Kim Gu

In this Korean name, the family name is Kim.

Kim Gu (29 August 1876 – 26 June 1949), also known by his pen name Baekbeom, was a Korean politician, educator, and independence activist. He was a leader of the Korean independence movement against the Empire of Japan, head of the predecessor to the modern South Korean government for multiple terms, creator of the Korean Liberation Army, and a Korean reunification activist after 1945. Kim is revered in South Korea, where he is widely considered one of the greatest figures in Korean history.^[1][2]

The Right Honourable Kim Gu
Kim in 1949
President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
In office 14 December 1926 – August 1927
Vice President	Kim Kyu-sik
Preceded by	Hong Jin
Succeeded by	Yi Dong-nyung
In office March 1940 – March 1947
Preceded by	Yi Dong-nyung
Succeeded by	Rhee Syngman (President of the Provisional Government)
Prime Minister of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
In office October 1930 – October 1933
Preceded by	Roh Baek-lin
Succeeded by	Yang Gi-tak
Personal details
Born	(1876-08-29)29 August 1876 Baegun-dong, Haeju, Hwanghae, Joseon
Died	June 26, 1949(1949-06-26) (aged 72) Seoul, South Korea
Nationality	Korean
Political party	Korea Independence Party
Children	5 (2 surviving past childhood)
Religion	Methodism formerly Cheondoism, Buddhism
Korean name
Hangul	김구
Hanja	金九
Revised Romanization	Gim Gu
McCune–Reischauer	Kim Ku
IPA	kimɡu
Pen name
Hangul	백범 or 연상
Hanja	白凡 or 蓮上
Revised Romanization	Baekbeom or Yeonsang
McCune–Reischauer	Paekpŏm or Yŏnsang
IPA	pɛkbʌm
Courtesy name
Hangul	연하
Hanja	蓮下
Revised Romanization	Yeonha
McCune–Reischauer	Yŏnha

Kim was born into a poor farming family in the unstable last few decades of the Joseon kingdom. In its last century, Joseon experienced several peasant rebellions and encroachment from multiple global powers, including the Empire of Japan, the Russian Empire, Qing China, and the United States. Kim fought for Korean independence for most of his life, and was jailed, tortured, and even permanently disfigured by Japanese authorities for his activities. He spent 26 years in exile in China, serving various roles in the Provisional Government and collaborating with the Republic of China. During this time, he founded and led the Korean Patriotic Organization and the Korean Liberation Army. He both planned and was the target of numerous assassination attempts, including an assassination attempt that almost killed Japanese Emperor Hirohito. After the 1945 surrender of Japan in World War II, Kim and fellow members of that government returned and became key figures in the liberated Korea. There, Kim tried to prevent Korea from fracturing into two.

However, in 1949, just four years after his return and just before the outbreak of the 1950 Korean War, Kim was assassinated by Korean Lieutenant Ahn Doo-hee.

While Kim is mostly celebrated in modern South Korea, he is not without his share of critics. In 1896, Kim murdered a Japanese man who he believed may have been connected to the Japanese military or even involved in the recent assassination of Empress Myeongseong. The man is generally agreed to be Tsuchida Josuke, a civilian merchant on a business trip.^[3][4][5] He was also involved in coordinating attacks against Japanese military and colonial government personnel. His legacy is somewhat less enthusiastically celebrated in North Korea, due to his anti-Communist views, although he softened these in order to reconcile with Kim Il Sung near the end of his life. However, in the South, these efforts at appeasing Kim Il Sung were criticized by contemporary and modern scholars.^[6][7][8]

Early life

Kim was born Kim Chang-am^{[note 1]} on 29 August 1876 in T'otkol village, Paegunbang^{[note 2]}, Haeju City, Hwanghae Province, Joseon.^[9][10] He was the only child of two farmers: father Kim Sun-yŏng^{[note 3]} and mother Kwak Nak-won.^{[9][note 4]}

Kim's family was impoverished, poorly educated, and looked down upon by the community.^[9] He and his father were even beaten on multiple occasions by the local elite. His father belonged to the once yangban (upper-class) Andong Kim clan.^{[note 5][11]} However, the clan lost its noble status around 300 years prior, as Kim Ja-jeom fell from grace.^[9] Ja-jeom's direct descendants became slaves, and the rest of the Andong clan became commoners.^[9]

At age two, Kim suffered from smallpox, leaving him with scars on his face.^[10]

In order to escape poverty, at nine years old, he began studying at local seodangs in preparation for the Gwageo, the demanding civil service examinations that determined placement in government intellectual jobs. His education covered various Chinese classic texts including the Zizhi Tongjian and Great Learning. His mother made a point of paying for his education by earning money through weaving.^[10]

In 1888, the father of 12-year-old Kim suffered a stroke that left him paralyzed. His family moved from place-to-place, searching for a doctor while begging for food. Kim's father eventually somewhat recovered, and was able to walk on his own, albeit with difficulty.^[10]

In 1892, at the age of 16, Kim took the Gwageo but failed. He reportedly witnessed and was frustrated by the elite candidates engaging in cheating and bribes. He quit studying at the seodang and spent three months studying philosophical and military texts on his own and reflecting on his life.^[10]

Activities before Japanese Occupation of Korea (1893–1905)

Role in the Donghak Revolution (1893–1894)

See also: Donghak Peasant Revolution

In January 1893, Kim joined the Donghak movement after traveling to meet its leader, O Ŭng-sŏn^{[note 6]} in Podong. The movement was created in 1860 in reaction to the instability of Joseon in the 19th century and the spread of foreign influence and religion in Korea. It sought to rejuvenate the country by revising Confucian practices, introducing democracy, establishing human rights, and eliminating foreign interference. Within a year, Kim became a well-known figure amongst hundreds of people in the movement.^[10]

During this time, he changed his name to Kim Ch'ang-su^{[note 7]}, following the East Asian practice of changing names after significant life events.

In early 1894, the peasant revolution began. 17-year-old Kim was appointed a district leader of P'albong^{[note 8]} and given a Donghak army regiment of around 700. In the fall, by order of Donghak leader Choi Si-hyung^{[note 9]}, Kim's troops stormed the Haeju fort in Hwanghae province, but the unit was eventually defeated by government and Japanese forces.

A power struggle then occurred, in which Yi Tong-yŏp^{[note 10]}, a fellow rebel, wished to take control of Kim's unit. In December of that year, Yi's unit attacked Kim's and won. Kim managed to escape to the mountainous Monggeumpo.^[10] In the meantime, Yi captured and executed Kim's close subordinate Yi Chong-sŏn^{[note 11]}. Eventually, Kim buried his comrade and decided to defect.

Defection and journey to Qing (1895–1896)

See also: First Sino-Japanese War

In 1895, Kim defected and joined Royal Army General An T'ae-hun (안태훈; 安泰勳).^{[note 12]} He spent three months in hiding, while recovering from measles and a high fever. An took such a liking to Kim, that he even allowed Kim's parents to join him in the mountains, and scolded any officials that treated Kim poorly.

Whilst in hiding, Kim met and became influenced by Ko Nŭng-sŏn^{[note 13]}, a scholar who followed an isolationist Neo-Confucian ideology called Wijŏngch'ŏksa^{[note 14]}. Ko convinced Kim that Joseon was in great danger from Japanese imperialism, and that he should go visit Qing to convince them to help protect Joseon. This trip was doomed to fail, however, as the Qing dynasty was soon to be defeated by the Japanese in the Sino-Japanese War.

Thus, at age 20, Kim and a companion around eight to nine years his elder named Kim Hyŏng-jin^{[note 15]} decided to first make a pilgrimage to the legendary ancestral home of Koreans, Paekdu Mountain, then through Manchuria, and finally to the Qing capital Beijing. However, near the foot of the mountain, they decided the journey would be too perilous, and instead decided to go directly to Tonghua in Manchuria.

On the way to Tonghua, near the Yalu River, which currently serves as the border between China and North Korea, the two men joined the army of Qing dynasty general Kim Yi-yŏn^{[note 16]}, who was in the midst of attacking Kanggye fortress. However, the attack failed, and Kim escaped.

Killing of Tsuchida Josuke (1896)

In February 1896, upon hearing of the internal strife in Qing, Kim decided to give up on his trip and return home. He tried to take a boat from Ch'ihap'o^{[note 17]} in Hwanghae Province to Chinnamp'o^{[note 18]}, but ice in the river made traveling difficult, so he stayed in Ch'ihap'o at an inn.

There, Kim met a man also on his way to Chinnamp'o. The man wore the Korean hanbok, said his surname was Chŏng, and that he lived in Jangyeon, Joseon. However, the man spoke with a Seoul accent and Kim alleges he saw a hidden sword underneath a scroll in his room.^[12][13]

In his autobiography, Baekbeomilji, Kim described his motivation at the time as follows:

Since many Japanese go through Chihapo every day, there is no reason for this man to disguise himself as an ordinary Korean merchant or workman. Could he be Miura or one of his accomplices who killed the queen, fled from Seoul, and are in hiding? Even if he is not, a Japanese man with a disguise and a sword can do nothing but harm to my country and people. I will avenge my queen by killing this Japanese man.

— Baekbeom Ilji

Around 3am, Kim took the man by surprise, murdering him by kicking him to the floor, stabbing him, and hitting him with a stone. Although there is still some debate as to the man's identity, the general consensus is that the man was Tsuchida Josuke (土田 譲亮), a Japanese trader from Tsushima Island, Nagasaki on a business trip.^[3][4][5] According to one account, when Kim retold the story in August 1935 to some students, Kim said he drank Tsuchida's blood as well.^[14][15]

Kim wrote a confession where he explained his actions and posted it on the wall outside. He was not arrested immediately. He took the money Tsuchida had on his person, amounting to around 800 jeon, gave some to the owner of the boat he would take and the rest to the inn owner to distribute amongst the townspeople. He then returned home by boat.

Meanwhile, a Korean interpreter named Im Hak-kil^{[note 19]} went to Pyongyang and reported the murder to Hirahara Atsumu^{[note 20]} at the Japanese consulate. Hirahara arrived in Ch'ihap'o on 15 March, and ordered Kim's arrest.^[16]

First imprisonment (1896–1898)

Joseon authorities took a relaxed attitude towards Kim's arrest, and thus he was arrested three months later, around late June 1896, in his home.^[16] He was first held at a jail in Haeju, where he endured torture and poor treatment from Japanese authorities present at the jail, and was then moved to Incheon.

