solar forcing over the last 1500 years and Australian tropical cyclone activity Geophysical Research Letters 43 6 2843 2850 Bibcode 2016GeoRL 43 2843H doi 10 1002 2016GL068012 ISSN 0094 8276 Harris M Scott Martin Ronald E Hippensteel Scott P 1 January 2005 Records of prehistoric hurricanes on the South Carolina coast based on micropaleontological and sedimentological evidence with comparison to other Atlantic Coast records Discussion GSA Bulletin 117 1 2 250 253 Bibcode 2005GSAB 117 250H doi 10 1130 B25535 1 ISSN 0016 7606 Hayne Matthew Nott Jonathan October 2001 High frequency of super cyclones along the Great Barrier Reef over the past 5 000 years Nature 413 6855 508 512 Bibcode 2001Natur 413 508N doi 10 1038 35097055 ISSN 1476 4687 PMID 11586356 S2CID 4309291 Hippensteel Scott April 2010 Paleotempestology and the pursuit of the perfect paleostorm proxy GSA Today 52 53 doi 10 1130 GSATG80GW 1 Hippensteel Scott P Garcia William J 2014 11 03 Micropaleontological Evidence of Prehistoric Hurricane Strikes from Southeastern North Carolina Journal of Coastal Research 298 1157 1172 doi 10 2112 jcoastres d 12 00180 1 ISSN 0749 0208 S2CID 140185156 via ResearchGate James Eric W Banner Jay L Hardt Benjamin April 2015 A global model for cave ventilation and seasonal bias in speleothem palaeoclimate records Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 16 4 1049 Bibcode 2015GGG 16 1044J doi 10 1002 2014GC005658 S2CID 13512563 Kakuk Brian Albury Nancy A Michael R Toomey Fall Patricia L Donnelly Jeffrey P Hengstum Peter J van 2016 02 24 The intertropical convergence zone modulates intense hurricane strikes on the western North Atlantic margin Scientific Reports 6 21728 Bibcode 2016NatSR 621728V doi 10 1038 srep21728 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 4764861 PMID 26906670 Knapp Paul A Maxwell Justin T Soule Peter T 2016 03 01 Tropical cyclone rainfall variability in coastal North Carolina derived from longleaf pine Pinus palustris Mill AD 1771 2014 Climatic Change 135 2 311 323 Bibcode 2016ClCh 135 311K doi 10 1007 s10584 015 1560 6 hdl 10 1007 s10584 015 1560 6 ISSN 1573 1480 S2CID 13861926 Kolodny Yehoshua Calvo Ran Rosenfeld Daniel September 2009 Too low d18O of paleo meteoric low latitude water do paleo tropical cyclones explain it Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 280 3 4 387 395 Bibcode 2009PPP 280 387K doi 10 1016 j palaeo 2009 06 025 Krencker Francois Nicolas Bodin Stephane Suan Guillaume Heimhofer Ulrich Kabiri Lahcen Immenhauser Adrian September 2015 Toarcian extreme warmth led to tropical cyclone intensification Earth and Planetary Science Letters 425 120 130 Bibcode 2015E amp PSL 425 120K doi 10 1016 j epsl 2015 06 003 LeBlanc Allison R Kennedy Lisa M Liu Kam biu Lane Chad S 2017 08 01 Linking hurricane landfalls precipitation variability fires and vegetation response over the past millennium from analysis of coastal lagoon sediments southwestern Dominican Republic Journal of Paleolimnology 58 2 135 150 Bibcode 2017JPall 58 135L doi 10 1007 s10933 017 9965 z ISSN 1573 0417 S2CID 132624091 Liu Kam Biu 2004 Paleotempestology Geographic Solutions to Hurricane Hazard Assessment and Risk Prediction in Janelle Donald G Warf Barney Hansen Kathy eds WorldMinds Geographical Perspectives on 100 Problems Commemorating the 100th Anniversary of the Association of American Geographers 1904 2004 Springer Netherlands pp 443 448 doi 10 1007 978 1 4020 2352 1 72 ISBN 9781402023521 Liu Kam biu 2010 Paleotempestology The