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Legacy of Napoleon

January 01, 1970

French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) has a highly polarized legacy—Napoleon is typically loved or hated with few nuances. The large and steadily expanding historiography in French, English, Russian, Spanish and other languages has been summarized and evaluated by numerous scholars.[1][2][3]

Napoleon Crossing the Alps, romantic version by Jacques-Louis David in 1805
Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, realist version by Paul Delaroche in 1848

Legacy and evaluation edit

Harsh criticism edit

 
The Third of May 1808 by Francisco Goya, attacks Napoleon by showing Spanish resisters being executed by his brutal soldiers.

In the political realm, historians debate whether Napoleon was "an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe" or "a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler".[4] Napoleon had grandiose foreign policy ambitions across Europe and the Americas.[citation needed] The Continental powers as late as 1808 were willing to give him nearly all of his gains and titles, but he was overly aggressive and pushed for too much, until his empire collapsed.[5][6]

Although Napoleon did end lawlessness and disorder in post-Revolutionary France, his enemies attacked him as a tyrant and usurper.[7] His critics charge that he was not troubled when faced with the prospect of war and death for thousands, turned his search for undisputed rule into a series of conflicts throughout Europe and ignored treaties and conventions alike. His role in the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery in France's overseas colonies are controversial and affect his reputation.[8]

French liberal intellectual Benjamin Constant (1767–1830) was a staunch critique of the political homogenization and personality cult that dominated Napoleonic France. He expressed his condemnation of Bonapartism through various books, including as "The Spirit of Conquest and Usurpation" (1814) and "Principles of Politics Applicable to All Representative Governments" (1815). Constant asserted that Napoleonic regime was even more tyrannical than the Bourbon monarchy, since it forced the masses to support its ideological narratives through imperialism and jingoism.[9]

Napoleon institutionalized plunder of conquered territories: he loaded French museums with art stolen from across Europe. Artefacts were brought to the Musée du Louvre for a grand central museum; an example which would later be followed by others.[10] Claude Ribbe in 2005 argued that his racism toward blacks inspired Hitler in his treatment of Jews.[11] David G. Chandler, a historian of Napoleonic warfare, wrote in 1973 that, "Nothing could be more degrading to the former [Napoleon] and more flattering to the latter [Hitler]. The comparison is odious. On the whole Napoleon was inspired by a noble dream, wholly dissimilar from Hitler's ... Napoleon left great and lasting testimonies to his genius—in codes of law and national identities which survive to the present day. Adolf Hitler left nothing but destruction."[12]

Critics argue Napoleon's true legacy must reflect the loss of status for France and needless deaths brought by his rule: historian Victor Davis Hanson writes, "After all, the military record is unquestioned—17 years of wars, perhaps six million Europeans dead, France bankrupt, her overseas colonies lost."[13]

McLynn states that, "He can be viewed as the man who set back European economic life for a generation by the dislocating impact of his wars."[7] Vincent Cronin replies that such criticism relies on the flawed premise that Napoleon was responsible for the wars which bear his name, when in fact France was the victim of a series of coalitions that aimed to destroy the ideals of the Revolution.[14]

British military historian Correlli Barnett calls him "a social misfit" who exploited France for his personal megalomaniac goals. He says Napoleon's reputation is exaggerated.[15] French scholar Jean Tulard provided an influential account of his image as a saviour.[16] Louis Bergeron [fr] has praised the numerous changes he made to French society, especially regarding the law as well as education.[17] His greatest failure was the Russian invasion. Many historians have blamed Napoleon's poor planning, but Russian scholars instead emphasize the Russian response, noting the notorious winter weather was just as hard on the defenders.[18]

American historian Paul Schroeder (1927–2020) is willing to grant that Napoleon was a genius regarding "military, administrative, organizational, political, even literary [efforts]....[with] an extraordinary capacity for planning, decision making, memory, work, mastery of detail, and leadership." The problem is that he used this genius for criminal ends:

...he repeatedly and deliberately violated the neutrality of small states; that he resorted to judicial arrests and murders against foreign subjects; that he ordered his generals and satraps to use preventive terror to control their domains; that he not only conquered and suppressed other states in war, but also used tactics of bullying, manipulation, and extortion on them in times of peace, almost without regard to whether they were hostile or friendly; that he frequently violated understandings, promises, and treaty commitments; that on principle he ruthlessly subordinated the interests of all the states and peoples he ruled to those of France and ultimately of himself personally....[and so on].[19]

Propaganda and memory edit

Main article: Napoleonic propaganda
 
Reproduction in amber of David's Napoleon Crossing the Alps

Napoleon's use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his régime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling aspects of the press, books, theatre, and art were part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and to the atmosphere of Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered a relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and controlling different forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals.[20]

In Britain, Russia and across Europe—though not in France—Napoleon was a popular topic of caricature.[21][22][23]

After Nazi Germany conquered France in 1940, Hitler marched in triumph in Paris and paid homage to Napoleon at Les Invalides.

French remembrance and evaluation edit

 
Reenactment of the entry of Napoleon to Gdańsk after siege

Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory are best understood. They played a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815–1830. People from different walks of life and areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 Revolution.[24]

 
Medallion showing Napoléon in exile on St Helena, Paris 1840

Widespread rumours of Napoleon's return from St. Helena and Napoleon as an inspiration for patriotism, individual and collective liberties, and political mobilization manifested themselves in seditious materials, displaying the tricolor and rosettes. There were also subversive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleon's life and reign and disrupting royal celebrations—they demonstrated the prevailing and successful goal of the varied supporters of Napoleon to constantly destabilize the Bourbon regime.[25]

Datta (2005) shows that, following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on two plays and two novels from the period—Victorien Sardou's Madame Sans-Gêne (1893), Maurice Barrès's Les Déracinés (1897), Edmond Rostand's L'Aiglon (1900), and André de Lorde and Gyp's Napoléonette (1913)—Datta examines how writers and critics of the Belle Époque exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends.[26]

International Napoleonic Congresses take place regularly, with participation by members of the French and American military, French politicians and scholars from different countries.[27]

Napoleon died on May 5, 1821. The anniversary 200 years later on May 5, 2021, saw France deeply divided over his memory and heritage.[28]

President Charles de Gaulle disapproved of Napoleon. While noting Napoleon's genius, de Gaulle wrote that "he left France smaller than he had found her".[29]: xlvi, 616–618  Other French presidents have usually avoided mention of Napoleon; for a conservative to praise him would often mean counterattacks from the left, and vice versa for left-wing politicians who are typically critical of the emperor. President Emmanuel Macron has praised him, saying that "Napoleon is the man who gave shape to our political and administrative organization, to the uncertain sovereignty that emerged from the Revolution....After months of failure, with France besieged, Napoleon was able to incarnate order."[30] The remarks were criticized, especially on the issues of Haiti, slavery and race. Macron subsequently clarified his comments, stating that the restoration of slavery in 1802 was a “mistake, a betrayal of the spirit of the Enlightenment.”[31]

Long-term influence outside France edit

Main article: Influence of the French Revolution

Napoleon was responsible for spreading the values of the French Revolution to other countries, especially in legal reform.[32] Napoleon did not touch serfdom in Russia.[33]

