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Juris Doctor

January 01, 1970

A Juris Doctor, Doctor of Jurisprudence,[1] or Doctor of Law[2] (JD) is a graduate-entry professional degree that primarily prepares individuals to practice law. In the United States, it is the only qualifying law degree, while other jurisdictions, such as Australia, Canada, and Hong Kong, offer both JD degrees and undergraduate qualifying law degrees.

Juris Doctor diploma conferred by Columbia Law School

Originating in the United States in the late 19th century, the JD has since replaced the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) as the most common law degree in the country. The degree generally requires three years of full-time study to complete and is conferred upon students who have successfully completed coursework and practical training in legal studies. The JD curriculum typically includes fundamental legal subjects such as constitutional law, civil procedure, criminal law, contracts, property, and torts, along with opportunities for specialization in areas like international law, corporate law, or public policy. Upon receiving a JD, graduates must pass a bar examination to be licensed to practice law. The American Bar Association does not allow an accredited JD degree to be issued in less than two years of law school studies.[3][4]

In the United States, the JD has the academic standing of a professional doctorate (in contrast to a research doctorate),[5][6] and is described as a "doctor's degree – professional practice" by the United States Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics.[7][8] In Australia, South Korea, and Hong Kong, it has the academic standing of a master's degree,[9][10] while in Canada, it is considered a second-entry bachelor's degree.[11][12]

To be fully authorized to practice law in the courts of a given state in the United States, the majority of individuals holding a JD degree must pass a bar examination,[13][14][15][16] except from the state of Wisconsin.[17][18] United States patent courts also involve a specialized "Patent Bar" which require applicants to hold an additional degree in certain scientific fields alongside their Juris Doctor degrees.[19]

Etymology and abbreviations edit

In the United States, the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English as Juris Doctor (sometimes shown on Latin diplomas in the accusative form Juris Doctorem) and at some law schools Doctor of Law (JD),[20] or Doctor of Jurisprudence (also abbreviated JD).[21][22] "Juris Doctor" literally means "teacher of law", while the Latin for "Doctor of Jurisprudence" – Jurisprudentiae Doctor – literally means "teacher of legal knowledge".

The JD is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor (LLD). In institutions where the latter can be earned, e.g., Cambridge University (where it is titled "Doctor of Law", though still retaining the abbreviation LLD) and many other British institutions, it is a higher research doctorate, representing a substantial contribution to the field over many years – a standard of professional experience beyond that required for a Doctor of Philosophy.[23] In the United States, the LLD is invariably an honorary degree.

Historical context edit

Origins of the law degree edit

The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. This served as the model for other law schools of the Middle Ages, and other early universities such as the University of Padua.[24] The first academic degrees may[a] have been doctorates in civil law (doctores legum) followed by canon law (doctores decretorum); these were not professional degrees but rather indicated that their holders had been approved to teach at the universities. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees (bachelor's and licences) were introduced in Paris and then in the English universities.[26][27][28][29]

History of legal training in England edit

 
The Inns of Court of London served as a professional school for lawyers in England

The nature of the JD can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practice law.[30]: 434, 435  The universities only taught civil and canon law (used in a very few jurisdictions, such as the courts of admiralty and church courts) but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. Professional training for practicing common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court, but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation.[30]: 434, 436  However, because of the lack of standardisation of study, and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently important for the education of lawyers in the English-speaking world.[30]: 436 

In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system.[30]: 430  The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation.[30]: 431  By the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university, akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose.[30]: 432  With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.[30]: 433 

Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of academic study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law (the two "laws" in the original Bachelor of Laws, which thus became the Bachelor of Civil Law when the study of canon law was barred after the Reformation) and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. As a consequence of the need for practical education in law, the apprenticeship program for solicitors emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades.[30]: 434  The training of solicitors by a five-year apprenticeship was formally established by the Attorneys and Solicitors Act 1728.[30]: 435  William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature.[30]: 435  Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure provided by apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.[31]: 775, 793 

The 1728 act was amended in 1821 to reduce the period of the required apprenticeship to three years for graduates in either law or arts from Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, as "the admission of such graduates should be facilitated, in consideration of the learning and abilities requisite for taking such degree".[32] This was extended in 1837 to cover the newly established universities of Durham and London,[33] and again in 1851 to include the new Queen's University of Ireland.[34]

The Inns of Court continued but became less effective, and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination. In 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to that of Europe and the United States, as Britain did not regulate the admission of barristers.[30]: 436  Therefore, formal schools of law were called for but were not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions.[30]: 436 

Until the mid nineteenth century, most law degrees in England (the BCL at Oxford and Durham, and the LLB at London)[35][36][37] were postgraduate degrees, taken after an initial degree in arts. The Cambridge degree, variously referred to as a BCL, BL or LLB, was an exception: it took six years from matriculation to complete, but only three of these had to be in residence, and the BA was not required (although those not holding a BA had to produce a certificate to prove they had not only been in residence but had actually attended lectures for at least three terms).[38][39] These degrees specialised in Roman civil law rather than in English common law, the latter being the domain of the Inns of Court, and thus they were more theoretical than practically useful.[40] Cambridge reestablished its LLB degree in 1858 as an undergraduate course alongside the BA,[41] and the London LLB, which had previously required a minimum of one year after the BA, become an undergraduate degree in 1866.[42] The older nomenclature continues to be used for the BCL at Oxford today, which is a master's level program, while Cambridge moved its LLB back to being a postgraduate degree in 1922 but only renamed it as the LLM in 1982.[43]

Between the 1960s and the 1990s, law schools in England took on a more central role in the preparation of lawyers and consequently improved their coverage of advanced legal topics to become more professionally relevant. Over the same period, American law schools became more scholarly and less professionally oriented, so that in 1996 Langbein could write: "That contrast between English law schools as temples of scholarship and American law schools as training centers for the profession no longer bears the remotest relation to reality".[44]

Legal training in colonial North America and 19th-century United States edit

Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial North America because of the role they had played in hierarchical England, but slowly the colonial governments started using the services of professionals trained in the Inns of Court in London, and by the end of the American Revolution there was a functional bar in each state.[31]: 775  Due to an initial distrust of a profession open only to the elite in England, as institutions for training developed in what would become the United States they emerged as quite different from those in England.[30]: 429 

Initially in the United States the legal professionals were trained and imported from England.[30]: 438  A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730 — at that time a seven-year clerkship was required, and in 1756 a four-year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination.[30]: 439  Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education.[30]: 439  But a system like the Inns did not develop, and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century, so this system was unique.