In Incheon, the constable and superintendent of the prison asked Kim why he killed Tsuchida. Upon hearing his answer, they were sympathetic and treated him with respect. Influential Koreans at the time, including major merchants of Incheon, repeatedly petitioned Korean Justice Department officials to pardon him and collected money for his bail.^[15]

Through processes that he didn't fully understand at the time, Kim narrowly avoided an execution. On 12 September 1896, the Japanese consular agent Hagiwara Shuichi^{[note 21]} found Kim guilty of the crime of manslaughter, and recommended execution by beheading. On 2 October 1896, the superintendent, under pressure from the consulate, suggested by telegram to the Incheon court that Kim be executed promptly. The court responded by saying they should ask King Gojong's permission. On 22 October 1896, the King read the motivation behind Kim's actions, and did not approve the sentences of Kim and 10 others. Thus, Kim escaped death.^[16]

In prison, Kim read newly-published textbooks from China about Western history and science such as Taeseo Shinsa (태서신사; 泰西新史) and Saegye Jiji (세계지지; 世界地誌). He was deeply impressed by what he read, and reportedly then abandoned the idea that Westerners were barbarians.^[17] Despite wanting to learn more about Western ideas, he never learned to read or write English.^[18]

He taught many of his fellow prisoners how to read and write. While he first did this in exchange for favors, he began doing it voluntarily. This helped his standing in the prison, as even guards would ask him for help reading and writing.

Escape from prison and Buddhist monkhood (1898–1899)

 

Magoksa, the Buddhist temple where Kim stayed around 1898–1899 after escaping from prison. Picture from 2011

On 19 March 1898, he and several fellow prisoners successfully broke out of prison. In response, the Japanese arrested Kim's father and held him for a year.^[16] Kim eventually met a monk with the surname Lee^{[note 22]}, who guided him to Magoksa, a Jogye Buddhist temple in Gongju, Chungcheong Province. As Lee held a high position at the temple, he offered to let Kim join as a monk and to cover Kim's expenses.

Kim shaved his head and became a monk named Wŏnjong^{[note 23]}.^[19] He was frequently criticized by the monks at the temple for making mistakes while performing chants and chores. As he didn't necessarily believe in Buddhism or enjoy the lifestyle, he decided he wanted to leave.

In spring of 1899, Kim requested to go study at Geumgang Mountain. His request was approved by the head monk, who gave him rations of grain for his journey. Instead of going to the mountain, Kim slipped away from his fellow monks and reunited with his parents. By May, they made their way to Taebo mountain near Pyeongyang.^[10]

Around September or October, the family returned home, where their extended family was still engaged in agriculture. An uncle offered to help Kim settle down with agricultural work and find a bride. Kim declined his offer.^[10]

 

Kim (back row, without hat) as a farmer and teacher (1906)

Activities before Korean independence movement (1900–1905)

In 1901, his father passed away.^{[note 24]} He converted to Protestant Christianity in February 1903. In December 1904, he married Ch'oe Chun-rye^{[note 25]} from Sinchon, Hwanghae Province. He was previously briefly engaged to two women, including Ch'oe Yŏ-ok^{[note 26]}, who passed away from illness in 1903, and An Sin-ho^{[note 27]}, whom he broke the engagement off with in 1903.^[10] The couple had a daughter together in 1906, but she passed away within a year.

He worked as a farmer and started and became principal of several schools. He himself taught various subjects and at various levels, including middle school math.^[10] He moved several times for his work during this period.

Independence activities in occupied Korea (1905–1919)

See also: Korean independence movement and Korea under Japanese rule

In November 1905, the short-lived Korean Empire became a protectorate of Japan, after it was compelled to sign the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1905 (also known as the Eulsa Treaty). The treaty was the result of Japanese victory in the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War, the 1905 Taft-Katsura agreement between Japan and the United States, and the 1894–1895 First Sino-Japanese War. The combination of these factors effectively cemented Japan's status as the main great power in the region. In a few years, in 1910, Korea would be formally annexed into the Japanese Empire.

Shortly after the November 1905 treaty, Kim went to Seoul to participate in protests against the treaty. He and other future leaders of the Korean independence movement such as Yi Dong-nyeong and Yi Tjoune gave speeches at the Daehan gates of the royal Deoksu palace. They urged Emperor Gwangmu (formerly "King Gojong") to withdraw from the treaty. However, these protests were dispersed by the Korean authorities. Disheartened, Kim decided that Korea would continue to be stuck in a weak position until its people became smarter and more patriotic. He resolved to commit himself more fully to his educational activities. He returned home and continued teaching.

In 1908, Kim joined the New People's Association^{[note 28]} and became the leader of its Hwanghae branch. The organization was founded in 1906 by Ahn Changho in Los Angeles, California, and was dedicated to the independence of Korea. The group emphasized education, industrialization, and patriotism as tools to achieve its goal. While the group dissolved in 1911, many of its ideals and members were inherited by the Provisional Government in 1919.

Second Imprisonment (1911–1915)

See also: 105-Man Incident

In 1911, An Myung-geun^{[note 29]} and several companions, including Kim, were among over 700 people arrested by the Japanese colonial government in response to alleged assassination attempts on the Governor-General of Korea Terauchi Masatake. Kim was sentenced to 15 years in prison.

In 1912, while imprisoned, Kim changed his name to his most famous one: "Kim Gu", and adopted his also-famous pen name of "Baekbeom". He stated in his autobiography that he changed his name to avoid detection in Japanese nationality records, and that he chose Baekbeom, meaning "ordinary person", in the hope that every Korean would fight for independence.^[20]

 

Kim Gu, with disfigured left ear after torture and imprisonment (1919)

Interrogations included torture and beatings. Kim's left ear became permanently disfigured, and he attempted suicide but failed. His calves were already scarred from his earlier imprisonment after the killing of Tsuchida. Fellow prisoner Han P'il-ho (한필호; 韓弼昊) was killed, and Sin Sŏk-ch'ung (신석충; 申錫忠) committed suicide. An tried to commit suicide during the interrogation process but failed.

He spent two years and six months in Seodaemun Prison, which is now a museum, before being transferred to an Incheon prison as prisoner number 55.^[21] Here, Kim was reunited with his former cellmate from 17 years ago, Mun Chong-ch'il^{[note 30]}.^[10]

Release from prison (1915–1919)

In August 1915, Kim was released on parole, as no evidence linking him to the assassination attempt was found.^[10][22] Kim became involved in sharecropping after his release, and also educated his fellow farmers.^[23]

Exile in China before Second Sino-Japanese War (1919–1937)

 

Photo commemorating the closing of the 6th meeting of the Provisional Korean National Legislature (임시의정원). Kim is on the second row from bottom, far right (17 September 1919)

On 1 March 1919, Kim participated in a nationwide non-violent protest now known as the March 1st Movement that was brutally suppressed by Imperial Japan, resulting in thousands of deaths and tens of thousands of arrests. Kim and many other Korean nationalists soon left the country to escape from Japanese authorities. This movement is widely considered a catalyst for the Korean independence movement, and is now remembered as a national holiday in South Korea.

Early Provisional Government (1919–1926)

On 29 March 1919, Kim began a train journey to Shanghai, China in order to join the Provisional Government (KPG) of the Republic of Korea.^[24] Kim's wife, son, and mother eventually joined him in Shanghai in the early 1920s.^[10] He arrived around mid-April, and quickly joined the National Legislature. In September 1919, the first president of the KPG, Syngman Rhee, was elected, and Kim made the Chief of Staff.

 

Recreation of Kim's office in one of the original KPG buildings (now a museum) in Shanghai (picture from 2013)

The KPG was highly unstable for much of its history. Numerous positions and offices were created then dissolved within a few years. Kim and many others often served in one or more positions for just a few months until moving onto a new one. For example, in April 1924, Kim moved on from his position of acting Prime Minister to concurrently serving as Minister of Internal Affairs and as Minister of Labor. The government and its members also struggled with funding. In order to avoid detection by the Japanese authorities, the government moved often, renting buildings in the French concession, the British concession, and from the Kuomintang. They struggled to pay rent and salaries, which was a source of constant friction and fracturing inside of the group. On 29 August 1925, Na Seokju sold his clothes in order to buy a birthday gift for Kim's 49th birthday. Kim remembered that he himself was unable to afford celebrating his mother's 60th birthday (in Korean age) in 1919, and was so ashamed that he decided to no longer celebrate his own birthday.^[10]

 

Kim, with son In and wife Chun-rye in Shanghai (1921)

Kim's family life was difficult during this period. In January 1924, just two years after the birth of his second son, Shin^{[note 31]}, his wife Chun-rye passed away at around age 34. Because Kim was a wanted man, he was unable to visit her in the hospital before she died. According to a 2012 interview with Shin, Kim placed Shin in an orphanage, as he could not take care of him while working.^[25] In November 1925, his mother and Shin returned to Korea to avoid interfering in Kim's work. Eventually, in September 1927, his eldest son In would also return to Korea.

First term as president and government instability (1926–1930)

The group also suffered from internal conflict. In March 1925, Syngman Rhee was impeached over allegations that he abused his power.^[10] From then until December 1926, leadership changed rapidly, as seven heads of state served and resigned. Most only served a few months, with Ahn Changho serving fewer than two weeks due to being unable to form a cabinet. Rhee left to the United States shortly after his impeachment. In 1928, Kim sent letters to him, asking for donations to the KPG, which Rhee refused on the grounds that he too was suffering from financial difficulties.

 

Kim in 1930

From 14 December 1926 to 18 August 1927, Kim Gu served as head of government. In late March 1927, shortly after beginning his term, he reorganized the office of president^{[note 32]} into "Chairman of the State Council Directory"^{[note 33]}, where the Chairman is the first among equals in a state council. Kim's term was also short; he served around eight months before leaving office. He became the Minister of Internal Affairs again after leaving office, and Yi Dong-nyeong became the head of government. Yi served for two three year terms, until 1933; the first President since 1925 to serve for longer than a year.

In 1930, Kim established and became the head of the Korea Independence Party, in an effort to unite the right-leaning members of the government.^[10] The party would last until 1970, albeit as a minor party after his death in 1949.