After the fall of Napoleon, not only was the Napoleonic Code retained by conquered countries including the Netherlands, Belgium, parts of Italy and Germany, but has been used as the basis of certain parts of law outside Europe including the Dominican Republic, the US state of Louisiana and the Canadian province of Quebec.[34] The code was also used as a model in many parts of Latin America.[35]

The memory of Napoleon in Poland is favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.[36]

Napoleon indirectly began the process of Latin American independence when he invaded Spain in 1808. The abdication of King Charles IV and his son, Ferdinand VII created a power vacuum that was filled by native born political leaders such as Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín. Such leaders embraced nationalistic sentiments that were influenced by French nationalism and fought for independence which ultimately succeeded.[37]

Everett Rummage says Napoleon, “is nearly synonymous with the spread of the modern bureaucratic state, not only the institutions themselves, but the modern outlook that goes with them: meritocracy, liberal property rights, public service and equality before the law.”[38]

Germany edit

Further information: German Romanticism
 
Caspar David Friedrich - Wanderer above the Sea of Fog

Napoleon's disruptions of the old order created the space in which modern Germany was created. According to Katherine Aaslestad and Karen Hagemann:[39]

1806 was a transformative year for German central Europe. It brought humiliating military defeat and occupation for Prussia, the demise of the Holy Roman Empire, and a complete territorial and structural reorganization for the region. Historians have long viewed this reorganization as essential for the rise of German nationalism, state-building, and modernization.

For example, British historian T. C. W. Blanning argues that Napoleon's actions in Germany did speed up the emergence of a German national consciousness; on the other hand it did nothing to modernize Germany's governance, economy, or culture.[40][41]

A major product of the French occupation was a strong development in German nationalism which eventually turned the German Confederation into the German Empire after a series of conflicts and other political developments. German Romanticism was nationalistic and therefore became hostile to the ideals French Revolution. Major Romantic thinkers especially Ernst Moritz Arndt (1769-1860), Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814), Heinrich von Kleist (1777-1811), and Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) embraced reactionary politics and were hostile to political liberalism, rationalism, neoclassicism, and cosmopolitanism.[42] German politician Carl Theodor Welcker (1790 – 1869) described Napoleon as "the greatest Maestro of Machiavellism".[43]

In recent decades German historiography has shifted from nationalism to a pan-European viewpoint, opening the way for more favourable treatment of the Emperor. Most recent scholars reject the old notion of separate national paths typified by models of the German "Sonderweg" or the French "singularité française."[44]

Napoleon installed his relatives in power across the expanded empire. Jérôme Bonaparte, the youngest brother, became King of Westphalia and has the reputation of a playboy. However Owen Connelly examines the financial, military, and administrative performance to conclude that he was loyal, useful, and a soldierly asset to Napoleon.[45]

Poland edit

Emperor Napoleon left a significant mark on Polish National Romanticism. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was partitioned between Austria, Prussia and Russia in 1795, while Napoleon was rising in France. From the beginning Napoleon showed great sympathy for the cause of Polish independence, and declared the restoration of and independent Poland as one of his goals.

 
Emperor Napoleon granting the constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw.

After defeating the Kingdom of Prussia, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw, a Polish State. Bonaparte regarded the Poles as his most loyal subjects and allies. Many Polish generals and leaders, such as Józef Poniatowski and Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, which are regarded as Polish National heroes, fought alongside Napoleon, with the goal of restoring the ancient Polish State.

Many Polish Legionaires followed Napoleon into exile to Elba, and returned with him to France. Famously, Józef Poniatowski and many of his Polish Lancers died fighting for Napoleon in Leipzig.

 
Polish Uhlans of the 1st Imperial Lancer Regiment in Elba.

Today, Napoleon is remembered in Poland as an important figure in the fight for independence, even being mentioned in the 2nd stanca of the Polish National Anthem.

United States edit

Main article: Louisiana Purchase
 
Bas-relief of Napoleon in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives
 
Louisiana Purchase

Napoleon significantly aided the United States when he agreed to sell the territory of Louisiana for $15 million during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson. The sale meant that his archenemy Great Britain would not get the land. That territory opened the area west of the Mississippi River and almost doubled the size of the United States.[46]

The New England Federalists who had strongly opposed the French Revolution in the 1790s celebrated in 1815 that the old Bourbon kings had been restored.[47]

Napoleon's memory was salient in the 1820s and 1830s. Americans read his biographies, looked at exhibits—especially copies of Jacques-Louis David's painting of his coronation. American tourists in France looked for his memorials.[48] On the other hand, Thomas Jefferson hated Napoleon for killing off republicanism in France and returning to monarchy.[49] As presidents, Jefferson and Madison were at several points on the verge of war with Napoleon before 1812 in response to violations of America's neutral rights such as seizing ships and cargoes and imprisoning sailors. Finally, Madison made the decision to fight only Britain.[50]

The art and politics of painting Napoleon edit

Main article: Cultural depictions of Napoleon
 
Bonaparte at the pont d'Arcole by Antoine-Jean Gros, 1796

Napoleon has become a worldwide cultural icon generally associated with tactical brilliance, ambition and political power. His distinctive features and costume have made him a very recognizable figure in popular culture. He has been portrayed in many works of fiction, his depiction varying greatly with the author's perception of the historical character. In the 1927 film Napoleon, young general Bonaparte is portrayed as a heroic visionary. On the other hand, he has been occasionally reduced to a stock character, depicted as short and bossy, sometimes comically so.[51]

Antoine-Jean Gros (1771–1835) witnessed the Battle of Arcole (1796) and painted a portrait that pleased Napoleon. After travelling with Napoleon's army, Gros produced several large paintings of battles and other events in Napoleon's life. Napoléon on the Battlefield of Eylau was a realistic portrayal of the horrors of war.[52] According to Jill Morris, Napoleon commissioned Gros to paint Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) to neutralize British propaganda. The propaganda focused on two episodes of the Egyptian campaign (1798-1800). First when he ordered the massacre of Turkish prisoners. Second when he ordered the death by poison of French soldiers suffering from the plague. The painting showed a compassionate Napoleon visiting the sick at the plague hospital. Morris adds that Gros was probably using the disease as a metaphor for the vanity of Napoleon and his First Empire.[53]

 
Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne, Ingres, 1806

Jacques-Louis David already was well established in 1799 when he met Napoleon. He was commissioned to commemorate the daring crossing of the Alps. The crossing had allowed the French to surprise the Austrian army and win victory at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800. Although Napoleon had crossed on a mule, he wanted to be portrayed "calm upon a fiery steed". David complied, creating five versions of Napoleon Crossing the Saint-Bernard. After the proclamation of the Empire in 1804, David became the official court painter of the regime.