The clerkship program required much individual study and the mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and guide the clerk in his study of the law and ensure that it was being absorbed.[31]: 781  The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of the law into a "commonplace book", which he would try to memorize.[31]: 782  Although those were the ideals, in reality the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to study the law individually as expected. They were often employed to tedious tasks, such as making handwritten copies of documents. Finding sufficient legal texts was also a seriously debilitating issue, and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor, whose opinion of the law may have differed greatly from his peers.[31]: 782, 783 

It was said by one famous attorney in the United States, William Livingston, in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerkship program was severely flawed, and that most mentors

"have no manner of concern for their clerk's future welfare ... [T]is a monstrous absurdity to suppose, that the law is to be learnt by a perpetual copying of precedents".[31]: 782 

There were some few mentors that were dedicated to the service, and because of their rarity, they became so sought-after that the first law schools evolved from the offices of some of these attorneys, who took on many clerks and began to spend more time training than practicing law.[31]: 782 

 
Tapping Reeve, founder of the first law school in North America, the Litchfield Law School, in 1773

In time, the apprenticeship program was not considered sufficient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their clients' needs.[45]: 13  The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were well trained in the day-to-day operations of a law office, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners.[30] The establishment of formal faculties of law in United States universities did not occur until the latter part of the 18th century.[30]: 442  With the beginning of the American Revolution, the supply of lawyers from Britain ended. The first law degree granted by a United States university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William and Mary, which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the first university to use the LLB abbreviation in the United States.[46]

The first university law programs in the United States, such as that of the University of Maryland established in 1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study, including works such as the Bible, Cicero, Seneca, Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and Grotius.[31]: 794  It has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers.[31]: 795  At the LLB programs in the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale continued to include "cultural study", which included courses in languages, mathematics and economics.[46]: 19  An LLB, or a Bachelor of Laws, recognized that a prior bachelor's degree was not required to earn an LLB.

In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing a school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law.[45]: 15  The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice, while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education.[45]: 15 

Revolutionary approach: scientific study of law edit

 
Joseph Story, United States Supreme Court Justice, lecturer of law at Harvard and proponent of the "scientific study of law"

In part to compete with the small professional law schools, there began a great change in United States university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete "practitioners' course" which lasted two years and included practical courses, such as pleading drafting.[31]: 798  United States Supreme Court justice Joseph Story started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard, when he advocated a more "scientific study" of the law in the 19th century.[31]: 800  At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore, at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary.[31]: 801  Nonetheless, there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through a rigorous scientific method, such as that developed by Story and Langdell.[30][b] In the words of Dorsey Ellis, "Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for learning those 'principles or doctrines' of which law, considered as a science, consists.'"[48] Nonetheless, into the year 1900, most states did not require a university education (although an apprenticeship was often required) and most practitioners had not attended any law school or college.[31]: 801 

Therefore, the modern legal education system in the United States is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill,[31]: 802  implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education in the United States and in the JD program of study.[45]: 19 

Creation of the JD and major common law approaches to legal education edit

The JD originated in the United States during a movement to improve training of the professions. Prior to the origination of the JD, law students began law school either with only a high school diploma, or less than the amount of undergraduate study required to earn a bachelor's degree. The LLB persisted through the middle of the 20th century, after which a completed bachelor's degree became a requirement for virtually all students entering law school. The didactic approaches that resulted were revolutionary for university education and have slowly been implemented outside the United States, but only recently (since about 1997) and in stages. The degrees which resulted from this new approach, such as the MD and the JD, are just as different from their European counterparts as the educational approaches differ.

Legal education in the United States edit

Main article: Legal education in the United States

Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century, the first being the Doctor of Medicine in 1807,[49]: 162  but at the time, the legal system in the United States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing, and the status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous and so the professional law degree took more time to develop. Even when some universities offered training in law, they did not offer a degree.[49]: 165  Because in the United States there were no Inns of Court, and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training, the models from England were inapplicable, and the degree program took some time to develop.[49]: 164 

At first the degree took the form of a B.L. (such as at the College of William and Mary), but then Harvard, keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and Cambridge, implemented an LLB degree.[49]: 167  The decision to award a bachelor's degree for law could be due to the fact that admittance to most nineteenth-century American law schools required only satisfactory completion of high school.[50] The degree was nevertheless somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a degree in England,[51][49]: 161  where it was necessary to gain a general BA prior to an LLB or BCL until the nineteenth century.[51]: 78  Thus, even though the name of the English LLB degree was implemented at Harvard, the program in the United States was nonetheless intended as a first degree which, unlike the English B.A., gave practical or professional training in law.[49]: 169 [51]: 74 

Creation of the Juris Doctor edit

In the mid-19th century there was much concern about the quality of legal education in the United States. C.C. Langdell served as dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895, and dedicated his life to reforming legal education in the United States. The historian Robert Stevens wrote that "it was Langdell's goal to turn the legal profession into a university educated one — and not at the undergraduate level, but through a three-year post baccalaureate degree."[52] This graduate level study would allow the intensive legal training that Langdell had developed, known as the case method (a method of studying landmark cases) and the Socratic method (a method of examining students on the reasoning of the court in the cases studied). Therefore, a graduate, high-level law degree was proposed: the Juris Doctor, implementing the case and Socratic methods as its didactic approach.[53] According to professor J. H. Beale, an 1882 Harvard Law graduate, one of the main arguments for the change was uniformity. Harvard's four professional schools – theology, law, medicine, and arts and sciences – were all graduate schools, and their degrees were therefore a second degree. Two of them conferred a doctorate and the other two a baccalaureate degree. The change from LLB to JD was intended to end "this discrimination, the practice of conferring what is normally a first degree upon persons who have already their primary degree".[54] The JD was proposed as the equivalent of the German J.U.D., to reflect the advanced study required to be an effective lawyer.