Science of Reconstructing Paleohurricane Activity PDF Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico La Paz Baja California Sur Liu Entao Zhao Jian xin Feng Yue xing Leonard Nicole D Clark Tara R Roff George July 2016 U Th age distribution of coral fragments from multiple rubble ridges within the Frankland Islands Great Barrier Reef Implications for past storminess history Quaternary Science Reviews 143 51 68 Bibcode 2016QSRv 143 51L doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2016 05 006 McCloskey Terrence Allen Liu Kam biu November 2012 A sedimentary based history of hurricane strikes on the southern Caribbean coast of Nicaragua Quaternary Research 78 3 454 464 Bibcode 2012QuRes 78 454M doi 10 1016 j yqres 2012 07 003 ISSN 0033 5894 S2CID 128971084 McCloskey Terrence A Liu Kam biu 2013 02 01 A 7000 year record of paleohurricane activity from a coastal wetland in Belize The Holocene 23 2 278 291 Bibcode 2013Holoc 23 278M doi 10 1177 0959683612460782 ISSN 0959 6836 S2CID 54759601 Medina Elizalde Martin Polanco Martinez Josue Moises Lases Hernandez Fernanda Bradley Raymond Burns Stephen September 2016 Testing the tropical storm hypothesis of Yucatan Peninsula climate variability during the Maya Terminal Classic Period Quaternary Research 86 2 111 119 Bibcode 2016QuRes 86 111M doi 10 1016 j yqres 2016 05 006 ISSN 0033 5894 S2CID 133374197 via ResearchGate Muller Joanne Collins Jennifer M Gibson Samantha Paxton Leilani 2017 Collins Jennifer M Walsh Kevin eds Recent Advances in the Emerging Field of Paleotempestology Hurricanes and Climate Change Volume 3 Springer International Publishing pp 1 33 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 47594 3 1 ISBN 9783319475943 S2CID 133456333 Nott Jonathan May 2004 Palaeotempestology the study of prehistoric tropical cyclones a review and implications for hazard assessment Environment International 30 3 433 447 doi 10 1016 j envint 2003 09 010 PMID 14987874 Nott Jonathan March 2011b A 6000 year tropical cyclone record from Western Australia Quaternary Science Reviews 30 5 6 713 722 Bibcode 2011QSRv 30 713N doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2010 12 004 Nott Jonathan Forsyth Anthony 2012 07 28 Punctuated global tropical cyclone activity over the past 5 000 years LONG TERM TROPICAL CYCLONE ACTIVITY Geophysical Research Letters 39 14 n a doi 10 1029 2012GL052236 Nott Jonathan F 2015 Palaeostorm Surges and Inundations Coastal and Marine Hazards Risks and Disasters Elsevier pp 129 152 doi 10 1016 b978 0 12 396483 0 00005 4 ISBN 9780123964830 Oliva Frank Viau Andre E Peros Matthew C Bouchard Marc 1 October 2018 Paleotempestology database for the western North Atlantic basin The Holocene 28 10 1664 1671 Bibcode 2018Holoc 28 1664O doi 10 1177 0959683618782598 ISSN 0959 6836 S2CID 135330739 Oliva Frank Peros Matthew Viau Andre 1 April 2017 A review of the spatial distribution of and analytical techniques used in paleotempestological studies in the western North Atlantic Basin Progress in Physical Geography Earth and Environment 41 2 171 190 doi 10 1177 0309133316683899 ISSN 0309 1333 S2CID 132039002 Oliva F Peros M C Viau A E Reinhardt E G Nixon F C Morin A December 2018 A multi proxy reconstruction of tropical cyclone variability during the past 800 years from Robinson Lake Nova Scotia Canada Marine Geology 406 84 97 Bibcode 2018MGeol 406 84O doi 10 1016 j margeo 2018 09 012 S2CID 135272487 Park Lisa E 1 February 2012 Comparing Two Long Term Hurricane Frequency and