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780–1867) was a neoclassical painter whose famous portrait of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne, 1806, consists of a head but practically nothing of his body. It concentrated almost entirely on the lavish imperial costume that Napoleon had chosen to wear, and the symbols of power he held. The scepter of Charles V, the sword of Charlemagne the rich fabrics, furs and capes, crown of gold leaves, golden chains and emblems were all presented in extremely precise detail; the Emperor's face and hands were almost lost in the majestic costume. For Susan Siegfried (2006), the painting shows not just a man but the complexity and glory of his new empire. The insignia conveys the inter-relations of old French traditions and the new imperial formation, an empire for which Napoleon provided the brain but many others ultimately helped create.[54] Siegfried argues that before 1789 royal portraits focused on the king's body. However,

“in the wake of the French Revolution, the signification of kingship began to be displaced from the body of the ruler to the trappings of rule. In the case of Ingres's remarkable portrait … the sacrality of the new ruler was displaced to the secular realm of history and, more specifically, to the pose, insignia, and costume that denoted the emperor's status....“The state was no longer equated with the person or the body Napoleon as the speaking subject …, but rather with the nation, via its history.”[55]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Robert S. Alexander, Napoleon (Oxford University Press, 2001), examines major debates among historians.
  2. ^ E.A. Arnold, "English Language Napoleonic Historiography, 1973–1998: Thoughts and Considerations". Proceedings-Western Society for French History, Vol. 26 (2000). pp. 283–94.
  3. ^ John Dunne, "Recent Napoleonic Historiography: 'Poor Relation' Makes Good?" French History (2004) 18#4 pp. 484–91.
  4. ^ Max Hastings, "Everything is Owed to Glory" The Wall Street Journal (31 October 2014)
  5. ^ Charles Esdaile, Napoleon's Wars: An International History 1803–1815 (2008), p. 39
  6. ^ Colin S. Gray, War, Peace and International Relations: An Introduction to Strategic History (2007) p. 47 online
  7. ^ a b McLynn, 1998, p. 666
  8. ^ Alexander, (2001) pp. 74–76.
  9. ^ Bourke, Skinner, Richard, Quentin; Garstan, Bryan (2016). "10: From popular sovereignty to civil society in post-revolutionary France". Popular Sovereignty in Historical Perspective. University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 254–255, 258–259. ISBN 978-1-107-13040-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Dorothy Mackay Quynn, "The art confiscations of the Napoleonic wars." American Historical Review 50.3 (1945): 437-460.
  11. ^ Philip Dwyer, "Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France: Napoleon, Slavery, and the French History Wars", French Politics, Culture & Society (2008) 26#3. pp. 110–22. JSTOR 42843569
  12. ^ David Chandler, David. The Campaigns of Napoleon (1973) p. xliii
  13. ^ Hanson 2003
  14. ^ Cronin 1994, pp. 342–43
  15. ^ Correlli Barnett, Bonaparte (1978)
  16. ^ Jean Tulard, Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour (1984)
  17. ^ Bergeron, Louis (1981). France Under Napoleon. Princeton U.P. ISBN 978-0-691-00789-2.
  18. ^ Dominic Lieven, "Review article: Russia and the defeat of Napoleon." Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History (2006) 7#2 pp. 283–308.
  19. ^ Schroeder, (1990) p 148, 149.
  20. ^ Alan Forrest, "Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France". French History, 2004 18(4): 426–45
  21. ^ Hubert N.B. Richardson, A Dictionary of Napoleon and His Times (1921) online free pp. 101–06.
  22. ^ Mark, Bryant, "Broadsides against Boney." History Today 60.1 (2010): 52+
  23. ^ Mark Bryant, Napoleonic Wars in Cartoons (Grub Street, 2009).
  24. ^ Sudhir Hazareesingh, "Memory and Political Imagination: the Legend of Napoleon Revisited". French History, 2004 18(4): 463–83
  25. ^ Hazareesingh, (2004).
  26. ^ Venita Datta, "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque". French Historical Studies 2005 28(1): 1–30
  27. ^ . La Fondation Napoléon. Archived from the original on 8 January 2009. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
  28. ^ Roger Cohen, "France Battles Over Whether to Cancel or Celebrate Napoleon: President Emmanuel Macron laid a wreath at the emperor's tomb on the 200th anniversary of his death, stepping into a national debate over the legacy of Napoleon." The New York Times May 5, 2021
  29. ^ Jackson, Julian (2018). A Certain Idea of France: The Life of Charles de Gaulle. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 9780674987210.
  30. ^ Roger Cohen, "Macron Condemns Napoleon's Restoration of Slavery, 200 Years Later: The French president's speech on the 200th anniversary of the emperor's death combined a rebuke for a betrayal of the Enlightenment and recognition of his achievements. The New York Times May 6, 2021
  31. ^ Cohen (2021).
  32. ^ Grab, Alexander (2003). Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-68275-3, country by country analysis
  33. ^ Lazar Volin (1970) A century of Russian agriculture. From Alexander II to Khrushchev, p. 25. Harvard University Press
  34. ^ "Napoleonic Code". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on 29 December 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
  35. ^ Lobingier, Charles Sumner (December 1918). "Napoleon and His Code". Harvard Law Review. 32 (2): 114–134. doi:10.2307/1327640. ISSN 0017-811X. JSTOR 1327640.
  36. ^ Andrzej Nieuwazny, "Napoleon and Polish identity". History Today, May 1998 vol. 48 no. 5 pp. 50–55
  37. ^ "The Crisis of 1808". www.brown.edu. Brown University. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
  38. ^ Quoted in Ishaan Tharoor, "We're still living in the age of Napoleon" The Washington Post May 6, 2021
  39. ^ Katherine Aaslestad and Karen Hagemann, "1806 and its Aftermath: Revisiting the Period of the Napoleonic Wars in German Central European Historiography.” Central European History 39#4 (2006), pp. 547–579. JSTOR 20457177
  40. ^ Tim Blanning, "Napoleon and German identity." History Today (1998) 48#4 pp 37–43 [ online].
  41. ^ Timothy C. W. Blanning, "The French Revolution and the Modernization of Germany." Central European History 22.2 (1989): 109-129.
  42. ^ Siegfried Heit and Otto W. Johnston, "German Romanticism: An Ideological Response to Napoleon." Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings (1980), Vol. 9, p187-197.
  43. ^ Bourke, Skinner, Richard, Quentin; Kelly, Duncan (2016). "11: Popular sovereignty as state theory in the nineteenth century". Popular Sovereignty in Historical Perspective. University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 280–281. ISBN 978-1-107-13040-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ Daniel Schönpflug, "So far, and yet so near: comparison, transfer and memory in recent German books on the age of the French revolution and Napoleon." French History 18.4 (2004): 446-462. https://doi.org/10.1093/fh/18.4.446
  45. ^ Owen Connelly, "Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia." History Today (Sep 1964) 14#9 pp 627-633.
  46. ^ Piero Gleijeses, "Napoleon, Jefferson, and the Louisiana Purchase." International History Review 39.2 (2017): 237-255.
  47. ^ Howard M. Jones, America and French Culture, 1750-1848 (1927) p. 558 online
  48. ^ Nadine Klopfer, "Remembering Napoleon: Americans and the French Emperor in the 1820s and 1830s." Early American Studies 18.4 (2020): 525-560.
  49. ^ Joseph I. Shulim, "Thomas Jefferson Views Napoleon." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 60.2 (1952): 288-304.
  50. ^ Lawrence S. Kaplan, "France and the War of 1812" Journal of American History (1970) 57#1 pp. 36-47; JSTOR 1900548
  51. ^ Sudhir Hazareesingh, The legend of Napoleon (Granta, 2005).
  52. ^ David O'Brien, After the Revolution: Antoine-Jean Gros, Painting & Propaganda under Napoleon (2006).
  53. ^ P. Jill Morse, "The Medics in A. J. Gros's 'Bonaparte At The Pest House At Jaffa.'" Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers (2000), pp 147–164.
  54. ^ Todd Porterfield, and Susan Siegfried, Staging Empire: Napoleon, Ingres, and David (Penn State Press, 2006) p. 38 excerpt
  55. ^ Porterfield, and Siegfried, Staging Empire, pp 25, 29.