In May 1929, he completed the first volume of the Baekbeomilji, when he was around 53 years old.^[26] Around this time, he handmade and gifted unique copies of the volume as thanks to several donors, including the Korean-American community and Ho Chong.^[27]

Korean Patriotic Organization activities (1931–1932)

Main article: Korean Patriotic Organization

In 1931, Kim became the first leader of the Korean Patriotic Organization^{[note 34]}, which was dedicated to the assassination of important Japanese imperial and colonial personnel.^[10] The organization was created in response to recent events and the perceived stagnation of the independence movement. For recent events, KPG member Kim Jwa-jin was assassinated by an agent of Japan in 1930.^[28] By 1932, Japan had caused the Mukden incident, invaded Manchuria, and caused tensions in Shanghai in the January 28 incident. The KPG also wanted to improve the relationship between China and Korea, due to heightened tensions between the two after the 1931 Wanpaoshan incident.^[29] The Organization's cause was seen as so urgent that it received around half of the budget of the KPG.^[30]

 

Lee Bong-chang (center, in white), arrested shortly after his failed assassination attempt of the Japanese Emperor (8 January 1932)

On 8 January 1932, Organization member Lee Bong-chang nearly assassinated the Emperor of Japan Hirohito in Tokyo, in what became known as the Sakuradamon incident. Kim planned and funded this operation. Lee threw a grenade that missed the Emperor's carriage and killed only two horses. He was later executed on 10 October.^[30]

 

Kim (left) and Yun Bong-gil, in front of the flag of the KPG. On 29 April 1932, Yun detonated a bomb in Hongkou Park (Lu Xun Park) in Shanghai that killed several high-ranking Japanese military officials (27 April 1932)

 

Chaos in Hongkou Park shortly after Yun set off the bomb (19 May 1932)

On 29 April 1932, member Yun Bong-gil planted a bomb that killed and wounded several Japanese military leadership in Hongkou Park (now Lu Xun Park) in Shanghai. Among the dead was Commander in Chief of the Shanghai Expeditionary Army General Yoshinori Shirakawa. After a botched suicide attempt at the scene of the crime, he was captured and later executed on 19 December.^[31][32]

In April 1932, members Yu Chin-sik^{[note 35]} and Yi Dŏk-chu^{[note 36]} were sent to Korea to assassinate Japanese Governor-General of Korea Kazushige Ugaki.^[33] If Yun had not been captured, he would have been on this mission. However, the mission failed; Yu was arrested around 24 April – 28 April, and Yi was arrested afterwards in Haeju.^[34]

On 26 May 1932, the organization failed another mission. The targets were Kwantung Army general Honjō Shigeru, Japanese Foreign Minister and President of the South Manchuria Railway company Uchida Kōsai, and Kwantung Governor Mannosuke Yamaoka^{[note 37]}. Kim dispatched members Ch'oe Heung-sik^{[note 38]} in late March and Yu Sang-kŭn^{[note 39]} on 27 April to Dalian, in Manchuria. The targets were going to appear at Dalian station on 26 May at 7:40pm, for a meeting with delegates from the League of Nations.^[35] Kim dispatched Ch'oe a month earlier than Yu, in order to have him scope out the area before the attack. Yu, carrying weapons and a canteen bomb, similar to a bomb used by Yun at Hongkou Park, arrived at Dalian on 4 May.^[36] However, a telegram they had sent at the Dalian post office days prior was intercepted by the Japanese. Ch'oe was found in his hideout, tortured for the whereabouts of Yu, and executed.^[37] Yu was caught on 25 May, sentenced to life imprisonment, and passed away on 14 August 1945, a day before the liberation of Korea.^[38]

After these incidents, the Organization largely stopped its activities. While the missions had mixed success, they did help improve Chinese and Korean ties and the financial standing of the KPG. A few months after, the Kuomintang began covering Kim's living and work expenses, and allowing some Koreans to enroll in its military academy.^[30][39] A monument to Yun also now stands in Lu Xun Park.

Infamy, escape from Shanghai, and life on the run (1932–1933)

After the Shanghai bombings in late April, Kim became infamous. His role in planning the attacks were published by newspapers in Shanghai. Various Japanese government bodies put bounties on him worth a combined 60,000 Dayang^{[note 40]}, an enormous sum for that time.^[10][40][41]

 

Kim Gu's first hideout after escaping Shanghai, on 76 Meiwan Street in Jiaxing. The stone memorial to Kim can be seen in front. (2013)

He and several other Organization members spent around 20 days in hiding at the house of American Presbyterian missionary George Ashmore Fitch in Shanghai.^[42][43] When the Japanese came close to finding him, Kim escaped by pretending to be an American couple with Fitch's wife. A Chinese sympathizer named Chu Fucheng^{[note 41]} helped Kim and others escape to a hiding place at 76 Meiwan Street^{[note 42]} in Jiaxing. The building had numerous features to facilitate hiding, including false closets, hidden doors, and a boat docked underneath the house. It still exists to this day, with a memorial at the spot.^[40][41][44] He borrowed his grandmother's maiden name and assumed a false identity as a Cantonese man.^{[note 43]}

Around June 1932, Kim resigned from the KPG, acknowledging he wouldn't be able to adequately perform his duties while on the run.

In the summer, after witnessing Japanese authorities at Jiaxing station questioning locals on Kim's whereabouts, Chu moved Kim to his daughter-in-law Zhu Jiarui's^{[note 44]} house at Zaiqing Villa^{[note 45]} in Haiyan county.^[40][41] Here too now stands a memorial of Kim's time there.

'Marriage' to Zhu Aibao (1932)

 

Zhu Aibao (朱愛寶, 주애보), Kim's 'wife' for five years. After sending her back to her hometown in November 1937, Kim never saw her again.

In order to make up for Kim's poor Chinese-speaking skills, Zhu proposed that he marry a local Chinese woman. She suggested he marry one of her friends, a middle school teacher. However, Kim thought a teacher would be too intelligent and might figure him out, and instead proposed marrying the 20-year-old owner of the boat he often rode, named Zhu Aibao^{[note 46]}. They had a 37-year age gap. While they never officially married, they were functionally husband and wife, and began to live together on her boat.^[40]

Ironically, being on the run in Haiyan was one of the most peaceful times of his life after his exile. Although he still participated in independence-related activities, he enjoyed the time outside of work. When he lived in Shanghai, he had rarely spent time outdoors. Here, he embarked on regular hiking trips and spent time with Zhu.^[40] He even came to view her as his actual spouse. In his autobiography, he wrote that he felt bad about deceiving her and not being of much financial help. They had a relationship for around five years total. It remains unclear whether Zhu ever knew about Kim's true identity.^[40][44] After November 1937, he never saw her again. Later, Kim's descendants attempted to locate Zhu Aibao or her descendants, but were unable to.^[41]

Three assassinations and an attempted fourth (1933)

In the second half of 1933, three successful assassinations and an attempted fourth occurred that were all connected to Kim.

 

Ok Kwan-bin (옥관빈), from the Dong-A Ilbo article published about his 1 August assassination. (3 August 1933)

First, in July 1933, Kim found out that his former KPG colleague Ok Kwan-bin had turned into a cooperator with the Japanese government and was publicly slandering members of the independence movement. Ok allegedly also became quite wealthy and prominent in Shanghai society, employing hundreds at a pharmaceutical company, acquiring newspaper companies, buying luxury cars, and making deals with Japanese colonial institutions. The betrayal and perceived flaunting of wealth infuriated Kim and several others, and they agreed to assassinate him.^[45][46]

Kim enlisted the help of a group of anarchists in Shanghai called the South China Korean Youth Alliance^{[note 47]}. Independently of the KPG, they previously had engaged in various attacks on the Japanese military in Shanghai. Kim had the money but lacked reliable manpower. So he enlisted their help, and funded them to track and subsequently assassinate Ok.^[47]

On 1 August 1933, at 9pm, the assassination was carried out. The group had tracked Ok's movements for two months and found that he was having an affair with a woman who lived in the French Concession. The assassins were O Myŏn-chik^{[note 48]} and Ŏm Hyŏng-sun^{[note 49]}. When Ok left the house of his mistress, Ŏm pulled up in a car and fired three shots at Ok, killing him on the spot. One week after, Kim Gu sent a press release to various newspapers in Shanghai, announcing the killing and the motivations behind it.^[47]

Second, on 17 August, a pro-Japanese Korean officer named Yi Chin-ryong^{[note 50]}, who was investigating Kim, was shot by members of the Shanghai Korean Community^{[note 51]}, which Kim was a member of (at latest) since 1923.^[47][10]

Next came the assassination attempt. The Chinese and Korean community were shocked by the attacks. Many sympathizers panicked, thinking they'd be next. Yu In-pal^{[note 52]}, the leader of the Shanghai Korean Friends Association^{[note 53]}, decided he wouldn't sit around until they came for him. On 28 August, he went door-to-door in the French Concession with a concealed pistol, asking everyone how they felt about the Association.^[47] He eventually met Pak Ch'ang-se^{[note 54]}, a KPG member and Kim ally. They had a friendly conversation long into the night, with Pak assuring Yu he meant no harm. On 31 August, a young assassin rushed into Yu's home and shot him, but he survived. Later examination of the bullet casings found that they were the same as those used in Yi's assassination.^[48] Later, an arrest warrant was issued for Pak, but he escaped.