The University of Chicago Law School was the first to offer the JD in 1902,[29]: 112–117  when it was just one of five law schools that demanded a college degree from its applicants.[50] While approval was still pending at Harvard, the degree was introduced at many other law schools, including at the law schools at NYU, Berkeley, Michigan, and Stanford. Because of tradition, and concerns about less prominent universities implementing a JD program, prominent eastern law schools like those of Harvard, Yale, and Columbia refused to implement the degree. Harvard, for example, refused to adopt the JD degree, even though it restricted admission to students with college degrees in 1909.[55] Indeed, pressure from eastern law schools led almost every law school (except at the University of Chicago and other law schools in Illinois) to abandon the JD and re‑adopt the LLB as the first law degree by the 1930s.[55]: 21  By 1962, the JD degree was rarely seen outside the Midwest.[55]

After the 1930s, the LLB and the JD degrees co‑existed in some American law schools. Some law schools, especially in Illinois and the Midwest, awarded both (like Marquette University, beginning in 1926), conferring JD degrees only to those with a bachelor's degree (as opposed to two or three years of college before law school), and those who met a higher academic standard in undergraduate studies, finishing a thesis in their third year of law school.[56] Because the JD degree was no more advantageous for bar admissions or for employment, the vast majority of Marquette students preferred to seek the LLB degree.[56]

As more law students entered law schools with college degrees in the 1950s and 1960s, a number of law schools may have introduced the JD to encourage law students to complete their undergraduate degrees.[56] As late as 1961, there were still 15 ABA-accredited law schools in the United States which awarded both LLB and JD degrees. Thirteen of the 15 were located in the Midwest, which may indicate regional variations in the United States.[56]

 
A Juris Doctor conferred by Suffolk Law School.

It was only after 1962 that a new push — this time begun at less-prominent law schools — successfully led to the universal adoption of the JD as the first law degree. The turning point appears to have occurred when the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar unanimously adopted a resolution recommending to all approved law schools that they give favorable consideration to the conferring of the JD degree as the first professional degree, in 1962 and 1963.[50] By the 1960s, most law students were college graduates, and by the end of that decade, almost all were required to be.[55] Student and alumni support were key in the LLB-to-JD change, and even the most prominent schools were convinced to make the change: Columbia and Harvard in 1969, and Yale (last) in 1971.[55]: 22–23 [50][57] Nonetheless, the LLB at Yale retained the didactical changes of the "practitioners' courses" of 1826, and was very different from the LLB in common law countries, other than Canada.[31]: 798 

Following standard modern academic practice, Harvard Law School refers to its Master of Laws and Doctor of Juridical Science degrees as its graduate level law degrees.[58] Similarly, Columbia refers to the LLM and the JSD as its graduate program.[59] Yale Law School lists its LLM, MSL, JSD, and Ph.D. as constituting graduate programs.[60] A distinction thus remains between professional and graduate law degrees in the United States.

Major common law approaches edit

See also: Legal education in the United Kingdom

The English legal system is the root of the systems of other common-law countries, such as the United States. Originally, common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in the Inns of Court. Even though it took nearly 150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales, the LLB eventually became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer. In England and Wales the LLB is an undergraduate scholarly program and although it (assuming it is a qualifying law degree) fulfills the academic requirements for becoming a lawyer,[61] further vocational and professional training as either a barrister (the Bar Professional Training Course[62] followed by pupillage[63]) or as a solicitor (the Legal Practice Course[64] followed by a "period of recognised training"[65]) is required before becoming licensed in that jurisdiction.[44] The qualifying law degree in most English universities is the LLB although in some, including Oxford and Cambridge, it is the BA in law.[66] Both of these can be taken with "senior status" in two years by those already holding an undergraduate degree in another discipline.[67] A few universities offer "exempting" degrees, usually integrated master's degrees denominated Master in Law (MLaw), that combine the qualifying law degree with the legal practice course or the bar professional training course in a four-year, undergraduate-entry program.[68][69]

Legal education in Canada has unique variations from other Commonwealth countries. Even though the legal system of Canada is mostly a transplant of the English system (Quebec excepted), the Canadian system is unique in that there are no Inns of Court, the practical training occurs in the office of a barrister and solicitor with law society membership, and, since 1889, a university degree has been a prerequisite to initiating an articling clerkship.[49]: 27  The education in law schools in Canada was similar to that in the United States at the turn of the 20th century, but with a greater concentration on statutory drafting and interpretation, and elements of a liberal education. The bar associations in Canada were influenced by the changes at Harvard, and were sometimes quicker to nationally implement the changes proposed in the United States, such as requiring previous college education before studying law.[51]: 390 

Modern variants and curriculum edit

Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education is given; therefore, law degrees are vastly different from country to country, making comparisons among degrees problematic.[70] This has proven true in the context of the various forms of the JD which have been implemented around the world.[clarification needed]

Comparisons of J.D. variants[c]
Jurisdiction Duration
(years) 		Different
curriculum
from LL.B. in
jurisdiction 		Further
vocational training
required
for license
Australia 3 No Yes
Canada 3 No Yes
Hong Kong 2–3 No Yes
Italy 5 Integrated Yes
Japan 2–3 Yes Yes
Philippines 4 Varies No[d]
Singapore 3 No Yes[71]
United States 3 No No, except Delaware[72]