Further reading edit

Biographies in English edit

  • Cronin, Vincent. Napoleon (HarperCollins, 1994), biography online
  • Englund, Steven. Napoleon (2003) biography; online
  • McLynn, Frank. Napoleon (1998), hostile biography. online
  • Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon: A Life. (Penguin, 2014), favorable biography.
  • Thompson, J.M. (1951). Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall. Oxford U.P., 412 pp.; by an Oxford scholar
  • de Méneval, Claude-François (1910). de Méneval, Napoléon Joseph Erenst; Collier, Peter Fenelon (eds.). Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte: The Court of the First Empire (PDF). Vol. II. New York City, United States of America: P.F. Collier & Son Publishers. ISBN 9781355218760. OCLC 566100622. Retrieved 15 June 2021 – via Internet Archive., favorable biography.

Memory and evaluations edit

  • Alexander, Robert S. Napoleon (Oxford UP, 2001), examines major debates among historians.
  • Arnold, E.A. "English Language Napoleonic Historiography, 1973–1998: Thoughts and Considerations". Proceedings-Western Society for French History, Vol. 26 (2000). pp. 283–94. online
  • Blanning, T. C. W. “The French Revolution and the Modernization of Germany.” Central European History 22#2 (1989), pp. 109–129. JSTOR 4546142
  • Chew III, William L. "Yankee Observers, Napoleon, and American Exceptionalism." Napoleonica LaRevue 1 (2011): 23–48. online
  • Cohen, Roger. "France Battles Over Whether to Cancel or Celebrate Napoleon: President Emmanuel Macron laid a wreath at the emperor's tomb on the 200th anniversary of his death, stepping into a national debate over the legacy of Napoleon." The New York Times May 5, 2021
  • de Bertier de Sauvigny, Guillaume. "The American Press and the Fall of Napoleon in 1814." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 98: 5 (1954): 337–376. JSTOR 3143913
  • Dunne, John. "Recent Napoleonic Historiography: 'Poor Relation' Makes Good?" French History (2004) 18#4 pp. 484–91. doi:10.1093/fh/18.4.484
  • Dwyer, Philip G. (2004). "Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Saviour: Image, Rhetoric and Behaviour in the Construction of a Legend". French History. 18 (4): 379–403. doi:10.1093/fh/18.4.379.
  • Dwyer, Philip (2008). "Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France: Napoleon, Slavery, and the French History Wars". French Politics, Culture & Society. 26 (3): 110–22. doi:10.3167/fpcs.2008.260306.
  • Englund, Steven. "Napoleon and Hitler". Journal of the Historical Society (2006) 6#1 pp. 151–69. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2006.00171.x
  • Englund, Steven. “Monstre Sacré: The Question of Cultural Imperialism and the Napoleonic Empire.” Historical Journal 51: 1 (2008): 215–250. JSTOR 20175154
  • Forrest, Alan, et al. eds. War Memories: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in Modern European Culture (2012)
  • Forrest, Alan, et al. eds. Soldiers, Citizens and Civilians: Experiences and Perceptions of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1790–1820 (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2009)
  • Geyl, Pieter (1982) [1947]. Napoleon For and Against. Penguin Books., considers major scholarly histories
  • Glad, Betty. “Why Tyrants Go Too Far: Malignant Narcissism and Absolute Power.” Political Psychology 23: 1 (2002): 1-37. online
  • Hagemann, Karen. Revisiting Prussia's Wars against Napoleon: History, Culture, and Memory (2015)
  • Hanson, Victor Davis (2003). "The Little Tyrant, A review of Napoleon: A Penguin Life". The Claremont Institute.
  • Hazareesingh, Sudhir (2005). The Legend of Napoleon. excerpt and text search
    • Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Memory and Political Imagination: The Legend of Napoleon Revisited", French History (2004) 18#4 pp. 463–83.
    • Hazareesingh, Sudhir (2005). "Napoleonic Memory in Nineteenth-Century France: The Making of a Liberal Legend". Modern Language Notes. 120 (4): 747–73. doi:10.1353/mln.2005.0119. S2CID 154508777.
  • Klopfer, Nadine. "Remembering Napoleon: Americans and the French Emperor in the 1820s and 1830s." Early American Studies 18.4 (2020): 525–560. excerpt
  • Luke, Tarah Lorraine. "‘Our Bonaparte?’: Republicanism, Religion, and Paranoia in New England and the Mid-Atlantic, 1789–1830." (Ph D dissertation 2016, Florida State U.) online.
  • O'Flaherty, Kathleen. "The Genesis of the Napoleonic Legend." Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review 58.231 (1969): 256-266. JSTOR 30087873, regarding French literature
  • Schönpflug, Daniel. "So far, and yet so near: comparison, transfer and memory in recent German books on the age of the French revolution and Napoleon." French History 18.4 (2004): 446-462. doi:10.1093/fh/18.4.446
  • Schroeder, Paul W. “Napoleon's Foreign Policy: A Criminal Enterprise.” Journal of Military History 54: 2 (1990): 147–162. JSTOR 1986040
  • Shulim, Joseph I. “Thomas Jefferson Views Napoleon.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 60:2 (1952): 288–304. {{jstor}4245839}}
  • Woolf, Stuart. “The Construction of a European World-View in the Revolutionary-Napoleonic Years.” Past & Present 137 (1992): 72-101. JSTOR 650852
 
Historical painter encouraged by the government, 1814 caricature.

Art edit

  • Broadley, Alexander Meyrick (1911). Napoleon in Caricature 1795-1821. John Lane, 1911 Caricature.
  • Carruthers, H. A. Napoleon on campaign : classic images of Napoleon at war (Pen & Sword Military, 2014).
  • Datta, Venita. "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque". French Historical Studies 2005 28#1: 1–30.
  • Forrest, Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France". French History, 2004 18(4): 426–45.
  • Munhall, Edgar. "Portraits of Napoleon." Yale French Studies 26 (1960): 3-20. JSTOR 2929218
  • O'Brien, David. "Propaganda and the Republic of the Arts in Antoine-Jean Gros's Napoleon visiting the Battlefield of Eylau the Morning after the Battle." French Historical Studies 26.2 (2003): 281-314.
  • Porterfield, Todd, and Susan Siegfried. Staging Empire: Napoleon, Ingres, and David (Penn State Press, 2006) online review.
  • Prendergast, Christopher. Napoleon and history painting: Antoine-Jean Gros's La bataille d'Eylau (Oxford UP, 1997).
  • Quynn, Dorothy Mackay. "The art confiscations of the Napoleonic wars." American Historical Review 50.3 (1945): 437-460. JSTOR 1843116
  • Rosenblum, R. "Inherited myths, unprecedented realities: Painting under Napoleon 1800-1814." Art in America (1975): 48-57. ISSN 0004-3214. Stresses its morbid, erotic, spectacular, and fantastic aspects.