Intensity Records from San Salvador Island Bahamas Journal of Coastal Research 28 4 891 doi 10 2112 JCOASTRES D 11 00065 1 S2CID 130374181 Peros Matthew Gregory Braden Matos Felipe Reinhardt Eduard Desloges Joseph 2015 09 01 Late Holocene record of lagoon evolution climate change and hurricane activity from southeastern Cuba The Holocene 25 9 1483 1497 Bibcode 2015Holoc 25 1483P doi 10 1177 0959683615585844 ISSN 0959 6836 S2CID 140169114 Pouzet Pierre Maanan Mohamed Piotrowska Natalia Baltzer Agnes Stephan Pierre Robin Marc 1 August 2018 Chronology of Holocene storm events along the European Atlantic coast New data from the Island of Yeu France PDF Progress in Physical Geography Earth and Environment 42 4 431 450 doi 10 1177 0309133318776500 ISSN 0309 1333 S2CID 134757491 Rodysill Jessica R Donnelly Jeffrey P Sullivan Richard Lane Philip D Toomey Michael Woodruff Jonathan D Hawkes Andrea D MacDonald Dana d Entremont Nicole McKeon Kelly Wallace Elizabeth van Hengstum Peter J 5 November 2020 Historically unprecedented Northern Gulf of Mexico hurricane activity from 650 to 1250 CE Scientific Reports 10 1 19092 Bibcode 2020NatSR 1019092R doi 10 1038 s41598 020 75874 0 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 7645782 PMID 33154412 Schmitt Dominik Gischler Eberhard Anselmetti Flavio S Vogel Hendrik 16 July 2020 Caribbean cyclone activity an annually resolved Common Era record Scientific Reports 10 1 11780 Bibcode 2020NatSR 1011780S doi 10 1038 s41598 020 68633 8 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 7367345 PMID 32678192 Scileppi Elyse Donnelly Jeffrey P June 2007 Sedimentary evidence of hurricane strikes in western Long Island New York HURRICANE STRIKES IN NEW YORK Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 8 6 n a doi 10 1029 2006GC001463 hdl 1912 1786 S2CID 52888698 Sullivan Richard M Jeffrey P Donnelly Woodruff Jonathan D Brandon Christine M 2014 12 08 How Unique was Hurricane Sandy Sedimentary Reconstructions of Extreme Flooding from New York Harbor Scientific Reports 4 7366 Bibcode 2014NatSR 4E7366B doi 10 1038 srep07366 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 4258685 PMID 25482298 Tao Shichen Liu Kam biu Yu Kefu Shi Qi Yan Hongqiang Zhang Huiling Wang Luo Huang Zhongzhou Chen Tegu 2021 Poleward Shift in Tropical Cyclone Tracks in the Northwest Pacific During Warm Periods Past and Future Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 36 12 e2021PA004367 Bibcode 2021PaPa 36 4367T doi 10 1029 2021PA004367 ISSN 2572 4525 S2CID 244697663 Toomey Michael R Donnelly Jeffrey P Tierney Jessica E April 2016 South Pacific hydrologic and cyclone variability during the last 3000 years PACIFIC RAINFALL AND CYCLONES Paleoceanography 31 4 491 504 doi 10 1002 2015PA002870 hdl 10150 614773 Travis John 2000 Hunting prehistoric hurricanes Storm tossed sand offers a record of ancient cyclones Science News 157 21 333 335 doi 10 2307 4012513 ISSN 1943 0930 JSTOR 4012513 Wallace E J Donnelly J P Hengstum P J Wiman C Sullivan R M Winkler T S d Entremont N E Toomey M Albury N 19 October 2019 Intense hurricane activity over the past 1500 years at South Andros Island The Bahamas Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 34 11 1761 1783 Bibcode 2019PaPa 34 1761W doi 10 1029 2019PA003665 Wallace E J Coats S Emanuel K A Donnelly J P 6 December 2020 Centennial scale shifts in storm frequency captured in paleohurricane records from The Bahamas arise predominantly from random variability Geophysical Research Letters 