The third assassination was on 18 December. Ok's cousin, also a Japanese sympathizer, had been seeking revenge for his cousin's death. He was then himself shot and killed.^[47]

Cooperation with the Kuomintang (1933–1937)

 

Chiang Kai-shek in 1932

Around July 1932, Kim had requested a meeting with Chiang Kai-shek and the establishment of a cavalry training school for the numerous Koreans in Manchuria. Chiang agreed to meet Kim, but was skeptical of the viability of the cavalry school.^[47][10]

Around May 1933^{[note 55]}, they met in Nanjing. According to Kim's autobiography, after exchanging verbal pleasantries, Kim picked up a brush and wrote in Chinese: "If you give me 1,000,000 yuan, within two years I can cause such chaos in Japan, Korea, and Manchuria that it will destroy Japan's 'bridge' to invading the mainland. What do you think of this?"^[47]

After some negotiations, they compromised; Chiang agreed to pay Kim 5,000 yuan per month, offered to hide him from the Japanese, and allow him to train Korean resistance fighters in the Luoyang branch of the Republic of China Military Academy. In addition, 40 horses were to be provided in order to train a cavalry unit. Although somewhat disappointed by the lack of a Manchurian school, Kim was elated to have a stable source of revenue.^[47][30] He then spent much effort in trying to recruit young Korean fighters.^[40]

Training independence fighters (1934–1935)

In February 1934, Kim became administrator of 92 students in the 17th Army Officer Training Class of the 4th Battalion^{[note 56]}, around 30 km north of Luoyang.^[10][47] Kim's class was named and presented as if it were yet another all-Chinese class (the previous 16 classes had graduated only Chinese students), in order to avoid detection from the Japanese. Training covered topics such as tactics, weapons, politics, communication, physical education, riding, and shooting.^[47] They trained with great urgency, as there was a prevailing sense that a second Sino-Japanese conflict and/or World War would erupt within one to two years.^[15]

He had made a special point of recruiting the armed forces^{[note 57]} of the 1930 Korea Independence Party (different from Kim's party). These fighters had sided with Chinese forces during the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. In addition, also in attendance were 20 students of the Joseon Revolutionary Military and Political Officers School^{[note 58]} in Nanjing. Kim had not been the first to receive funding and military training support from the Kuomintang. Kim Won-bong, former leader of the Shanghai-based Heroic Corps, had been training students in Nanjing since October 1932. Although Kim Won-bong's leftist leanings clashed with Kim Gu's anti-Communism, both Kims collaborated here after coaxing from the Kuomintang leadership.^[47] The two would later become rivals.

The training had several difficulties. Around June, Kim's funding from the Kuomintang was cut in half. In addition, Japanese authorities began to zero in on their Luoyang training location, and so they had to temporarily relocate to a temple. Around August, 25 students, including Kim's son In, were expelled by order of Kim and either placed on special missions or into regular Kuomintang military classes.^[15][49][10] Around September, four trainees were caught and arrested by Japanese authorities in Nanjing. By October, training activities greatly slowed. In December 1934, he created a special forces division^{[note 59]} for the remaining trainees, which came to be known as the "Kim Gu Club"^{[note 60]}.^[10][15]

On 9 April 1935, the school stopped after only operating for about a year.^[10][15] Of the original 92 students, 62 graduated. The school was closed for a variety of reasons, including internal conflicts between left and right leaning members and 21 January 1935 negotiations between the Kuomintang and Japanese governments.

Reunification with family (1934)

 

Kim Gu's family, reunited after 9 years. Clockwise from top center is Kim, his younger son Shin, his mother Kwak Nak-wŏn, and his elder son In (Nanjing, 1934).

After courses began, he invited his mother and sons to return to China. His stable income, protection from the Kuomintang, and the advanced age of his mother (75) motivated this decision. With assistance from independence fighters such as Kim Sŏn-ryang^{[note 61]}, they secretly took a boat from Pyongyang to Dalian, another to Shanghai, and finally a train to Jiaxing.^[50] In early April 1934, Kim reunited with his mother and two sons in Jiaxing for the first time in nine years.^[10][47] They went together to Nanjing, where Kim had prepared a house for them.

Chaos and fracturing in the Provisional Government (1933–1935)

As a result of the bombing, the assassinations, the flight of KPG members from Shanghai, and the increasingly intense searching of the Japanese, the independence movement was thrown into chaos. Much of the KPG stopped functioning, and internal infighting amongst those who stayed in Shanghai intensified.

In January 1933, Kim's Independence Party voted to remove all of the absent leadership, except for Kim. Despite the fact that Kim had resigned from the Government in the previous year, they kept him on out of respect.^[47] Regardless, he functionally didn't play much of a role in the party between his escape and 1934.

The Government moved its headquarters several times during this period. On 3 October 1933, the Provisional Assembly held its first meeting in a year at Hangzhou, delayed due to the chaos and the vacant chairman position. Four people attended. On 2 January 1934, they held another meeting in Zhenjiang. This time, they elected all new members, but Kim was not a candidate. Thus, after almost 15 years of serving in the Assembly, Kim lost his seat.^[47]

 

Kim Won-bong, the left-leaning leader of the rival Korean National Revolutionary Party (KNRP), and rival of Kim Gu (1931)

In mid-1935, a significant split in the Government emerged while Kim was busy with training students. A majority of the Government, including Kim Won-bong, Jo So-ang and Kim Tu-bong, began advocating for the dissolution of the Government and all parties, in favor of creating a single-party government.^[51] This came to pass in July, as several parties, including a breakaway group of Kim's party, unified into the Korean National Revolutionary Party (KNRP) under Kim Won-bong's leadership.^[52] Kim Gu opposed the dissolution of the KPG and saw one-party rule as infeasible, as internal tensions were only growing and not shrinking. He openly criticized the KNRP in multiple public letters. After two years of absence, he rejoined the Government and united what remained of it into the Korean National Party^{[note 62]} (KNP) around November. The more right-leaning KNP aligned itself with the United States and the left-leaning KNRP more with the Soviet Union.^[10] Even graduates of Kim's military school ended up divided along factional lines, and joined various organizations afterwards.^[15] The two parties competed fiercely for the support of the broader Korean community and the Kuomintang, publishing public letters and newspapers to advocate their positions.

Activities during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)

See also: Second Sino-Japanese War

In early July 1937, the anticipated conflict between the Chinese and Japanese finally began. On 15 July, the KPG met to plan their involvement in the conflict. They saw it as a critical opportunity to achieve independence. On 9 August, the Government approved a plan to set up a training camp and train an army that included 200 junior officers. Their planned budget for 1938 was 226 times larger than their 1937 budget, with military expenditures accounting for 98% of it. They expected to receive most of their funding from the Kuomintang, and the remaining approximately one-fifth via donations from the international Korean community. However, these efforts were a failure, as none of their plans came to fruition due to their following the retreat of the Kuomintang across China.^[53]

Flight from Nanjing to Changsha (1937–1938)

 

Map depicting the KPG's flight across China, which began with their escape from Shanghai in 1933 and ended with their settling in Chongqing in 1939 (2017)

On 17 August 1937, the various parties finally united into a coalition. The Japanese began air raids on Nanjing, which Kim experienced on 26 August. In early November, Japanese troops began approaching Nanjing. The Kuomintang began moving to Chongqing on 16 November, and the KPG to Changsha on 18 November. They chose Changsha because of its lower cost of living and its proximity to Hong Kong, through which they could contact the outside world. They also decided if the war got even worse, they could relocate to Hawaii. Kim set about coordinating and funding the evacuation of around 120 people, including Government personnel and their families. He lamented only being able to provide just 100 yuan for Zhu Aibao, his 'wife', to return to Jiaxing. They never saw each other again. Kim then took his younger son and mother on a British steam ship to Hankou, then another boat to Changsha.^[53][10]

Just three weeks after their departure, the Japanese perpetrated the infamous Nanjing Massacre, also called the Rape of Nanjing.^[53][10]

By 20 December, the KPG completed moving its personnel to Changsha. Finances became tighter, as receiving aid from the Kuomintang or expatriate community became more difficult, and because the other income streams of KPG members were severed. However, they adjusted by housing multiple families together. Around this time, his mother celebrated her 80th birthday (Korean age). He wanted to throw her a party which his mother refused. Instead, she demanded the money be used to purchase a pistol for the Korean fighters. He obeyed her request.^[53]

Shot in Changsha (1938)

Relationships between various parties improved drastically after their move to Changsha, and many found common ground. On 5 May, Kim proposed a dinner for the cadres of several parties, around 10 people total.

On 7 May, they held the dinner on the second floor of a building at Nanmuting^{[note 63]} in Changsha. Spirits were high, and the group exchanged jokes. Around 6:20pm, a young man burst in and fired four shots from his pistol. Youths downstairs began rushing up to apprehend the culprit, but he escaped by jumping from the second floor. The first bullet hit Kim, the second Hyŏn Ik-ch'ŏl^{[note 64]}, the third Ryu Tong-yŏl^{[note 65]}, and the fourth Ji Cheong-cheon. Of the four people shot, all recovered, except Hyŏn, who died that day and was later buried on Yuelu Mountain.^[53]

 

Kim (rightmost), recovering in Xiangya Hospital after being shot (May 1938)

Kim was shot in the left chest and lost consciousness. He was taken to the Xiangya Hospital^{[note 66]}, but the doctor refused to accept him, saying there was no hope for treatment. Telegrams were urgently sent to others in the independence movement, announcing Kim's death, with some immediately disembarking to Changsha expecting to attend his funeral. But Kim continued breathing, and after three hours the doctor finally relented to seeing him. Kim survived the shooting.^[53][54]

The culprit was 30-year-old Yi Un-hwan^{[note 67]}. He was known for being brash and uncompromising, and had even been expelled from the KNRP just two months earlier after rumors circulated that he wanted to assassinate various party leaders.^[55][56] His stated motivation was that he was dissatisfied with the direction the KNRP was taking. His exact motives remain unclear, although several accounts speculated that he was taking revenge for being expelled. Six days later, he was arrested by Chinese police at a rural train station dozens of kilometers away and sentenced to death. But he escaped from his imprisonment and was never recaptured.^[53]

When Chiang Kai-shek heard of the incident, he sent a telegram to Kim's hospital and requested they take good care of him. When Kim came to, he had no memory of what happened. The doctor told him he was admitted due to being excessively drunk, and that his chest injury came from falling on the table, which Kim believed. It was only until his release a month later that he learned the truth. The bullet remained in his chest for the rest of his life and affected his movement. After his release, he finally told his mother what had happened. She had a muted response, responding "You know God is protecting you. Evil cannot hurt the just. But what's regrettable is that the shooter was Korean; being shot by a Korean and living is worse than being shot by a Japanese and dying."^[57][53]

Arrival in Chongqing (1938–1940)

After Kim's release from the hospital, he spent the rest of the year managing the relocation of around 400 KPG members and family. Changsha became unsafe, as Japanese air raids intensified and refugees poured in. The KPG initially moved to Guangzhou, but after a few months, the Japanese began to encroach yet again. They finally decided to move to Chongqing to be with the Kuomintang leadership, abandoning their plan of staying near Hong Kong. Throughout this time, they were under constant threat of the Japanese, and narrowly escaped capture several times.^[58] On 26 October, Kim arrived in Chongqing, ahead of much of the KPG and their family. There, he coordinated travel, sent requests for funding abroad, and coordinated with the Kuomintang.