External links edit

  • "Lesson of the Day: ‘France Battles Over Whether to Cancel or Celebrate Napoleon’ In this lesson, students will learn about the legacy of the former French emperor and debate to what extent he should be commemorated or criticized." New York Times, May 7, 2021
  • Napoleon Series
  • The Napoleonic Guide
  • International Napoleonic Society
  • Alan Schom Interview on his book Napoleon Bonaparte on Booknotes, 26 October 1997
  • Works by Legacy of Napoleon at Project Gutenberg
  • "Napoleon and Wellington", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts, Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton (In Our Time, 25 October 2001)

January 01, 1970
legacy, napoleon, french, emperor, napoleon, bonaparte, 1769, 1821, highly, polarized, legacy, napoleon, typically, loved, hated, with, nuances, large, steadily, expanding, historiography, french, english, russian, spanish, other, languages, been, summarized, . French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte 1769 1821 has a highly polarized legacy Napoleon is typically loved or hated with few nuances The large and steadily expanding historiography in French English Russian Spanish and other languages has been summarized and evaluated by numerous scholars 1 2 3 Napoleon Crossing the Alps romantic version by Jacques Louis David in 1805 Bonaparte Crossing the Alps realist version by Paul Delaroche in 1848 Contents 1 Legacy and evaluation 1 1 Harsh criticism 1 2 Propaganda and memory 1 2 1 French remembrance and evaluation 1 3 Long term influence outside France 1 3 1 Germany 1 3 2 Poland 1 3 3 United States 2 The art and politics of painting Napoleon 3 See also 4 Notes 5 Further reading 5 1 Biographies in English 5 2 Memory and evaluations 5 3 Art 6 External linksLegacy and evaluation editHarsh criticism edit nbsp The Third of May 1808 by Francisco Goya attacks Napoleon by showing Spanish resisters being executed by his brutal soldiers In the political realm historians debate whether Napoleon was an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe or a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler 4 Napoleon had grandiose foreign policy ambitions across Europe and the Americas citation needed The Continental powers as late as 1808 were willing to give him nearly all of his gains and titles but he was overly aggressive and pushed for too much until his empire collapsed 5 6 Although Napoleon did end lawlessness and disorder in post Revolutionary France his enemies attacked him as a tyrant and usurper 7 His critics charge that he was not troubled when faced with the prospect of war and death for thousands turned his search for undisputed rule into a series of conflicts throughout Europe and ignored treaties and conventions alike His role in the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery in France s overseas colonies are controversial and affect his reputation 8 French liberal intellectual Benjamin Constant 1767 1830 was a staunch critique of the political homogenization and personality cult that dominated Napoleonic France He expressed his condemnation of Bonapartism through various books including as The Spirit of Conquest and Usurpation 1814 and Principles of Politics Applicable to All Representative Governments 1815 Constant asserted that Napoleonic regime was even more tyrannical than the Bourbon monarchy since it forced the masses to support its ideological narratives through imperialism and jingoism 9 Napoleon institutionalized plunder of conquered territories he loaded French museums with art stolen from across Europe Artefacts were brought to the Musee du Louvre for a grand central museum an example which would later be followed by others 10 Claude Ribbe in 2005 argued that his racism toward blacks inspired Hitler in his treatment of Jews 11 David G Chandler a historian of Napoleonic warfare wrote in 1973 that Nothing could be more degrading to the former Napoleon and more flattering to the latter Hitler The comparison is odious On the whole Napoleon was inspired by a noble dream wholly dissimilar from Hitler s Napoleon left great and lasting testimonies to his genius in codes of law and national identities which survive to the present day Adolf Hitler left nothing but destruction 12 Critics argue Napoleon s true legacy must reflect the loss of status for France and needless deaths brought by his rule historian Victor Davis Hanson writes After all the military record is unquestioned 17 years of wars perhaps six million Europeans dead France bankrupt her overseas colonies lost 13 McLynn states that He can be viewed as the man who set back European economic life for a generation by the dislocating impact of his wars 7 Vincent Cronin replies that such criticism relies on the flawed premise that Napoleon was responsible for the wars which bear his name when in fact France was the victim of a series of coalitions that aimed to destroy the ideals of the Revolution 14 British military historian Correlli Barnett calls him a social misfit who exploited France for his personal megalomaniac goals He says Napoleon s reputation is exaggerated 15 French scholar Jean Tulard provided an influential account of his image as a saviour 16 Louis Bergeron fr has praised the numerous changes he made to French society especially regarding the law as well as education 17 His greatest failure was the Russian invasion Many historians have blamed Napoleon s poor planning but Russian scholars instead emphasize the Russian response noting the notorious winter weather was just as hard on the defenders 18 American historian Paul Schroeder 1927 2020 is willing to grant that Napoleon was a genius regarding military administrative organizational political even literary efforts with an extraordinary capacity for planning decision making memory work mastery of detail and leadership The problem is that he used this genius for criminal ends he repeatedly and deliberately violated the neutrality of small states that he resorted to judicial arrests and murders against foreign subjects that he ordered his generals and satraps to use preventive terror to control their domains that he not only conquered and suppressed other states in war but also used tactics of bullying manipulation and extortion on them in times of peace almost without regard to whether they were hostile or friendly that he frequently violated understandings promises and treaty commitments that on principle he ruthlessly subordinated the interests of all the states and peoples he ruled to those of France and ultimately of himself personally and so on 19 Propaganda and memory edit Main article Napoleonic propaganda nbsp Reproduction in amber of David s Napoleon Crossing the Alps Napoleon s use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power legitimated his regime and established his image for posterity Strict censorship controlling aspects of the press books theatre and art were part of his propaganda scheme aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and to the atmosphere of Napoleon s reign focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader Specifically targeting his civilian audience Napoleon fostered a relationship with the contemporary art community taking an active role in commissioning and controlling different forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals 20 In Britain Russia and across Europe though not in France Napoleon was a popular topic of caricature 21 22 23 After Nazi Germany conquered France in 1940 Hitler marched in triumph in Paris and paid homage to Napoleon at Les Invalides French remembrance and evaluation edit nbsp Reenactment of the entry of Napoleon to Gdansk after siege Hazareesingh 2004 explores how Napoleon s image and memory are best understood They played a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815 1830 People from different walks of life and areas of France particularly Napoleonic veterans drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 Revolution 24 nbsp Medallion showing Napoleon in exile on St Helena Paris 1840 Widespread rumours of Napoleon s return from St Helena and Napoleon as an inspiration for patriotism individual and collective liberties and political mobilization manifested themselves in seditious materials displaying the tricolor and rosettes There were also subversive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleon s life and reign and disrupting