48 doi 10 1029 2020GL091145 Wallace E J Donnelly J P Hengstum P J van Winkler T S McKeon K MacDonald D d Entremont N E Sullivan R M Woodruff J D Hawkes A D Maio C 2021 1 050 years of Hurricane Strikes on Long Island in The Bahamas Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 36 3 e2020PA004156 Bibcode 2021PaPa 36 4156W doi 10 1029 2020PA004156 ISSN 2572 4525 S2CID 233915635 Wallace Elizabeth Donnelly Jeffrey van Hengstum Peter Winkler Tyler Dizon Charmille LaBella Alexandra Lopez Isabella d Entremont Nicole Sullivan Richard Woodruff Jonathan Hawkes Andrea Maio Christopher 15 September 2021 Regional shifts in paleohurricane activity over the last 1500 years derived from blue hole sediments offshore of Middle Caicos Island Quaternary Science Reviews 268 107126 Bibcode 2021QSRv 26807126W doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2021 107126 ISSN 0277 3791 Williams Harry F L February 2013 600 year sedimentary archive of hurricane strikes in a prograding beach ridge plain southwestern Louisiana Marine Geology 336 170 183 Bibcode 2013MGeol 336 170W doi 10 1016 j margeo 2012 12 005 Williams Harry Choowong Montri Phantuwongraj Sumet Surakietchai Peerasit Thongkhao Thanakrit Kongsen Stapana Simon Eric February 2016 Geologic records of Holocene typhoon strikes on the Gulf of Thailand coast Marine Geology 372 66 78 Bibcode 2016MGeol 372 66W doi 10 1016 j margeo 2015 12 014 Woodruff Jonathan D Donnelly Jeffrey P Okusu Akiko August 2009 Exploring typhoon variability over the mid to late Holocene evidence of extreme coastal flooding from Kamikoshiki Japan Quaternary Science Reviews 28 17 18 1774 1785 Bibcode 2009QSRv 28 1774W doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2009 02 005 hdl 1912 2988 van Hengstum Peter J Donnelly Jeffrey P Toomey Michael R Albury Nancy A Lane Philip Kakuk Brian September 2014 Heightened hurricane activity on the Little Bahama Bank from 1350 to 1650 AD Continental Shelf Research 86 103 115 Bibcode 2014CSR 86 103V doi 10 1016 j csr 2013 04 032 van Hengstum Peter J Donnelly Jeffrey P Kingston Andrew W Williams Bruce E Scott David B Reinhardt Eduard G Little Shawna N Patterson William P February 2015 Low frequency storminess signal at Bermuda linked to cooling events in the North Atlantic region Paleoceanography 30 2 52 76 Bibcode 2015PalOc 30 52V doi 10 1002 2014PA002662 hdl 1912 7256 S2CID 128392417 Xiong Haixian Huang Guangqing Fu Shuqing Qian Peng 2018 06 01 Progress in the Study of Coastal Storm Deposits Ocean Science Journal 53 2 149 164 Bibcode 2018OSJ 53 149X doi 10 1007 s12601 018 0019 x ISSN 2005 7172 S2CID 90195591 Xiong Haixian Zong Yongqiang Huang Guangqing Fu Shuqing 2020 Seabed erosion and deposition related to the typhoon activity of the past millennium on the southeast coast of China Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 45 8 1695 1704 Bibcode 2020ESPL 45 1695X doi 10 1002 esp 4839 ISSN 1096 9837 S2CID 214031157 Yang Yang Zhou Liang Normandeau Alexandre Jia Jianjun Yin Qijun Wang Ya Ping Shi Benwei Gao Lei Gao Shu 1 November 2020 Exploring records of typhoon variability in eastern China over the past 2000 years GSA Bulletin 132 11 12 2243 2252 Bibcode 2020GSAB 132 2243Y doi 10 1130 B35600 1 ISSN 0016 7606 S2CID 216257826 Yao Qiang Liu Kam biu Rodrigues Erika Bianchette Thomas Aragon Moreno Alejandro Antonio Zhang Zhenqing August 2020 A Geochemical Record of Late Holocene Hurricane Events From the Florida Everglades Water Resources Research 56 8 Bibcode 2020WRR 5626857Y doi 10 