 

The funeral of Kwak Nak-wŏn, Kim Gu's mother. From the left is youngest son Shin, eldest son In, Kim, and Kim Hong-seo (26 April 1939)

In early 1939, Kim learned that his mother had contracted pharyngitis while traveling, and that her health was deteriorating. He rushed to her bedside in Chongqing, but she could not be saved. Feeling her end was near, Kwak Nak-wŏn gave her final wish to her son: "Succeed in your independence work. After you do, take the ashes of myself and In's mother and bury them in our homeland." She died at 10:50am on 26 April 1939. She is currently buried in the Daejeon National Cemetery, along with In.^[58][10][59]

Their time in Chongqing was to be difficult. Kim described his time here as his "Dying Period"^{[note 68]}.^[60] The population of Chongqing was below 500,000 before the war, but after the Kuomintang moved there, it surged to over 1,000,000. Housing was constantly in short supply, and regular Japanese bombing runs made the situation even worse. Kim frequently had to allocate money from their already-stretched budget for constructing or maintaining housing for KPG members and their families. From 1938 to 1945, around 70 to 80 Koreans died of pneumonia due to poor air quality, high humidity, and poor access to healthcare. Among them was Kim's eldest son In, who would die in 1945. Kim himself suffered from thiamine deficiency during this period, and spent many days hiding in bomb shelters and seeing trucks overflowing with dead bodies. Despite all this, the KPG actually lived relatively comfortably compared to much of the Chinese population of Chongqing, as the majority of Chinese families had even less reliable access to food and shelter.^[61]

 

The KPG's shabby third office in Chongqing (at 1 Heping Street, Wufu Street, Wu Shiye Alley) used from 1941 until it was destroyed by Japanese bombings in 1944.^[61]

They moved office buildings four times, after each building was destroyed by Japanese bombings. Their second office building was so severely destroyed on 2 September 1940 that not even a single article of clothing could be salvaged from it. Their third office was damp, dark, and had no plumbing, so they placed a bucket in a corner to urinate in. They would use this office for four years (until January 1945), the longest they used a building since Shanghai. While there, around March 1942, Kim would finish the second volume of his autobiography, the Baekbeomilji.^[61][60]

Failure to unite the independence movement (1939–1940)

After his arrival in Chongqing, Kim began work on integrating the various parties. Despite arguing against integration four years ago, the war had changed his mind. Another significant motivation for this was to appease the Kuomintang leadership, who were disappointed in the movement's continued infighting, epitomized in the Changsha shooting incident. The Kuomintang had even mediated several integration talks in 1937, which failed.^[58]

 

Kim Won-bong's Korean Volunteers Army (10 October 1938)

In particular, Kim sought to unify with Kim Won-bong. Unlike Kim Gu and the KPG, Kim Won-bong and the KNRP had actually succeeded in raising an army. On 10 October 1938, Kim Won-bong had created and became commander-in-chief of the first Korean armed forces in China, the Korean Volunteers Army^{[note 69]}. The army, with the help of Japanese Communist Kazuo Aoyama, managed to raise 100 soldiers and funding from the Kuomintang. By February 1940, they would have 314 soldiers.

In early 1939, they began negotiating their merger in earnest, but sides had somewhat flipped since 1935; Kim proposed a single party, while the left-leaning groups wanted a multi-party government.^[58] After several meetings, on 10 May, the two Kims released a joint statement^{[note 70]} advocating for a one-party government and listing ten shared ideals for the liberated Korea. The shared ideals included topics such as ending feudalism, gender equality, land redistribution, and creating free compulsory education.^[58] On 27 August, their parties participated in the Korean Revolution Movement Unification Seven Group Meeting^{[note 71]} in the Qijiang District of Chongqing, although the two Kims did not personally attend.^[62][63] Two of the seven parties withdrew from the conference after refusing to unite. The remaining five agreed to unite in principal, but talks broke down over the specifics of the merger. They disagreed on who would command the armed forces and to what extent they should collaborate with the right-leaning Kuomintang. Shortly after the breakdown of the talks, Germany invaded Poland, and World War II began.^[10]

After talks broke down, the Kuomintang representative at the meeting evaluated the two Kims as follows:^[64]

As party leaders, there are two people who have the relative leadership skills and reputation to lead the various Korean parties: Kim Gu and Kim Won-bong. The former has strong morals, is hardworking, and is well-regarded, but lacks in ingenuity. The latter is slightly better with ingenuity, but lacks in morals and renown, and would struggle to lead a unified government.

Kim placed the blame of the collapse in negotiations on the left-leaning parties, which the right-leaning Kuomintang generally agreed with. In a later January 1940 letter to Seo Eun-jeung^{[note 72]}, he presciently predicted that if right and left failed to find common ground now, the Korean peninsula would be "stained red with blood" in the future.^[63][65]

On 13 March 1940, the sitting KPG President Lee Dong-nyeong died of pneumonia. He died at age 70, and had served around 12 years total as the head of government. Kim became head of government after Lee's death. Kim was crushed, and read an emotional eulogy at Lee's funeral on 17 March. On 1 April, the parties within the KPG unified into the Korean Independence Party, and on 11 May, Kim was elected Chairman of the Executive Committee.^[63][10]

The Kuomintang was continually frustrated with the lack of progress. They decided on 19 January 1940 to take a more active role in mediating unification talks, and pushing for unification even if it meant excluding some left-leaning parties. However, they eventually gave up on unification. On 2 April, the Kuomintang met with the various Korean parties. There, they firmly proposed that the left and right leaning groups coexist, but operate in different territories. The KPG would operate between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, and the KNRP south of the Yangtze. The proposal was accepted.

Creating the Korean Liberation Army (1939–1942)

Main article: Korean Liberation Army

On 11 November 1939, the KPG announced a plan, created by Jo So-ang, to create an army. Like their failed proposal in 1938, it was wildly ambitious, calling for 110,000 party members, 1,200 officers, 100,000 soldiers, and 350,000 guerrillas raised after four years, totaling 541,200 personnel across six countries. It had an astronomical price-tag of 70.18 million yuan. By contrast, the total budget of the KPG in 1939 was 29,123 yuan. Son Sae-il, a journalist, Korean historian, and former politician, described the plan as "wildly removed from reality", and called Jo and the State Council that approved the plan "hopeless utopians".^[63] Once Kim took the reins of creating the army, he took a more realist approach.

On 11 April 1940, Chiang approved Kim's proposal for creating a KPG army, albeit with funding granted only depending on immediate needs. However, a disagreement between the Kuomintang and Kim arose, as Chiang wanted the army to be subordinate to the Kuomintang army, and Kim wanted greater independence in order to establish the army's credibility and legitimacy. The Kuomintang pulled out of the deal, refusing to provide funding. Kim moved forward anyway with creating the army.^[63]

 

The inauguration of the Korean Liberation Army. Kim Gu is in the center of the bottom row (8th person from the left) (17 September 1940)

On 17 September 1940, the formal establishment of the Korean Liberation Army (KLA) was announced.^[10] General Ji Cheong-cheon was to be its commander. They held a grand ceremony at then-luxurious Jialing Hotel^{[note 73]}, in order to establish the army's credibility and reputation. It was held early in the morning, at 6am, as to avoid Japanese air raids. Over 200 people were in attendance, including foreign ambassadors and Kuomintang officials.^[63]

The KLA became a rallying point for the Korean-American community, and donations came in greater volume. The San Francisco-based Sinhan Minbo newspaper regularly and prominently reported on the KLA's activities.^[63] Kim and many others in the KLA were adamantly convinced that around 30 million Koreans on the peninsula would eventually rise up against the Japanese and support the KLA's cause.^[66]

In September 1940, Kim was handily reelected as head of government, and he would hold this post until his return to Korea in 1945. On 8 October, the KPG modified its constitution, with particular intent to reorganize the chief executive to have greater power in order to account for a standing army. Thus, Kim became the Chairperson of the State Affairs Commission^{[note 74]}. This position was no longer considered first among equals, and instead entailed being commander-in-chief of the army, having veto power, and being able to issue executive orders.^[63]

On 12 November, the KLA announced their intent to switch from guerrilla warfare to conventional battle. They also moved their headquarters to Xi'an around this time.^[10] There, they began carrying out covert operations, recruiting youths, and publishing Chinese and Korean language newsletters. By 1 January 1941, they created five divisions, with over 100 people in the fifth division alone.^[61]

Difficulty gaining Kuomintang and US support

The Kuomintang put off formally recognizing the KLA for months and providing support for even longer, much to Kim's dismay. The KLA was growing rapidly, as hundreds of Koreans from all over China flocked to join, but the soldiers were sitting idle and underfunded. In February 1941, the Kuomintang even ordered its armed forces to block or restrict KLA activities. However, they began easing up around March, and by 28 May 1941, formally recognized the KLA. But aid was still slow to come.^[61] One reason for this delay was Kim Won-bong's interference, as he naturally viewed the KLA as competition, especially because the Volunteers Army was subordinate to the Kuomintang and the KLA was more politically aligned with the Kuomintang. Another reason was concern about international pushback, particularly from the United States and the Soviet Union, by approving the KLA.^[66]

The US government hesitated on approving not just the KLA, but also the KPG. Kim sent multiple letters to President Franklin D. Roosevelt asking for the establishment of formal KPG-US ties, including one sent via President Roosevelt's son, James Roosevelt, who visited Chongqing in July. But these were all ignored.^[61][10] Especially after the December 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor, many in the US government were actually open to supporting Korean independence, but were cautious because of how it could impact the Pacific War, how it could cause other independence movements to demand US support, and because of the internal political division amongst Koreans.^[60] Also, around December 1941, the KPG declared war on Japan.^[10]

On 10 April 1942, the Kuomintang informed the US that it wished to solely recognize the KPG, and asked if the US would too. However, the US rejected this request in early May. As a result, the Kuomintang also abandoned this.^[60]

 

Chiang, Roosevelt, and Prime Minister Winston Churchhill at the Cairo Conference (25 November 1943)

In mid-1942, the Allies began secretly discussing placing Korea into a trusteeship after the conclusion of the war. Rumors of this eventually began circulating amongst the Korean independence movement, resulting in anger and disappointment. On 27 November 1943, the US, UK, and China released the 1943 Cairo Declaration, in which Korea "in due course" would "become free and independent".^[10] While there was initial excitement, they quickly realized "in due course" could imply trusteeship, which infuriated Kim and many others.^[67] On 9 December 1943, Kim told an Associated Press reporter: "If the Allies fail to grant Korea total independence at the end of the war, we are determined to continue our historic war, no matter who the aggressor or group may be.^[68]