royal celebrations they demonstrated the prevailing and successful goal of the varied supporters of Napoleon to constantly destabilize the Bourbon regime 25 Datta 2005 shows that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture Concentrating on two plays and two novels from the period Victorien Sardou s Madame Sans Gene 1893 Maurice Barres s Les Deracines 1897 Edmond Rostand s L Aiglon 1900 and Andre de Lorde and Gyp s Napoleonette 1913 Datta examines how writers and critics of the Belle Epoque exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends 26 International Napoleonic Congresses take place regularly with participation by members of the French and American military French politicians and scholars from different countries 27 Napoleon died on May 5 1821 The anniversary 200 years later on May 5 2021 saw France deeply divided over his memory and heritage 28 President Charles de Gaulle disapproved of Napoleon While noting Napoleon s genius de Gaulle wrote that he left France smaller than he had found her 29 xlvi 616 618 Other French presidents have usually avoided mention of Napoleon for a conservative to praise him would often mean counterattacks from the left and vice versa for left wing politicians who are typically critical of the emperor President Emmanuel Macron has praised him saying that Napoleon is the man who gave shape to our political and administrative organization to the uncertain sovereignty that emerged from the Revolution After months of failure with France besieged Napoleon was able to incarnate order 30 The remarks were criticized especially on the issues of Haiti slavery and race Macron subsequently clarified his comments stating that the restoration of slavery in 1802 was a mistake a betrayal of the spirit of the Enlightenment 31 Long term influence outside France edit Main article Influence of the French Revolution Napoleon was responsible for spreading the values of the French Revolution to other countries especially in legal reform 32 Napoleon did not touch serfdom in Russia 33 After the fall of Napoleon not only was the Napoleonic Code retained by conquered countries including the Netherlands Belgium parts of Italy and Germany but has been used as the basis of certain parts of law outside Europe including the Dominican Republic the US state of Louisiana and the Canadian province of Quebec 34 The code was also used as a model in many parts of Latin America 35 The memory of Napoleon in Poland is favorable for his support for independence and opposition to Russia his legal code the abolition of serfdom and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies 36 Napoleon indirectly began the process of Latin American independence when he invaded Spain in 1808 The abdication of King Charles IV and his son Ferdinand VII created a power vacuum that was filled by native born political leaders such as Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin Such leaders embraced nationalistic sentiments that were influenced by French nationalism and fought for independence which ultimately succeeded 37 Everett Rummage says Napoleon is nearly synonymous with the spread of the modern bureaucratic state not only the institutions themselves but the modern outlook that goes with them meritocracy liberal property rights public service and equality before the law 38 Germany edit Further information German Romanticism nbsp Caspar David Friedrich Wanderer above the Sea of Fog Napoleon s disruptions of the old order created the space in which modern Germany was created According to Katherine Aaslestad and Karen Hagemann 39 1806 was a transformative year for German central Europe It brought humiliating military defeat and occupation for Prussia the demise of the Holy Roman Empire and a complete territorial and structural reorganization for the region Historians have long viewed this reorganization as essential for the rise of German nationalism state building and modernization For example British historian T C W Blanning argues that Napoleon s actions in Germany did speed up the emergence of a German national consciousness on the other hand it did nothing to modernize Germany s governance economy or culture 40 41 A major product of the French occupation was a strong development in German nationalism which eventually turned the German Confederation into the German Empire after a series of conflicts and other political developments German Romanticism was nationalistic and therefore became hostile to the ideals French Revolution Major Romantic thinkers especially Ernst Moritz Arndt 1769 1860 Johann Gottlieb Fichte 1762 1814 Heinrich von Kleist 1777 1811 and Friedrich Schleiermacher 1768 1834 embraced reactionary politics and were hostile to political liberalism rationalism neoclassicism and cosmopolitanism 42 German politician Carl Theodor Welcker 1790 1869 described Napoleon as the greatest Maestro of Machiavellism 43 In recent decades German historiography has shifted from nationalism to a pan European viewpoint opening the way for more favourable treatment of the Emperor Most recent scholars reject the old notion of separate national paths typified by models of the German Sonderweg or the French singularite francaise 44 Napoleon installed his relatives in power across the expanded empire Jerome Bonaparte the youngest brother became King of Westphalia and has the reputation of a playboy However Owen Connelly examines the financial military and administrative performance to conclude that he was loyal useful and a soldierly asset to Napoleon 45 Poland edit Emperor Napoleon left a significant mark on Polish National Romanticism The Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth was partitioned between Austria Prussia and Russia in 1795 while Napoleon was rising in France From the beginning Napoleon showed great sympathy for the cause of Polish independence and declared the restoration of and independent Poland as one of his goals nbsp Emperor Napoleon granting the constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw After defeating the Kingdom of Prussia Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw a Polish State Bonaparte regarded the Poles as his most loyal subjects and allies Many Polish generals and leaders such as Jozef Poniatowski and Jan Henryk Dabrowski which are regarded as Polish National heroes fought alongside Napoleon with the goal of restoring the ancient Polish State Many Polish Legionaires followed Napoleon into exile to Elba and returned with him to France Famously Jozef Poniatowski and many of his Polish Lancers died fighting for Napoleon in Leipzig nbsp Polish Uhlans of the 1st Imperial Lancer Regiment in Elba Today Napoleon is remembered in Poland as an important figure in the fight for independence even being mentioned in the 2nd stanca of the Polish National Anthem United States edit Main article Louisiana Purchase nbsp Bas relief of Napoleon in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives nbsp Louisiana Purchase Napoleon significantly aided the United States when he agreed to sell the territory of Louisiana for 15 million during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson The sale meant that his archenemy Great Britain would not get the land That territory opened the area west of the Mississippi River and almost doubled the size of the United States 46 The New England Federalists who had strongly opposed the French Revolution in the 1790s celebrated in 1815 that the old Bourbon kings had been restored 47 Napoleon s memory was salient in the 1820s and 1830s Americans read his biographies looked at exhibits especially copies of Jacques Louis David s painting of his coronation American tourists in France looked for his memorials 48 On the other hand Thomas Jefferson hated Napoleon for killing off republicanism in France and returning to monarchy 49 As presidents Jefferson and Madison were at several points on the verge of war with Napoleon before 1812 in response to violations of America s neutral rights such as seizing ships and cargoes and imprisoning sailors Finally Madison made the decision to fight only Britain 50 The art and politics of painting Napoleon editMain article Cultural depictions of Napoleon nbsp Bonaparte at the pont d Arcole by Antoine Jean Gros 1796 Napoleon has become a worldwide cultural icon generally associated with tactical brilliance ambition and political power His distinctive features and costume