Types and characteristics edit

Standard Juris Doctor curriculum edit

See also: Law school in the United States § Curriculum

As stated by Hall and Langdell, who were involved in the creation of the JD, the JD is a professional degree like the MD, intended to prepare practitioners through a scientific approach of analysing and teaching the law through logic and adversarial analysis (such as the casebook and Socratic methods).[73] This system of curriculum has existed in the United States for over 100 years. The JD program generally requires a bachelor's degree for entry, though this requirement is sometimes waived.[74][75][76]

As a study of the substantive law and its professional applications, the JD curriculum has not changed substantially since its creation. As a professional degree, JD programs typically allow practitioners. It requires at least three academic years of full-time study. While the JD is a doctoral degree in the US, lawyers usually use the suffix "Esq." as opposed to the prefix "Dr.", and that only in a professional context, when needed to alert others that they are a biased party – acting as an agent for their client.[55]

Replacement for the LLB edit

An initial attempt to rename the LLB to the JD in the US in the early 20th century started with a petition at Harvard in 1902. This was rejected, but the idea took hold at the new law school established at the University of Chicago and other universities. By 1925, 80% of US law schools awarded the JD to students who had entered the program with an undergraduate degree, while granting undergraduate entrants the LLB. The change was initially rejected by the leading law schools of the time Harvard, Yale and Columbia. By the late 1920s, schools were moving away from the JD and once again granting only the LL.B, with only law schools in Illinois holding out. This changed in the 1960s, by which time almost all law school entrants were graduates. The JD was reintroduced in 1962 and by 1971 had replaced the LLB, with many schools going offering a JD as a replacement to their LLB alumni.[55]

Canadian and Australian universities have had graduate-entry law programs that are very similar to the JD programs in the United States, but typically called the LLB. Some students at these universities advocated for the renaming of the graduate-entry LLB to the JD to recognise the graduate characteristics of the program and to obtain a so-called doctoral-level qualification.[77]

Descriptions of the JD outside the United States edit

See also: Legal education

Australia edit

The traditional law degree in Australia is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws (LLB). Beginning in the 2010s, many Australian universities now offer JD programs, including the country's best ranked universities (e.g. the University of New South Wales,[78] the University of Sydney,[79] the Australian National University,[80] the University of Melbourne,[81] Monash University,[82] and Western Sydney University[83]).

Generally, universities that offer the JD also offer the LLB, although at some universities, only the graduate-entry JD is offered. The University of Melbourne, for example, has phased out its undergraduate LLB program for a graduate JD one.[84]

An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of full-time study, or the equivalent. The course varies across different universities, though all are obliged to teach the Priestley 11 subjects per the requirements of state admissions boards in Australia.[85] JDs are considered equivalent to LLBs, and graduates must meet the same requirements to qualify, including undergoing a practical training.

On the Australian Qualifications Framework, the Juris Doctor is classified as a "masters degree (extended)", with an exception having been granted to use the term "doctor" in the title (other such exceptions include Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Dentistry and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine). It may not be described as a doctoral degree and holders may not use the title "doctor".[9][86]

Canada edit

The JD degree is the dominant common-law law degree in Canada, having replaced many of the nation's former LLB programs. Unlike other jurisdictions, the Canadian LLB was historically typically second-entry undergraduate degree that required the prior completion of another undergraduate degree.[87][88] The University of Toronto became the first law school to rename its law degree in 2001. As with the second-entry LLB, in order to be admitted to a Juris Doctor program, applicants must have completed a minimum of two or three years of study toward a bachelor's degree and scored well on the North American Law School Admission Test.[89] Notwithstanding the formal requirements, nearly all successful applicants have completed undergraduate degrees before admission to a JD program.[90] The JD in Canada is considered to be a bachelor's degree qualification.[12]

All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of three years and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses, including public law, property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law and legal research and writing.[91] Beyond first year and other courses required for graduation, course selection is elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law, taxation, international law, natural resources law, real estate transactions, employment law, criminal law and Aboriginal law.[92] After graduation from an accredited law school, each province's or territory's law society requires completion of a bar admission course or examination and a period of supervised articling prior to independent practice.[93]

United States jurisdictions other than New York and Massachusetts do not recognize Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically.[94][95][96] Likewise, United States JD graduates are not automatically recognized in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario.[97] To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of the border, some pairs of law schools have developed joint Canadian-American JD programs. As of 2018, these include a three-year program conducted concurrently at the University of Windsor and the University of Detroit Mercy,[98] as well as a four-year program with the University of Ottawa and either Michigan State University or American University in which students spend two years studying on each side of the border.[99] Previously, New York University (NYU) Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School offered a similar program, but this has since been terminated.[100]

Two notable exceptions are Université de Montréal and Université de Sherbrooke, which both offer a one-year JD program aimed at Quebec civil law graduates in order to practice law either elsewhere in Canada or in the state of New York.[101][102]

York University offered the degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur.) as a research degree until 2002, when the name of the program was changed to Ph.D. in law.[103]

China edit

The primary law degree in the People's Republic of China is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws. The Juris Magister is the graduate-level professional law degree in China, which is regarded as the counterpart of a Juris Doctor.[104] In fall 2008, the Shenzhen graduate campus of Peking University started the School of Transnational Law, which offers a United States-style education and awards a Chinese Juris Doctor degree.[105]

Hong Kong edit

The JD degree is currently offered at the Chinese University of Hong Kong,[106] The University of Hong Kong,[107] and City University of Hong Kong. The JD in Hong Kong is almost identical to the LLB, and is reserved for graduates of non-law disciplines. However, the JD requires a thesis or dissertation.[108] The JD in Hong Kong is a 2-year program, including study during the summer term, but can be extended to three years with summer vacations.[109] The JD is considered a master's degree by universities and the Hong Kong Qualification Framework[110][111]

Neither the LLB nor the JD provides the education sufficient for a license to practice. Graduates of both are also required to undertake the PCLL course and a solicitor traineeship or barrister pupillage.[112]