Kuomintang intervention, military and political unification (1942)

In May 1941, Kim Won-bong's KNRP began joining the KPG, albeit to much conflict. Later attempts for KNRP members to get elected into the National Council were highly controversial, and resulted in fist fights and nullified elections.^[66]

In early 1942, Kim became aware that the Kuomintang had been privately negotiating with Kim Won-bong to absorb the two dozen officers of the Korean Volunteers Army in Chongqing into the KLA. Kim Won-bong relented to this, on the condition that he become the Deputy Commander^{[note 75]}, a position that did not yet exist in the KLA.^[60]

On 13 May, the KPG relented and approved the merger.^[10] Thus, the Korean Volunteers Army became absorbed into the KLA. This decision displeased both sides. Kim protested to the Kuomintang in multiple letters, insisting they avoid directly interfering in the KLA's affairs. Kim Won-bong reportedly cried and drank all night on 15 May, and delayed taking up his position until 5 December.^[69][70] In an effort to gain greater control over the KLA, the Kuomintang quickly began reducing funding and placing numerous Chinese officers in vacant KLA administration positions. This effectively made any significant military activities impossible.^[71]

On 9 October, Chiang effectively softened his stance by laying out a plan to handle the Korean independence movement, in which they would initially provide one million yuan of funding to the KPG, provide relative autonomy for the various Korean parties, and assure Korea that China would consider its independence first before any other country. Shortly afterwards, on 11 October, the Kuomintang finally managed to unify the various parties by itself joining a coalition called the China-Korea Cultural Association^{[note 76]}.^[72][71][10] The KNRP had a relatively weak showing in KPG elections. Kim and others in the Independence Party were elated at these developments, as it somewhat met their original goals and also signaled their victory over the KNRP.^[73]

Infighting and reconciliation (1943–1945)

Alleged assassination attempt and funding conflict

On 15 May, the Independence Party announced that there was an assassination attempt on Kim and Independence Party leadership. They alleged that Kim T'ak^{[note 77]} and Kim Sŭng-kon^{[note 78]} bribed Pak Su-pok^{[note 79]} to help them steal a handgun from KPG security guards in order to kill Independence Party leadership and increase KNRP power. They also alleged other KNRP leadership were involved.^[74]

Kim Sŭng-kon and Park Su-pok were arrested by KPG security. The former escaped and alleged that he was tortured into giving a false confession. On the morning of 10 June, KPG security stormed into KNRP offices to arrest Kim Tak, but he had already been evacuated. On 21 June, the Chongqing Police took custody of Kim Sŭng-kon and Park Su-pok, but eventually released them due to a lack of evidence.^[74]

This incident damaged the KPG's reputation in Chongqing and increased internal tensions. The KNRP insisted it was a false flag operation. Shortly afterwards, the KNRP announced it suspected Kim and the Independence Party were withholding funds from them, and published pamphlets all over Chongqing and abroad with their accusations. Kim was furious and deeply embarrassed by this.^[74]

Resignation from KPG, return, and compromise

After a failed in-person mediation attempt by Chiang on 26 July^{[note 80]}, Kim and six others on the State Council resigned on 31 August. As only four seats were filled, a quorum could not be reached, and KPG activities essentially froze. This development stunned the Korean-American community and the Kuomintang, and posed a tangible physical danger to Koreans in Chongqing, as the KPG managed security and housing efforts.^[74] On 21 September, the seven withdrew their resignations and returned.

In early October, the 35th National Assembly meeting was one of the tensest in the KPG's history. The main goal was to change the constitution to accommodate the inclusion of the KNRP. The KNRP also quickly submitted a motion to impeach Kim and the current government and concurrently managed to convince 17 members of the Independence Party to resign. Debates ran so fierce and long, that the conference was extended until April 1944. The Kuomintang intervened by threatening to withhold funds from both sides if a compromise was not reached.

Finally, on 11 April, they compromised on the constitutional amendment and agreed to not impeach. Kim was reelected head of government and Kim Won-bong as head of the Armed Forces; both were sworn in on 26 April.^[75][10] Kim Won-bong's position was notably weakened, and he would continue to be excluded in other ways after this election.

Agreement with Kuomintang

On 5 September 1943, Kim met with Chiang and gave several requests, including public acknowledgement of the KPG as the representative government of Korea, greater independence of the KLA, and assistance for Koreans in Central Asia who had been deported in 1937. Other than independence for the KLA, much of the requests were either deferred or effectively denied by Chiang. Funding for the KLA remained so poor that it did not cover living expenses.^[76]

Many in the KPG decided they needed to expand their relationship with other Allied governments. In April 1943, the KLA decided to dispatch representatives to various Allied countries. Kim also continued sending letters advocating for Korea and offering KPG military support to President Roosevelt, including a congratulatory letter on 17 June 1944, after the successful Normandy landings.^[76] The KLA even sent soldiers to fight for the British Indian Army via the Kuomintang. On 29 August 1943, nine KLA personnel were sent to Calcutta. The Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command Louis Mountbatten requested more troops, so the Kuomintang reluctantly arranged for 16 more KLA personnel to go, but this was delayed.^[76]

Finally, on 1 May 1945, after a few months of negotiations, the KPG gained full control over the KLA under an agreement with the Kuomintang entitled Measures to Aid the Korean Liberation Army^{[note 81]}. The agreement also specified that the Kuomintang would fund KLA operations by loaning funds.^[76][77] This effectively allowed the KLA to more freely collaborate with other Allied countries.

Eagle Project (1945)

 

The KPG's fourth headquarters, a former hotel in the Qixinggang district of Chongqing which they moved into on 1 January 1945. It is now a museum^[78] (picture from 2014)

Main article: Eagle Project

Beginning in late 1944, KLA officials began discussing cooperation with agents from the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS). While there was a prevailing sentiment that the Allies would win the war, they expected the war with Japan to last at least another full year and possibly involve an invasion of Korea and mainland Japan. Thus, the KLA sought to offer its services to the OSS in exchange for improved status of the KPG after the war.^[76][79]

In September 1944, Lee Beom-seok, then Chief of Staff of the KLA, met with Colonel Joseph Dickey of the US Military Intelligence Service in Chongqing.^{[note 82]} Lee then met with OSS Agent Captain Clyde Bailey Sargent, who was fluent in Chinese and a former professor at Chengdu University. Sargent then suggested to the head of the OSS General William J. Donovan that the OSS collaborate with the KLA. An agreement to collaborate was reached in October 1944.^[79]

On 31 January 1945, around 50 young Korean deserters who had been forcefully conscripted into the Japanese army arrived at the fourth KPG headquarters, singing the national anthem and carrying the flag.^[76][77] A banquet was held, emotional speeches were given, and Kim and many others were moved to tears. This event received significant local attention and reportedly improved the KPG's public perception in Chongqing. Chiang reportedly saw the potential psychological impact on the enemy of deploying Korean escapees against them, and increased funding for their living expenses and training.^[80] US and British military intelligence officers also interviewed the youths, which Son Sae-il suggests may have supported OSS willingness to collaborate.^[76]

 

Photo commemorating the Eagle Project (30 September 1945)

On 24 February, the OSS completed a plan called the Eagle Project^{[note 83]} that was approved by US military headquarters on 13 March.^[81][82] Kim's first meeting with Sargent was supposed to be on 1 April, but on 29 March, Kim's eldest son In passed away. Kim, Lee, and Sargent met on 3 April, just north of Chongqing to discuss which operatives should be trained. Sargent's aide described Kim as follows:

President Kim entered the room, dressed in an attractive, plain Chinese gown, for which he apologized on excuse that he had not been well and was resting. In spite of his 70 years, which he showed completely in both appearance and manner, he bore himself with dignity and composure tempered by modesty and gentleness that seemed incompatible with the patriotic assassin and terrorist of 25 [sic, 13] years ago.

— Captain Sargent’s aide-mémoires, April 1–3, 1945.

Kim Won-bong was notably absent from the planning process; he was either excluded or he excused himself from these meetings.^[82] A controversy arose in May 1945, as Kim Won-bong protested to Independence Party and US officials about Kim Gu circumventing his authority. In response, General Albert Wedemeyer rejected Kim Won-bong's request for co-acknowledgement.^[80]

The plan was to iteratively select 45 operatives over 8 months. These operatives would be assigned to either intelligence or communications squads and trained by the OSS in skills like wireless communication, espionage, explosives, scaling cliffs, and marksmanship.^[79] After this, they'd be assigned to one of five Korean cities: Chongjin, Sinuiju, Busan, Pyongyang, or Seoul. There, they'd perform intelligence operations, sabotage Japanese operations, and stir up unrest.^[82]

 

Kim Gu (front, left) and General Donovan (front, right) meeting in Xi'an (7 August 1945)

On 28 May, Kim Gu wrote to Chiang, asking for his approval to create training camps in the frontline cities of Xi'an and Fuyang. Chiang approved these requests on 30 June. Around July, Kim sent a letter to Wedemeyer, informing him that when the US liberates Jeju Island, the KPG would follow and ensure local compliance with American operations. While this plan eventually proved unnecessary, it illustrates how Kim and the KLA genuinely expected there to be combat on the Korean peninsula during its liberation.^[80]

Other than language issues, training went relatively smoothly, with 38 of 50 students in the first class of students passing on 4 August.^[80] The second class began training in early July. Kim decided to meet General Donovan and the graduates of the first class in Xi'an, and took a US military plane there on 5 August. They met when Donovan arrived on 7 August. Spirits were high at the meeting; Donovan reportedly said "Let both of our governments work closely together from now on", and Kim replied "You took the words right out of my mouth". Kim gave a telegram to Donovan that he wanted forwarded to President Harry S. Truman. Donovan complied. A few weeks later, Truman sent Donovan this response:

My dear General Donovan:

I consider it inadvisable to make any reply to the message transmitted by you on August 18, 1945, from Mr. Kim Ku [sic] who represents himself as the head of the "Provisional Government of Korea". I would appreciate your instructing your agents to the impropriety of their acting as a channel for the transmission to me of messages from representatives of self-styled governments which are not recognized by the Government of the United States.