have made him a very recognizable figure in popular culture He has been portrayed in many works of fiction his depiction varying greatly with the author s perception of the historical character In the 1927 film Napoleon young general Bonaparte is portrayed as a heroic visionary On the other hand he has been occasionally reduced to a stock character depicted as short and bossy sometimes comically so 51 Antoine Jean Gros 1771 1835 witnessed the Battle of Arcole 1796 and painted a portrait that pleased Napoleon After travelling with Napoleon s army Gros produced several large paintings of battles and other events in Napoleon s life Napoleon on the Battlefield of Eylau was a realistic portrayal of the horrors of war 52 According to Jill Morris Napoleon commissioned Gros to paint Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa 1804 to neutralize British propaganda The propaganda focused on two episodes of the Egyptian campaign 1798 1800 First when he ordered the massacre of Turkish prisoners Second when he ordered the death by poison of French soldiers suffering from the plague The painting showed a compassionate Napoleon visiting the sick at the plague hospital Morris adds that Gros was probably using the disease as a metaphor for the vanity of Napoleon and his First Empire 53 nbsp Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne Ingres 1806 Jacques Louis David already was well established in 1799 when he met Napoleon He was commissioned to commemorate the daring crossing of the Alps The crossing had allowed the French to surprise the Austrian army and win victory at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800 Although Napoleon had crossed on a mule he wanted to be portrayed calm upon a fiery steed David complied creating five versions of Napoleon Crossing the Saint Bernard After the proclamation of the Empire in 1804 David became the official court painter of the regime Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres 1780 1867 was a neoclassical painter whose famous portrait of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne 1806 consists of a head but practically nothing of his body It concentrated almost entirely on the lavish imperial costume that Napoleon had chosen to wear and the symbols of power he held The scepter of Charles V the sword of Charlemagne the rich fabrics furs and capes crown of gold leaves golden chains and emblems were all presented in extremely precise detail the Emperor s face and hands were almost lost in the majestic costume For Susan Siegfried 2006 the painting shows not just a man but the complexity and glory of his new empire The insignia conveys the inter relations of old French traditions and the new imperial formation an empire for which Napoleon provided the brain but many others ultimately helped create 54 Siegfried argues that before 1789 royal portraits focused on the king s body However in the wake of the French Revolution the signification of kingship began to be displaced from the body of the ruler to the trappings of rule In the case of Ingres s remarkable portrait the sacrality of the new ruler was displaced to the secular realm of history and more specifically to the pose insignia and costume that denoted the emperor s status The state was no longer equated with the person or the body Napoleon as the speaking subject but rather with the nation via its history 55 See also editCultural depictions of Napoleon Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne a painting Napoleonland a proposed theme park it has not yet been approved Origins of the War of 1812 Napoleon s China is a sleeping giant quoteNotes edit Robert S Alexander Napoleon Oxford University Press 2001 examines major debates among historians E A Arnold English Language Napoleonic Historiography 1973 1998 Thoughts and Considerations Proceedings Western Society for French History Vol 26 2000 pp 283 94 John Dunne Recent Napoleonic Historiography Poor Relation Makes Good French History 2004 18 4 pp 484 91 Max Hastings Everything is Owed to Glory The Wall Street Journal 31 October 2014 also online here Charles Esdaile Napoleon s Wars An International History 1803 1815 2008 p 39 Colin S Gray War Peace and International Relations An Introduction to Strategic History 2007 p 47 online a b McLynn 1998 p 666 Alexander 2001 pp 74 76 Bourke Skinner Richard Quentin Garstan Bryan 2016 10 From popular sovereignty to civil society in post revolutionary France Popular Sovereignty in Historical Perspective University Printing House Cambridge CB2 8BS United Kingdom Cambridge University Press pp 254 255 258 259 ISBN 978 1 107 13040 1 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location link CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Dorothy Mackay Quynn The art confiscations of the Napoleonic wars American Historical Review50 3 1945 437 460 Philip Dwyer Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France Napoleon Slavery and the French History Wars French Politics Culture amp Society 2008 26 3 pp 110 22 JSTOR 42843569 David Chandler David The Campaigns of Napoleon 1973 p xliii Hanson 2003 Cronin 1994 pp 342 43 Correlli Barnett Bonaparte 1978 Jean Tulard Napoleon The Myth of the Saviour 1984 Bergeron Louis 1981 France Under Napoleon Princeton U P ISBN 978 0 691 00789 2 Dominic Lieven Review article Russia and the defeat of Napoleon Kritika Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 2006 7 2 pp 283 308 Schroeder 1990 p 148 149 Alan Forrest Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France French History 2004 18 4 426 45 Hubert N B Richardson A Dictionary of Napoleon and His Times 1921 online free pp 101 06 Mark Bryant Broadsides against Boney History Today 60 1 2010 52 Mark Bryant Napoleonic Wars in Cartoons Grub Street 2009 Sudhir Hazareesingh Memory and Political Imagination the Legend of Napoleon Revisited French History 2004 18 4 463 83 Hazareesingh 2004 Venita Datta L appel Au Soldat Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque French Historical Studies 2005 28 1 1 30 Call for Papers International Napoleonic Society Fourth International Napoleonic Congress La Fondation Napoleon Archived from the original on 8 January 2009 Retrieved 27 June 2008 Roger Cohen France Battles Over Whether to Cancel or Celebrate Napoleon President Emmanuel Macron laid a wreath at the emperor s tomb on the 200th anniversary of his death stepping into a national debate over the legacy of Napoleon The New York Times May 5 2021 Jackson Julian 2018 A Certain Idea of France The Life of Charles de Gaulle London Allen Lane ISBN 9780674987210 Roger Cohen Macron Condemns Napoleon s Restoration of Slavery 200 Years Later The French president s speech on the 200th anniversary of the emperor s death combined a rebuke for a betrayal of the Enlightenment and recognition of his achievements The New York Times May 6 2021 Cohen 2021 Grab Alexander 2003 Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe Macmillan ISBN 978 0 333 68275 3 country by country analysis Lazar Volin 1970 A century of Russian agriculture From Alexander II to Khrushchev p 25 Harvard University Press Napoleonic Code Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 29 December 2011 Retrieved 13 April 2012 Lobingier Charles Sumner December 1918 Napoleon and His Code Harvard Law Review 32 2 114 134 doi 10 2307 1327640 ISSN 0017 811X JSTOR 1327640 Andrzej Nieuwazny Napoleon and Polish identity History Today May 1998 vol 48 no 5 pp 50 55 The Crisis of 1808 www brown edu Brown University Retrieved 6 May 2021 Quoted in Ishaan Tharoor We re still living in the age of Napoleon The Washington Post May 6 2021 Katherine Aaslestad and Karen Hagemann 1806 and its Aftermath Revisiting the Period of the Napoleonic Wars in German Central European Historiography Central European History 39 4 2006 pp 547 579 JSTOR 20457177 Tim Blanning Napoleon and German identity History Today 1998 48 4 pp 37 43 online Timothy C W Blanning The French Revolution and the Modernization of Germany Central European History 22 2 1989 109 129 Siegfried Heit and Otto W Johnston German Romanticism An Ideological Response to Napoleon Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750 1850 Proceedings 1980 Vol 9 p187 197 Bourke Skinner Richard Quentin Kelly Duncan 2016 11 Popular sovereignty as state theory in the nineteenth century Popular Sovereignty in Historical Perspective University Printing House Cambridge CB2 8BS United