Italy edit

In Italy, only one program gives access to traditional legal professions such as lawyer, magistrate or public notary, and that is the Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza.[113] Legal studies have a long history in Italy, with the University of Bologna being the main Italian center for studies of both canon law and civil law in the 12th and 13th centuries.[114]

The laurea magistrale in giurisprudenza is a five-year academic program, deemed a master's-level degree under the Bologna process,[115] that can be entered into with a high school diploma. The program comprises universities classes in legal theory and legal subjects, excluding practical courses, and is concluded with a thesis (Italian: tesi di laurea) to be defended before an academic commission.[113] In a novel approach, a few universities are trialing a 3+2 model, which initially offers a bachelor's degree in law, followed by the option to undertake an additional two years to earn the Italian Juris Doctor.[116][117]

Italian graduates in law are awarded the title of Doctor of Law (Italian: Dottore Magistrale in Giurisprudenza, commonly known as Dottore in legge), in keeping with standard Italian practice of awarding the title of doctor to holders of master's level degrees.

Holders of the Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza are eligible to register with an Italian bar association, which is a prerequisite for the mandatory eighteen-month apprenticeship under a practicing attorney-at-law before taking the bar examination.[118] Alternatively, graduates may opt for two additional years of study at the Scuole di Specializzazione per le Professioni Legali (Specialization Schools for the Legal Profession), leading to a Diploma di Specializzazione per le Professioni Legali (Specialization Diploma for the Legal Profession), akin to a master's degree.[119][120][121] Possession of the Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza also qualifies individuals to partake in the competitive public examination, administered by the Ministry of Justice, for entry into the ordinary magistracy.[122]

Japan edit

In Japan the JD is known as Homu Hakushi (法務博士, hōmu hakushi).[123] The program generally lasts three years. Two-year JD programs for applicants with legal knowledge (mainly undergraduate level law degree holders) are also offered. This curriculum is professionally oriented,[124] but does not provide the education sufficient for a license to practice as an attorney in Japan. All candidates for licensing must undertake a 12-month practical training by the Legal Training and Research Institute after passing the bar examination.[125] Similarly to the United States, the Juris Doctor is classed as a professional degree (専門職, senmonshoku) in Japan, which is separate from the academic class of postgraduate master's degrees and doctorates.[126][127]

Philippines edit

In the Philippines, the graduate JD exists alongside the more common undergraduate LLB. Like the LLB, it requires four years of study. The JD comprises courses in core bar subjects in 2.5 years, following which students may take elective courses; an apprenticeship; and the defence of a thesis.[128][129]

The degree was first conferred in the Philippines by the Ateneo de Manila Law School, which developed the program later adopted by most law schools. In 2008, the University of the Philippines College of Law began conferring the JD on its graduates, renaming its LLB program into a JD to reflect the view that the "nomenclature does not accurately reflect the fact that the LLB is a professional as well as a post-baccalaureate degree."[130] In 2009, the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila and the Silliman University College of Law also renamed their respective LL.B programs to Juris Doctor.[131][132] The newly established De La Salle University College of Law is likewise offering the JD.

Singapore edit

The degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence is offered at all three law schools in Singapore, which also offer LLB degrees. It is a qualifying law degree for the purposes of admission to the legal profession in Singapore.[71] A graduate of these programmes is a "qualified person" under Singapore's legislation governing entry to the legal profession, and is eligible for admission to the Singapore Bar.[133]

United Kingdom edit

The Quality Assurance Agency consulted in 2014 on the inclusion of "Juris Doctor" in the U.K. Framework for Higher Education Qualifications as an exception to the rule that "doctor" should only be used by doctoral degrees. It was proposed that the Juris Doctor would be an award at bachelor level, and would not confer the right to use the title "doctor".[134][135] This was not incorporated into the final framework published in 2014.[136]

The only JD degree currently awarded by a U.K. university is at Queen's University Belfast. The 3–4 year degree is specified a professional doctorate at the doctoral qualifications level, sitting above the LLM. It includes a 30,000-word dissertation.[137][138]

Joint LLB/JD courses for a small number of students are offered by University College London, King's College London, and the London School of Economics in collaboration with Columbia University. King's also offers a joint LLB/JD with Georgetown University.[139][140][141] King's College London and the University of Exeter offer joint LLB/JD degrees with the Chinese University of Hong Kong, with two years in the UK followed by two years in Hong Kong.[140][142]

Harvard Law School and the University of Cambridge offer a JD/LLM Joint Degree Program enabling Harvard JD candidates to earn a Cambridge LLM and a Harvard JD in 3.5 years.[143]

The University of Southampton offers a two-year graduate-entry LLB described as a "JD pathway" degree.[144] The University of Surrey previously offered a course similar to Southampton's.[145] The University of York offers a three-year so-called "LLM Law (Juris Doctor)" degree.[146]

In academia edit

In the United States, the Juris Doctor is the degree that prepares the recipient to enter the law profession (as do the M.D. or D.O. in the medical profession and the D.D.S or D.M.D. in the dental profession). While the J.D. is the sole degree necessary to become a professor of law or to obtain a license to practice law, it (like the M.D., D.O, D.D.S, or D.M.D.) is not a "research degree".[147]

Research degrees in the study of law include the Master of Laws (LL.M.), which ordinarily requires the J.D. as a prerequisite,[148] and the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D./J.S.D.), which ordinarily requires the LL.M. as a prerequisite.[148]

However, the American Bar Association, which accredits US law schools, has issued a Council Statement stating:[149]

WHEREAS, the acquisition of a Doctor of Jurisprudence degree requires from 84 to 90 semester hours of post baccalaureate study and the Doctor of Philosophy degree usually requires 60 semester hours of post baccalaureate study along with the writing of a dissertation, the two degrees shall be considered as equivalent degrees for educational employment purposes.[150]

Accordingly, while most law professors are required to conduct original writing and research in order to be awarded tenure, the majority have a J.D. as their highest degree and are qualified to teach and supervise LL.M. and J.S.D candidates. However, research in 2015 showed an increasing trend toward hiring professors with both J.D. and Ph.D. degrees, particularly at more highly ranked schools.[151] Professor Kenneth K. Mwenda criticized the council's statement, pointing out that it compares the J.D. only to the taught component of the Ph.D. degree in the United States, ignoring the research and dissertation components.[152]

The United States Department of Education Center for Education Statistics classifies the J.D. and other professional doctorates as "doctor's degree-professional practice." It classifies the Ph.D. and other research doctorates as "doctor's degree-research/scholarship."[153] Among legal degrees, it accords the latter status only to the Doctor of Juridical Science degree.