1029 2019WR026857 Yue Yuanfu Yu Kefu Tao Shichen Zhang Huiling Liu Guohui Wang Ning Jiang Wei Fan Tianla Lin Wuhui May 2019 3500 year western Pacific storm record warns of additional storm activity in a warming warm pool Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 521 57 71 Bibcode 2019PPP 521 57Y doi 10 1016 j palaeo 2019 02 009 S2CID 134190655 Zinke Jens Latif Mojib Keenlyside Noel Dullo Wolf Christian Pfeiffer Miriam Hetzinger Steffen 2008 01 01 Caribbean coral tracks Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation and past hurricane activity Geology 36 1 11 14 Bibcode 2008Geo 36 11H doi 10 1130 G24321A 1 ISSN 0091 7613 Zhou Liang Gao Shu Yang Yang Zhao Yangyang Han Zhuochen Li Gaocong Jia Peihong Yin Yong 2017 04 01 Typhoon events recorded in coastal lagoon deposits southeastern Hainan Island Acta Oceanologica Sinica 36 4 37 45 doi 10 1007 s13131 016 0918 6 ISSN 1869 1099 S2CID 133346862 Zhou Liang Yang Yang Wang Zhanghua Jia Jianjun Mao Longjiang Li Zhanhai Fang Xin Gao Shu 1 October 2019 Investigating ENSO and WPWP modulated typhoon variability in the South China Sea during the mid late Holocene using sedimentological evidence from southeastern Hainan Island China Marine Geology 416 105987 Bibcode 2019MGeol 416j5987Z doi 10 1016 j margeo 2019 105987 ISSN 0025 3227 S2CID 199843694 Zhou Liang Gao Shu Jia Jianjun Zhang Yuzhu Yang Yang Mao Longjiang Fang Xin Shulmeister James 1 October 2019 Extracting historic cyclone data from coastal dune deposits in eastern Hainan Island China Sedimentary Geology 392 105524 Bibcode 2019SedG 39205524Z doi 10 1016 j sedgeo 2019 105524 ISSN 0037 0738 S2CID 203103902 Further reading EditElsner James B Kara A Birol 1999 Hurricanes of the North Atlantic Climate and Society New York Oxford University Press pp 49 51 378 ISBN 978 0 19 512508 5 Huang Yun 2009 01 01 Sediment records of modern and prehistoric hurricane strikes in Weeks Bay Alabama LSU Master s Theses doi 10 31390 gradschool theses 1922 S2CID 135330841 Kar Devyani 2010 01 01 Integration of paleotempestology with coastal risk and vulnerability assessment case studies from the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua LSU Doctoral Dissertations doi 10 31390 gradschool dissertations 2009 S2CID 134409924 Knowles Jason 2004 01 01 Coastal lake sediment records of prehistoric hurricane strikes in Honduras and Turks and Caicos Islands of the Caribbean basin LSU Master s Theses doi 10 31390 gradschool theses 3433 S2CID 134921929 Liu Kam biu 2004 Paleotempestology Principles Methods and Examples from Gulf Coast Lake Sediments In Murnane R J Liu Kam biu eds Hurricanes and Typhoons Past Present and Future New York Columbia University Press pp 13 57 ISBN 978 0 231 12388 4 Liu Kam biu 2007 Paleotempestology In Elias Scott A ed Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science Vol 3 Amsterdam Elsevier pp 1978 1986 ISBN 978 0 444 51922 1 Nott Jonathan 2004 Palaeotempestology the study of prehistoric tropical cyclones a review and implications for hazard assessment Environment International 30 3 433 447 doi 10 1016 j envint 2003 09 010 PMID 14987874 Revkin Andrew C July 24 2001 Experts Unearth a Stormy Past The New York Times External links EditWestern North Atlantic Basin 8 000 Year palaeotempestology Database 2018 palaeotempestology Resource Center Shipwrecks tree rings and hurricanes Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Paleotempestology amp oldid 1136183061, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.