Kingdom Cambridge University Press pp 280 281 ISBN 978 1 107 13040 1 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location link CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Daniel Schonpflug So far and yet so near comparison transfer and memory in recent German books on the age of the French revolution and Napoleon French History 18 4 2004 446 462 https doi org 10 1093 fh 18 4 446 Owen Connelly Jerome Bonaparte King of Westphalia History Today Sep 1964 14 9 pp 627 633 Piero Gleijeses Napoleon Jefferson and the Louisiana Purchase International History Review 39 2 2017 237 255 Howard M Jones America and French Culture 1750 1848 1927 p 558 online Nadine Klopfer Remembering Napoleon Americans and the French Emperor in the 1820s and 1830s Early American Studies 18 4 2020 525 560 Joseph I Shulim Thomas Jefferson Views Napoleon Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 60 2 1952 288 304 Lawrence S Kaplan France and the War of 1812 Journal of American History 1970 57 1 pp 36 47 JSTOR 1900548 Sudhir Hazareesingh The legend of Napoleon Granta 2005 David O Brien After the Revolution Antoine Jean Gros Painting amp Propaganda under Napoleon 2006 P Jill Morse The Medics in A J Gros s Bonaparte At The Pest House At Jaffa Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750 1850 Selected Papers 2000 pp 147 164 Todd Porterfield and Susan Siegfried Staging Empire Napoleon Ingres and David Penn State Press 2006 p 38 excerpt Porterfield and Siegfried Staging Empire pp 25 29 Further reading editBiographies in English edit Cronin Vincent Napoleon HarperCollins 1994 biography online Englund Steven Napoleon 2003 biography online McLynn Frank Napoleon 1998 hostile biography online Roberts Andrew Napoleon A Life Penguin 2014 favorable biography Thompson J M 1951 Napoleon Bonaparte His Rise and Fall Oxford U P 412 pp by an Oxford scholar de Meneval Claude Francois 1910 de Meneval Napoleon Joseph Erenst Collier Peter Fenelon eds Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte The Court of the First Empire PDF Vol II New York City United States of America P F Collier amp Son Publishers ISBN 9781355218760 OCLC 566100622 Retrieved 15 June 2021 via Internet Archive favorable biography Memory and evaluations edit Alexander Robert S Napoleon Oxford UP 2001 examines major debates among historians Arnold E A English Language Napoleonic Historiography 1973 1998 Thoughts and Considerations Proceedings Western Society for French History Vol 26 2000 pp 283 94 online Blanning T C W The French Revolution and the Modernization of Germany Central European History 22 2 1989 pp 109 129 JSTOR 4546142 Chew III William L Yankee Observers Napoleon and American Exceptionalism Napoleonica LaRevue 1 2011 23 48 online Cohen Roger France Battles Over Whether to Cancel or Celebrate Napoleon President Emmanuel Macron laid a wreath at the emperor s tomb on the 200th anniversary of his death stepping into a national debate over the legacy of Napoleon The New York Times May 5 2021 de Bertier de Sauvigny Guillaume The American Press and the Fall of Napoleon in 1814 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 98 5 1954 337 376 JSTOR 3143913 Dunne John Recent Napoleonic Historiography Poor Relation Makes Good French History 2004 18 4 pp 484 91 doi 10 1093 fh 18 4 484 Dwyer Philip G 2004 Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Saviour Image Rhetoric and Behaviour in the Construction of a Legend French History 18 4 379 403 doi 10 1093 fh 18 4 379 Dwyer Philip 2008 Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France Napoleon Slavery and the French History Wars French Politics Culture amp Society 26 3 110 22 doi 10 3167 fpcs 2008 260306 Englund Steven Napoleon and Hitler Journal of the Historical Society 2006 6 1 pp 151 69 doi 10 1111 j 1540 5923 2006 00171 x Englund Steven Monstre Sacre The Question of Cultural Imperialism and the Napoleonic Empire Historical Journal 51 1 2008 215 250 JSTOR 20175154 Forrest Alan et al eds War Memories The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in Modern European Culture 2012 Forrest Alan et al eds Soldiers Citizens and Civilians Experiences and Perceptions of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars 1790 1820 Palgrave Macmillan UK 2009 Geyl Pieter 1982 1947 Napoleon For and Against Penguin Books considers major scholarly histories Glad Betty Why Tyrants Go Too Far Malignant Narcissism and Absolute Power Political Psychology 23 1 2002 1 37 online Hagemann Karen Revisiting Prussia s Wars against Napoleon History Culture and Memory 2015 Hanson Victor Davis 2003 The Little Tyrant A review of Napoleon A Penguin Life The Claremont Institute Hazareesingh Sudhir 2005 The Legend of Napoleon excerpt and text search Hazareesingh Sudhir Memory and Political Imagination The Legend of Napoleon Revisited French History 2004 18 4 pp 463 83 Hazareesingh Sudhir 2005 Napoleonic Memory in Nineteenth Century France The Making of a Liberal Legend Modern Language Notes 120 4 747 73 doi 10 1353 mln 2005 0119 S2CID 154508777 Klopfer Nadine Remembering Napoleon Americans and the French Emperor in the 1820s and 1830s Early American Studies 18 4 2020 525 560 excerpt Luke Tarah Lorraine Our Bonaparte Republicanism Religion and Paranoia in New England and the Mid Atlantic 1789 1830 Ph D dissertation 2016 Florida State U online O Flaherty Kathleen The Genesis of the Napoleonic Legend Studies An Irish Quarterly Review 58 231 1969 256 266 JSTOR 30087873 regarding French literature Schonpflug Daniel So far and yet so near comparison transfer and memory in recent German books on the age of the French revolution and Napoleon French History 18 4 2004 446 462 doi 10 1093 fh 18 4 446 Schroeder Paul W Napoleon s Foreign Policy A Criminal Enterprise Journal of Military History 54 2 1990 147 162 JSTOR 1986040 Shulim Joseph I Thomas Jefferson Views Napoleon Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 60 2 1952 288 304 jstor 4245839 Woolf Stuart The Construction of a European World View in the Revolutionary Napoleonic Years Past amp Present 137 1992 72 101 JSTOR 650852 nbsp Historical painter encouraged by the government 1814 caricature Art edit Broadley Alexander Meyrick 1911 Napoleon in Caricature 1795 1821 John Lane 1911 Caricature Carruthers H A Napoleon on campaign classic images of Napoleon at war Pen amp Sword Military 2014 Datta Venita L appel Au Soldat Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque French Historical Studies 2005 28 1 1 30 Forrest Alan Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France French History 2004 18 4 426 45 Munhall Edgar Portraits of Napoleon Yale French Studies 26 1960 3 20 JSTOR 2929218 O Brien David Propaganda and the Republic of the Arts in Antoine Jean Gros s Napoleon visiting the Battlefield of Eylau the Morning after the Battle French Historical Studies 26 2 2003 281 314 Porterfield Todd and Susan Siegfried Staging Empire Napoleon Ingres and David Penn State Press 2006 online review Prendergast Christopher Napoleon and history painting Antoine Jean Gros s La bataille d Eylau Oxford UP 1997 Quynn Dorothy Mackay The art confiscations of the Napoleonic wars American Historical Review50 3 1945 437 460 JSTOR 1843116 Rosenblum R Inherited myths unprecedented realities Painting under Napoleon 1800 1814 Art in America 1975 48 57 ISSN 0004 3214 Stresses its morbid erotic spectacular and fantastic aspects External links editNapoleon Bonaparte at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Definitions from Wiktionary nbsp Media from Commons nbsp News from Wikinews nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource nbsp Textbooks from Wikibooks nbsp Resources from Wikiversity Lesson of the Day France Battles Over Whether to Cancel or Celebrate Napoleon In this lesson students will learn about the legacy of the former French emperor and debate to what extent he should be commemorated or criticized New York Times May 7 2021 Napoleon Series The Napoleonic Guide International Napoleonic Society Alan Schom Interview on his book Napoleon Bonaparte on Booknotes 26 October 1997 Works by Legacy of Napoleon at Project Gutenberg Napoleon and Wellington BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton In Our Time 25 October 2001 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Legacy of Napoleon amp oldid 1224215361, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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