In Europe, the European Research Council follows a similar policy, stating that a professional degree carrying the title "doctor" is not considered equivalent to a research degree, such as a Ph.D.[154] The Dutch and Portuguese National Academic Recognition Information Centres both classify the JD granted in the United States (along with other professional doctorate degrees) as equivalent to a master's degree,[155][156] while the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland states with respect to United States practice that: "The '... professional degree' is a first degree, not a graduate degree, even though it incorporates the word 'doctor' in the title"[157]

Commonwealth countries also often consider the JD granted in the United States equivalent to a bachelor's degree,[158] even though the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services has advised that "while neither degree is likely equivalent to a Ph.D., a JD, or MD degree would be considered to be equivalent to, if not higher than, a masters degree".[159]

Use of the title "doctor" edit

Since at least the 1920s, it has been contrary to custom in the United States to address holders of the JD as "doctor".[160][161]

In the late 1960s, the rising number of American law schools awarding JDs led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "doctor". Initial informal ethics opinions, based on the Canons of Professional Ethics then in force, came down against this.[162][163] These were then reinforced with an ABA ethics opinion that maintained the ban on using the title in legal practice (except when dealing with countries where the use of "doctor" by lawyers was standard practice) but allowed the use of the title in academia "if the school of graduation thinks of the JD degree as a doctor's degree".[164] The opinion generated much debate.[165][166]

The introduction of the 1969 Code of Professional Responsibility settled the question in favour of allowing the use of the title in states where the code was adopted.[167] There was some dispute over whether only the Ph.D.-level Doctor of Juridical Science grant the title,[168] but ethics opinions have read the Code as allowing JD-holders to be called 'doctor', while acknowledging that the older Canons did not.[169]

As not all state bars adopted the new code, and some omitted the clause permitting the use of the title, confusion over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "doctor" continued.[170] While many state bars now allow the use of the title, some prohibit its use where there is any chance of confusing the public about a lawyer's actual qualifications (e.g. if the public might believe the lawyer is a doctor of medicine).[171] There has been discussion on whether it is permissible in some other limited instances. For example, in June 2006, the Florida Bar Board of Governors ruled that a lawyer could refer to himself as a "doctor en leyes" (doctor in laws) in a Spanish-language advertisement, reversing an earlier decision.[172] The decision was reversed again the following month, when the board voted to only allow the use of untranslated names of degrees.[173]

The Wall Street Journal notes specifically in its stylebook that "Lawyers, despite their JD degrees, aren't called doctor."[174] Many other newspapers reserve the title for physicians only[175] or do not use titles at all.[176] In 2011, Mother Jones published an article claiming that Michele Bachmann was misrepresenting her qualifications by using the "bogus" title "Dr." based on her JD. They later amended the article to note that the use of the title by lawyers "is a (begrudgingly) accepted practice in some states and not in others", although they maintained that it was rarely used as it "suggests that you're a medical doctor or a Ph.D. – and therefore conveys a false level of expertise."[177]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Some sources have the first doctorates in theology at Paris being awarded prior to the doctorates in law at Bologna.[25]
  2. ^ For detailed discussions of the development of C.C. Langdell's method, see la Piana (1994)[47] and Stein (1981)[30]: 449–450 
  3. ^ Citations for verification of the data in this table can be found in the subsequent paragraphs of this section.
  4. ^ Juris Doctor degree qualifies one to sit for the bar examinations.

References edit

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          Bachelor at Level 5
          Master at Level 6
          Doctor at Level 7
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    Footnote as follows will need to be added depending on decision re. the J.D.:
    • the award of a Juris Doctor is an exception to the principle that the title 'doctor' should only be used for qualifications meeting the qualification descriptor for FHEQ level 8 / SCQF level 12 on the FQHEIS in full
    • the Juris Doctor is not a doctoral qualification at level 8 of the FHEQ / SQCF level 12 but at level 6 of the FHEQ / SCQF level 10 on the FQHEIS (with some modules at level 7 of the FHEQ / SCQF level 11 on the FQHEIS)
    • holders of the qualification are not entitled to use the title 'Dr.'
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  162. ^ "Summaries of informal opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics". American Bar Association Journal. 54 (7): 657. July 1968. JSTOR 25724462. 1001. A lawyer holding a J.D. degree may not ethically use, either orally or in print, the title 'doctor' professionally or socially.
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  176. ^ "Why doesn't the Times call Condi 'Dr. Rice'?". Slate. 27 December 2000. from the original on 24 January 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2017. Most newspapers dispense with such formalities and on second reference call people only by their last names.
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External links edit