Very sincerely yours,

— Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman to General William Donovan with Related Material, August 25, 1945, pg 1

Kim was elated with how the meeting went, and left hopeful that the US would soon formally recognize the KPG. But he was unaware that the US had dropped the first atomic bombs around the time of the meeting, and that Truman would dissolve the OSS in less than a month.^[80]

End of World War II

On 10 August 1945, Kim learned of the surrender of Japan. He described his feelings of this in his autobiography:

This felt less like happy news and more like the sky was falling. Years of trials and tribulations preparing for a war in vain. [...] [W]hat worries me is that because we have done nothing in this war, our voice on the international stage will be weak.

— Kim Gu, Baekbomilji, vol II

Lee, Kim, and Sargent began formulating a plan to have the KLA reenter the peninsula alongside US forces.^[83]

Return to Korea and reunification efforts (1945–1949)

Kim returned to the liberated Korea upon the surrender of Japan to the Allies in 1945. He was known as "the Assassin" and reportedly travelled with an entourage of gunmen and concubines.^[84]

On 27 December 1945, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China agreed to a trusteeship for the newly-liberated Korea. Kim was opposed to the trusteeship and to the 1947 creation of The Joint Soviet-American Commission.^{[citation needed]}

Appeasement of Kim Il Sung (1948)

In mid-April 1948, Kim went to the North. As the division of the newly-independent ROK state under the trusteeship became obvious, Kim led a team of former independence activists to Pyongyang to hold unification talks with Kim Il Sung, who later became the Premier of North Korea in 1948.

 

Kim Il Sung and Kim Gu (right) (1948)

While Kim Gu was still anti-Communist, he softened his stance in an effort to appease Kim Il Sung.^[6][7][8] In addition, many Koreans were then distrustful of the US, and unsure of whether the US would support South Korea in the event of a Northern invasion. In a 1985 interview with the Japanese magazine Sekai, Kim Il Sung claimed that Kim Gu asked him for political asylum in the event that his relationship with the US soured. Kim Il Sung then claimed that Kim Gu got on his knees and begged for forgiveness for his past anti-Communist actions. The truthfulness of the latter claim is doubted by several South Korean scholars.^[6][7]

Many of Kim Gu's contemporaries and modern critics were skeptical of his appeasement efforts. The Kuomintang Minister in Seoul rebuked Kim in a 11 July 1948 conversation, saying "damage has been done [...] by your recent activities in connection with the so-called North and South Korean Leaders' Conference held in Pyongyang".^[8][85]

Kim returned to the South deeply concerned that the North would handily win if it invaded the South.

In 1948, the inaugural National Assembly of South Korea nominated Kim as a candidate for the office of the first president of the Republic. In the election by the National Assembly, Kim was defeated by Rhee Syngman, the first president of the Provisional Government, who had been impeached in 1925 by a vote of 180–16. He lost the election for the vice presidency to Lee Si-yeong (이시영; 李始榮) by a vote of 133–59. Kim did not know about his nomination until after the election. He did not approve the nomination since he considered it a ploy to discredit him. Kim would never have participated in the election, as he fiercely opposed the establishment of separate governments in North and South Korea.^{[citation needed]}

Death

 

Kim Gu's funeral (5 July 1949)

On 26 June 1949, while reading poetry in his office in the evening, Kim was assassinated by Lieutenant Ahn Doo-hee, who burst in and shot him four times.^[86]

Years later, in 1996, Ahn himself was murdered by Park Gi-seo^{[note 84]}, a bus driver and admirer of Kim Gu.^[87] The weapon involved in the murder was a 40 cm-long wooden rod, with "Stick of Justice"^{[note 85]} and "Reunification"^{[note 86]} written on it.^[88] In 2018, 70-year-old Park donated the stick, still faintly stained with the blood of Ahn, to the Colonial History Museum in Seoul.^[89]

Motive for assassination

Ahn stated that he had killed Kim because he saw him as an agent of the Soviet Union.^[90]

In 1949, Kim Il Sung claimed that Kim Gu had been "murdered by the Syngman Rhee clique."^[91] According to Bruce Cumings's 1981 book, another possible motive for the assassination was Kim Gu's alleged connection to the assassination of Song Jin-woo, a leader of the Korean Democratic Party (KDP), who had chosen to work closely with the American military government.^[92]

On April 13, 1992, a confession by Ahn was published by the Korean newspaper Dongah Ilbo. In his confession, Ahn claimed that the assassination had been ordered by Kim Chang-ryong, who served as the head of Rhee's national security.^[93] In 2001, declassified documents revealed that Ahn had been working for the U.S Counter-Intelligence Corps, leading to suggestions of American involvement in the assassination.^[94] However, some have questioned the evidence for those accusations.^[95]

Legacy

Baekbeomilji, his autobiography

His autobiography, Baekbeomilji ("Journal of Baekbeom", 백범일지) is an important source for study of history of Korean independence movement and was designated as cultural treasure No. 1245 by the Korean government in 1997.^[96] A steady bestseller in Korea, the autobiography was first published in 1947 and republished in more than 10 versions in Korea and abroad.^[96]

It consists of two volumes that were written at different periods of his life. The first volume was completed around 1929, and took around a year and two months to complete. It was originally not intended for widespread publication, as it was dedicated to his sons and focused more on his own life story.^[97] The second volume was completed around March 1942, according to Son Sae-il's analysis, around 13 years after the first.^[60] It covers his life from his arrival in Shanghai in April 1919 until the foundation of the KLA in Chongqing in 1942. This volume was intended for a wider audience, especially because it was written after his children were already grown. The first volume was written using a pen, but the second using a brush, as Kim had grown accustomed to the calligraphy used in official documents of the Kuomintang.^[60]

Public opinion

In South Korea, Kim has been consistently regarded as one of the greatest figures in Korean history. In a 2004 online poll, he was voted the greatest leader after Korean independence.^[1] In 2005, the Korean National Assembly voted him the most revered figure in Korean history, even above Yi Sun-sin.^[2]

In a 2007 national survey, Kim was voted to appear on new Korean banknotes, to be issued in 2009.^[98][99] On November 5, 2007, the Bank of Korea announced the new 100,000 Korean won bill would feature Kim's portrait.^[100] However, the new bill has been delayed indefinitely as of February 2023, for fear that issuing the bill would cause inflation.

Awards

In 1962, Kim was posthumously awarded the Republic of Korea Medal of Order of Merit for National Foundation, the most prestigious civil decoration in the Republic of Korea. On 15 August 1990, North Korea awarded him the National Reunification Prize.^[101]

Personal life

 

The gravestone of Kim's wife Ch'oe Chun-rye. Clockwise from top left is Kim Gu (aged 49), Kim's mother Kwak Nak-wŏn (66), his elder son In (5), and his youngest son Shin (2) (1924)

Kim was married to Ch'oe Chun-rye^{[note 87]}; 1889 – 1 January 1924) until she died in Shanghai around age 34. She was buried in the Shanghai French Concession.

Children

Kim had five children in total, three daughters and two sons, but only his sons survived past childhood. His first daughter Mi-sang^{[note 88]} lived from 1906–1907. His second daughter Hwa-gyeong^{[note 89]} lived from 1910–1915. His third daughter Eun-gyeong^{[note 90]} from 1916–1917.

Kim In [ko] (12 November 1917 – 29 March 1945^[102]) joined his father in exile in Shanghai at age 3, in 1920. He went back to Korea in 1927 and returned to China in 1934. Afterwards, he served various minor roles in the Provisional Government's army. In 1940, he married Susanna Ahn [ko], the niece of An Jung-geun.^[103] They had one daughter Kim Hyo-ja^{[note 91]} in 1945, who is currently still living as of 2022^[update].^[104] He died at age 27 in 1945 of tuberculosis in Chengdu, Republic of China.^{[61][82][103]}

Kim Shin (21 September 1922 – 19 May 2016), was a founding member of Republic of Korea Air Force, the Chief of Korean Air Force, member of the National Assembly, and the Minister of Transportation, and later the Director of the Kim Koo Museum and Library. He died aged 93. He had five children, including Kim Yang (김양; 金揚; b. 1953), who worked as Korean Consulate General in Shanghai in 2005 and as the Minister of Patriots and Veteran Affairs of Korea (국가보훈처; 國家報勳處) in 2008.^[105]

Bibliography

• Baekbeomilji (백범일지; 白凡逸志)^[106]
• Dowaesilgi (도왜실기; 屠倭實記)

In popular culture

Films

• Portrayed by Jeong Min in the 1969 film Temporary Government in Shanghai [ko].^[107][108]
• Portrayed by Kim Hong-pa in the 2015 film Assassination.
• Portrayed by Cho Jin-woong in the 2017 film Man of Will.

Television

• Portrayed by Lee Young-hoo in the 1981–1982 MBC TV series 1st Republic.^[109]
• Portrayed by Lee Young-hoo in the 2002 SBS TV series Rustic Period.
• Portrayed by Kim Sang-joong and Jo Sang-geon in the 1995 KBS1 TV series Kim Gu.
• Portrayed Lee Young-hoo in the 2006 KBS1 TV series Seoul 1945.
• Portrayed by Lee Young-hoo in the 2010 KBS1 TV series Freedom Fighter, Lee Hoe-young.

See also

• Kim Kyu-sik
• Yoon Bong-Gil
• Lee Bong-Chang
• Kim Ja-jeom
• Kim Koo Museum

Notes

1. Korean: 김창암; Hanja: 金昌巖; [kimtɕʰaŋam]
2. Korean: 텃골; Hanja: 基洞 Korean: 백운방; Hanja: 白雲坊
3. Korean: 김순영; Hanja: 金淳永
4. He died the same day his paternal grandmother died. His birth was a difficult one, with his mother spending about a week in labor until he was born. The family engaged in various superstitious rituals to ease the birth.^[9]
5. Kim was a 34th-generation descendant of Kim Suk-seung (Korean: 김숙승; Hanja: 金叔承), the grandson of King Gyeongsun of Silla and the founder of the Andong Kim clan.
6. Korean: 오응선; Hanja: 吳膺善
7. Korean: 김창수; Hanja: 金昌洙
8. Korean: 팔봉
9. Korean: 최시형; Hanja: 崔時亨
10. Korean: 이동엽
11. Korean: 이종선
12. General Ahn was the father of Ahn Jung-geun, who later in October 1909 assassinated the first prime minister of Japan, Itō Hirobumi.
13. Korean: 고능선; Hanja: 高能善
14. Korean: 위정척사; Hanja: 衛正斥邪
15. Korean: 김형진; Hanja: 金亨鎭
16. Korean: 김이언; Hanja: 金利彦
17. Korean: 치하포; Hanja: 鵄河浦
18. Korean: 진남포; Hanja: 鎭南浦
19. Korean: 임학길; Hanja: 林學吉
20. Japanese: 平原 篤武
21. Japanese: 萩原 守一
22. Korean: 이
23. Korean: 원종; Hanja: 圓宗
24. Before his father died, Kim reportedly engaged in a ritual called halgo (Korean: 할고; Hanja: 割股), in which children cut their finger and feed blood to their ailing parents to increase their health.^[9]
25. Korean: 최준례; Hanja: 崔遵禮
26. Korean: 최여옥; Hanja: 如玉
27. Korean: 안신호
28. Korean: 신민회; Hanja: 新民會; RR: Shinminhoe
29. Korean: 안명근; Hanja: 安明根
30. Korean: 문종칠; Hanja: 文種七
31. Korean: 김신
32. Korean: 국무령
33. Korean: 국무회의 주석
34. Korean: 한인애국단; Hanja: 韓人愛國團; RR: Haninaegukdan
35. Korean: 유진식; Hanja: 兪鎭植
36. Korean: 이덕주; Hanja: 李德柱
37. Japanese: 山岡萬之助
38. Korean: 최흥식; Hanja: 崔興植
39. Korean: 유상근; Hanja: 柳相根
40. Chinese: 大洋
41. Chinese: 褚輔成; pinyin: Chǔfǔchéng
42. Chinese: 梅灣街
43. He used the names Chinese: 長震球; pinyin: Zhǎng Zhènqiú; Jyutping: coeng4 zan3 kau4 or Chinese: 長震; pinyin: Zhǎng Zhèn; Jyutping: coeng4 zan3
44. Chinese: 朱佳蕊
45. Chinese: 載靑別墅
46. Chinese: 朱愛寶
47. Korean: 남화한인청년연맹; Hanja: 南華韓人靑年聯盟
48. Korean: 오면직; Hanja: 吳冕稙
49. Korean: 엄형순
50. Korean: 이진룡; Hanja: 李珍龍
51. Korean: 상해대한교민단; Hanja: 上海大韓僑民團
52. Korean: 유인발; Hanja: 柳寅發
53. Korean: 상해한국인친우회; Hanja: 上海韓國人親友會
54. Korean: 박창세; Hanja: 朴昌世
55. Most sources I see say the meeting happened around May 1933, but the Chosun source says Sept/Oct 1932. Which is modern consensus? It's apparently undated even in the Baekbomilji.
56. Korean: 제2총대 제4대대 육군군관훈련반 제17대
57. Korean: 한국독립군; Hanja: 韓國獨立軍; lit. Korea Liberation Army
58. Korean: 조선혁명군사정치간부학교; Hanja: 朝鮮革命軍事政治幹部學校
59. Korean: 한국특무대독립군; Hanja: 韓國特務隊獨立軍
60. Korean: 김구구락부
61. Korean: 김선량; Hanja: 金善亮
62. Korean: 한국국민당; Hanja: 韓國國民黨
63. Chinese: 楠木廳
64. Korean: 현익철; Hanja: 玄益哲
65. Korean: 류동열; Hanja: 柳東說
66. Chinese: 湘雅醫院
67. Korean: 이운환; Hanja: 李雲煥; 李雲漢
68. Korean: 죽어가는 시대
69. Korean: 조선의용대; Hanja: 朝鮮義勇隊
70. Korean: 동지·동포 제군에게 보내는 공개통신
71. Korean: 한국혁명운동통일 7단체회의
72. Korean: 서은증; Hanja: 徐恩曾
73. Chinese: 嘉陵賓館
74. Korean: 국무위원회 주석
75. Korean: 부사령
76. Korean: 중한문화협회; Hanja: 中韓文化協會
77. Korean: 김탁; Hanja: 金鐸; Chinese: 王通; pinyin: Wángtōng
78. Korean: 김승곤; Hanja: 金勝坤; Chinese: 黃民; pinyin: Huángmín
79. Korean: 박수복; Hanja: 朴守福
80. The last time Kim and Chiang met in person was in 1933
81. Korean: 원조한국광복군판법; Hanja: 援助韓國光復軍辦法
82. Dickey was one of the planners of the Dixie Mission, which investigated whether the US should cooperate with the Chinese Communist Party. Dickey reportedly took interested in Lee's request and suggested he visit Washington. Kim began arranging Lee's trip to the US, but the trip never occurred.
83. Korean: 독수리작전
84. Korean: 박기서; Hanja: 朴琦緖
85. Korean: 정의봉; Hanja: 正義棒
86. Korean: 통일; Hanja: 統一
87. Korean: 최준례; Hanja: 崔遵禮
88. Korean: 미상
89. Korean: 김화경; Hanja: 金化慶
90. Korean: 김은경; Hanja: 金恩慶
91. Korean: 김효자; Hanja: 金孝子

References

1. [1] 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine 2004 online poll
2. [2] 2005 survey by Dongailbo
3. "뉴라이트와 현 정부에 조롱당하는 김구 주석". 오마이뉴스 (in Korean). 2009-01-17. Retrieved 2023-02-21.
4. 경향신문 1997년 8월 13일자, 19면
5. Japan Center for Asian Historical Records Reference code: A04010024500
6. "북한에서는 김구를 어떻게 평가할까". 미래한국 Weekly (in Korean). 2014-11-14. Retrieved 2023-02-22.
7. "김구와 김일성의 다른 계산". 주간조선 (in Korean). 2015-08-21. Retrieved 2023-02-22.
8. "Record of Conversation between Kim Gu and Liu Yuwan | Wilson Center Digital Archive". digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org. Retrieved 2023-02-22.
9. "[연재] 孫世一의 비교 傳記 (1) - 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九". monthly.chosun.com (in Korean). 2003-12-16. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
10. . 백범김구선생 기념사업협회. Archived from the original on 28 January 2012. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
11. . www.newsis.com. Archived from the original on 2017-04-10.
12. Kim, Gu (1947). "기구한 젊은 때". 백범일지 상권. Seoul, Korea: 국사원. 나는 때가 왔다 하고 서서히 일어나 '이놈!' 소리를 치면서 발길로 그 왜놈의 복장을 차니 그는 한 길이나 거진 되는 계하에 나가떨어졌다. 나는 나는 듯이 쫓아 내려가 그놈의 모가지를 밟았다. 삼간 방문 네 짝이 일제히 열리며 그리로 사람들의 모가지가 쑥쑥 내밀어졌다. 나는 몰려나오는 무리를 향하여, "누구나 이 왜놈을 위하여 감히 내게 범접하는 놈은 모조리 죽일 테니 그리 알아라!" 하고 선언하였다. 이 말이 끝나기도 전에 내 발에 채이고 눌렸던 왜놈이 몸을 빼쳐서 칼을 빼어 번쩍거리며 내게로 덤비었다. 나는 내 면상에 떨어지는 그의 칼날을 피하면서 발길을 들어 그의 옆구리를 차서 거꾸러뜨리고 칼을 잡은 손목을 힘껏 밟은즉 칼이 저절로 언 땅에 소리를 내고 떨어졌다. 나는 그 칼을 들어 왜놈의 머리에서부터 발끝까지 점점이 난도를 쳤다. 2월 추운 새벽이라 빙판이 진 땅 위에 피가 샘솟듯 흘렀다. 나는 손으로 그 피를 움켜 마시고, 또 왜의 피를 내 낯에 바르고 피가 뚝뚝 떨어지는 장검을 들고 방으로 들어가면서, 아까 왜놈을 위하여 내게 범하려던 놈이 누구냐 하고 호령하였다.
13. 새國史事典 (New Encyclopedia of Korean History) Seoul:Gyohaksa, 1983, ISBN 89-09-00506-8
14. 송우혜, 앞의 책, 131~132쪽.
15. "孫世一의 비교 評傳 (56) 한국 민족주의의 두 類型 - 李承晩과 金九". monthly.chosun.com (in Korean). 2006-10-29. Retrieved 2023-02-26.
16. "치하포사건 (鵄河浦事件)". Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
17. 이정식, 《대한민국의 기원》(일조각, 2006) 250~251쪽 참조.
18. 도진순, 《분단의 내일 통일의 역사(당대총서 15)》 (당대, 2008) 265페이지
19. "마곡사, 원종스님(백범 김구) 71주기 추모다례재". 불교신문 (in Korean). 2020-06-26. Retrieved 2023-02-21.
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21. 김구 (초판 1997-7-25, 개정판 2002-8-1). 《백범일지》. 경기도 파주: 돌베개. 440쪽쪽. ISBN 89-7199-148-8.
22. [3] Doosan Encyclopedia
23. 김구 (초판 1997-7-25, 개정판 2002-8-1). 《백범일지》. 경기도 파주: 돌베개. 440~441쪽쪽. ISBN 89-7199-148-8
24. 김구 (초판 1997-7-25, 개정판 2002-8-1). 《백범일지》. 경기도 파주: 돌베개. 267쪽쪽. ISBN 89-7199-148-8.
25. 대한민국을 움직인 사람들 백범 김구 - 1부 나의 길, retrieved 2023-04-25
26. Administration, Cultural Heritage. "Baekbeom ilji (Diary of Kim Gu), Volumes 1 (1929) and 2 (1943) - Heritage Search". Cultural Heritage Administration - English Site. Retrieved 2023-02-22.
27. 허정, 《내일을 위한 증언》(샘터사, 1979) 76
28. "김좌진". terms.naver.com (in Korean). Retrieved 2023-02-23.
29. Park, Jeongwon Bourdais (2017). Identity, Policy, and Prosperity: Border Nationality of the Korean Diaspora and Regional Development in Northeast China. Springer. p. 67.
30. "한인애국단". terms.naver.com (in Korean). Retrieved 2023-02-23.
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Kim Koo

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Political offices
Preceded by Hong Jin	President of Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea 1926-1927	Succeeded by Yi Dong-nyung
Preceded by Roh Baek-lin	Vice Presidents of Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea 1930-1933	Succeeded by Yang Gi-tak
Preceded by Yi Dong-nyung	President of Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea 1940-1948	Provisional Government dissolved