 
Look up Juris Doctor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

January 01, 1970
juris, doctor, doctor, jurisprudence, doctor, graduate, entry, professional, degree, that, primarily, prepares, individuals, practice, united, states, only, qualifying, degree, while, other, jurisdictions, such, australia, canada, hong, kong, offer, both, degr. A Juris Doctor Doctor of Jurisprudence 1 or Doctor of Law 2 JD is a graduate entry professional degree that primarily prepares individuals to practice law In the United States it is the only qualifying law degree while other jurisdictions such as Australia Canada and Hong Kong offer both JD degrees and undergraduate qualifying law degrees Juris Doctor diploma conferred by Columbia Law School Originating in the United States in the late 19th century the JD has since replaced the Bachelor of Laws LLB as the most common law degree in the country The degree generally requires three years of full time study to complete and is conferred upon students who have successfully completed coursework and practical training in legal studies The JD curriculum typically includes fundamental legal subjects such as constitutional law civil procedure criminal law contracts property and torts along with opportunities for specialization in areas like international law corporate law or public policy Upon receiving a JD graduates must pass a bar examination to be licensed to practice law The American Bar Association does not allow an accredited JD degree to be issued in less than two years of law school studies 3 4 In the United States the JD has the academic standing of a professional doctorate in contrast to a research doctorate 5 6 and is described as a doctor s degree professional practice by the United States Department of Education s National Center for Education Statistics 7 8 In Australia South Korea and Hong Kong it has the academic standing of a master s degree 9 10 while in Canada it is considered a second entry bachelor s degree 11 12 To be fully authorized to practice law in the courts of a given state in the United States the majority of individuals holding a JD degree must pass a bar examination 13 14 15 16 except from the state of Wisconsin 17 18 United States patent courts also involve a specialized Patent Bar which require applicants to hold an additional degree in certain scientific fields alongside their Juris Doctor degrees 19 Contents 1 Etymology and abbreviations 2 Historical context 2 1 Origins of the law degree 2 2 History of legal training in England 2 3 Legal training in colonial North America and 19th century United States 2 3 1 Revolutionary approach scientific study of law 3 Creation of the JD and major common law approaches to legal education 3 1 Legal education in the United States 3 1 1 Creation of the Juris Doctor 3 2 Major common law approaches 4 Modern variants and curriculum 4 1 Types and characteristics 4 1 1 Standard Juris Doctor curriculum 4 1 2 Replacement for the LLB 4 2 Descriptions of the JD outside the United States 4 2 1 Australia 4 2 2 Canada 4 2 3 China 4 2 4 Hong Kong 4 2 5 Italy 4 2 6 Japan 4 2 7 Philippines 4 2 8 Singapore 4 2 9 United Kingdom 5 In academia 6 Use of the title doctor 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External linksEtymology and abbreviations editIn the United States the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English as Juris Doctor sometimes shown on Latin diplomas in the accusative form Juris Doctorem and at some law schools Doctor of Law JD 20 or Doctor of Jurisprudence also abbreviated JD 21 22 Juris Doctor literally means teacher of law while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence Jurisprudentiae Doctor literally means teacher of legal knowledge The JD is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor LLD In institutions where the latter can be earned e g Cambridge University where it is titled Doctor of Law though still retaining the abbreviation LLD and many other British institutions it is a higher research doctorate representing a substantial contribution to the field over many years a standard of professional experience beyond that required for a Doctor of Philosophy 23 In the United States the LLD is invariably an honorary degree Historical context editOrigins of the law degree edit The first university in Europe the University of Bologna was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the glossator school in that city This served as the model for other law schools of the Middle Ages and other early universities such as the University of Padua 24 The first academic degrees may a have been doctorates in civil law doctores legum followed by canon law doctores decretorum these were not professional degrees but rather indicated that their holders had been approved to teach at the universities While Bologna granted only doctorates preparatory degrees bachelor s and licences were introduced in Paris and then in the English universities 26 27 28 29 History of legal training in England edit nbsp The Inns of Court of London served as a professional school for lawyers in England The nature of the JD can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practice law 30 434 435 The universities only taught civil and canon law used in a very few jurisdictions such as the courts of admiralty and church courts but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions Professional training for practicing common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation 30 434 436 However because of the lack of standardisation of study and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships the role of universities became subsequently important for the education of lawyers in the English speaking world 30 436 In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained students merely sat in the courts and observed but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system 30 430 The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court like practice and lecture as well as court proceedings observation 30 431 By the fifteenth century the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge though very specialized in purpose 30 432 With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously and the demand for lawyers grew 30 433 Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of academic study and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law the two laws in the original Bachelor of Laws which thus became the Bachelor of Civil Law when the study of canon law was barred after the Reformation and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only As a consequence of the need for practical education in law the apprenticeship program for solicitors emerged structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades 30 434 The training of solicitors by a five year apprenticeship was formally established by the Attorneys and Solicitors Act 1728 30 435 William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753 but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature 30 435 Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based where concentration on foundational principles can be had instead of concentration on detail and procedure provided by apprenticeship and the Inns of Court 31 775 793 The 1728 act was amended in 1821 to reduce the period of the required apprenticeship to three years for graduates in either law or arts from Oxford Cambridge and Dublin as the admission of such graduates should be facilitated in consideration of the learning and abilities requisite for taking such degree 32 This was extended in 1837 to cover the newly established universities of Durham and London 33 and again in 1851 to include the new Queen s University of Ireland 34 The Inns of Court continued but became less effective and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination In 1846 Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to that of Europe and the United States as Britain did not regulate the admission of barristers 30 436 Therefore formal schools of law were called for but were not finally established until later in the century and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions 30 436 Until the mid nineteenth century most law degrees in England the BCL at Oxford and Durham and the LLB at London 35 36 37 were postgraduate degrees taken after an initial degree in arts The Cambridge degree variously referred to as a BCL BL or LLB was an exception it took six years from matriculation to complete but only three of these had to be in residence and the BA was not required although those not holding a BA had to produce a certificate to prove they had not only been in residence but had actually attended lectures for at least three terms 38 39 These degrees specialised in Roman civil law rather than in English common law the latter being the domain of the Inns of Court and thus they were more theoretical than practically useful 40 Cambridge reestablished its LLB degree in 1858 as an undergraduate course alongside the BA 41 and the London LLB which had previously required a minimum of one year after the BA become an undergraduate degree in 1866 42 The older nomenclature continues to be used for the BCL at Oxford today which is a master s level program while Cambridge moved its LLB back to being a postgraduate degree in 1922 but only renamed it as the LLM in 1982 43 Between the 1960s and the 1990s law schools in England took on a more central role in the preparation of lawyers and consequently improved their coverage of advanced legal topics to become more professionally relevant Over the same period American law schools became more scholarly and less professionally oriented so that in 1996 Langbein could write That contrast between English law schools as temples of scholarship and American law schools as training centers for the profession no longer bears the remotest relation to reality 44 Legal training in colonial North America and 19th century United States edit Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial North America because of the role they had played in hierarchical England but slowly the colonial governments started using the services of professionals trained in the Inns of Court in London and by the end of the American Revolution there was a functional bar in each state 31 775 Due to an initial distrust of a profession open only to the elite in England as institutions for training developed in what would become the United States they emerged as quite different from those in England 30 429 Initially in the United States the legal professionals were trained and imported from England 30 438 A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730 at that time a seven year clerkship was required and in 1756 a four year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination 30 439 Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education 30 439 But a system like the Inns did not develop and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century so this system was unique The clerkship program required much individual study and the mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and guide the clerk in his study of the law and ensure that it was being absorbed 31 781 The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of the law into a commonplace book which he would try to memorize 31 782 Although those were the ideals in reality the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to study the law individually as expected They were often employed to tedious tasks such as making handwritten copies of documents Finding sufficient legal texts was also a seriously debilitating issue and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor whose opinion of the law may have differed greatly from his peers 31 782 783 It was said by one famous attorney in the United States William Livingston in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerkship program was severely flawed and that most mentors have no manner of concern for their clerk s future welfare T is a monstrous absurdity to suppose that the law is to be learnt by a perpetual copying of precedents 31 782 There were some few mentors that were dedicated to the service and because of their rarity they became so sought after that the first law schools evolved from the offices of some of these attorneys who took on many clerks and began to spend more time training than practicing law 31 782 nbsp Tapping Reeve founder of the first law school in North America the Litchfield Law School in 1773 In time the apprenticeship program was not considered sufficient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their clients needs 45 13 The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks and while they were well trained in the day to day operations of a law office they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners 30 The establishment of formal faculties of law in United States universities did not occur until the latter part of the 18th century 30 442 With the beginning of the American Revolution the supply of lawyers from Britain ended The first law degree granted by a United States university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William and Mary which was abbreviated L B Harvard was the first university to use the LLB abbreviation in the United States 46 The first university law programs in the United States such as that of the University of Maryland established in 1812 included much theoretical and philosophical study including works such as the Bible Cicero Seneca Aristotle Adam Smith Montesquieu and Grotius 31 794 It has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers 31 795 At the LLB programs in the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale continued to include cultural study which included courses in languages mathematics and economics 46 19 An LLB or a Bachelor of Laws recognized that a prior bachelor s degree was not required to earn an LLB In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing a school and which provided a practical legal education as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory history and philosophy of law 45 15 The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education 45 15 Revolutionary approach scientific study of law edit nbsp Joseph Story United States Supreme Court Justice lecturer of law at Harvard and proponent of the scientific study of law In part to compete with the small professional law schools there began a great change in United States university legal education For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete practitioners course which lasted two years and included practical courses such as pleading drafting 31 798 United States Supreme Court justice Joseph Story started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard when he advocated a more scientific study of the law in the 19th century 31 800 At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard Therefore at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary 31 801 Nonetheless there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational as at the private law schools or through a rigorous scientific method such as that developed by Story and Langdell 30 b In the words of Dorsey Ellis Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory with the cases providing the basis for learning those principles or doctrines of which law considered as a science consists 48 Nonetheless into the year 1900 most states did not require a university education although an apprenticeship was often required and most practitioners had not attended any law school or college 31 801 Therefore the modern legal education system in the United States is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill 31 802 implementing elements such as clinical training which has become an essential part of legal education in the United States and in the JD program of study 45 19 Creation of the JD and major common law approaches to legal education editThe JD originated in the United States during a movement to improve training of the professions Prior to the origination of the JD law students began law school either with only a high school diploma or less than the amount of undergraduate study required to earn a bachelor s degree The LLB persisted through the middle of the 20th century after which a completed bachelor s degree became a requirement for virtually all students entering law school The didactic approaches that resulted were revolutionary for university education and have slowly been implemented outside the United States but only recently since about 1997 and in stages The degrees which resulted from this new approach such as the MD and the JD are just as different from their European counterparts as the educational approaches differ Legal education in the United States edit Main article Legal education in the United States Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century the first being the Doctor of Medicine in 1807 49 162 but at the time the legal system in the United States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing and the status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous and so the professional law degree took more time to develop Even when some universities offered training in law they did not offer a degree 49 165 Because in the United States there were no Inns of Court and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training the models from England were inapplicable and the degree program took some time to develop 49 164 At first the degree took the form of a B L such as at the College of William and Mary but then Harvard keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and Cambridge implemented an LLB degree 49 167 The decision to award a bachelor s degree for law could be due to the fact that admittance to most nineteenth century American law schools required only satisfactory completion of high school 50 The degree was nevertheless somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a degree in England 51 49 161 where it was necessary to gain a general BA prior to an LLB or BCL until the nineteenth century 51 78 Thus even though the name of the English LLB degree was implemented at Harvard the program in the United States was nonetheless intended as a first degree which unlike the English B A gave practical or professional training in law 49 169 51 74 Creation of the Juris Doctor edit In the mid 19th century there was much concern about the quality of legal education in the United States C C Langdell served as dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895 and dedicated his life to reforming legal education in the United States The historian Robert Stevens wrote that it was Langdell s goal to turn the legal profession into a university educated one and not at the undergraduate level but through a three year post baccalaureate degree 52 This graduate level study would allow the intensive legal training that Langdell had developed known as the case method a method of studying landmark cases and the Socratic method a method of examining students on the reasoning of the court in the cases studied Therefore a graduate high level law degree was proposed the Juris Doctor implementing the case and Socratic methods as its didactic approach 53 According to professor J H Beale an 1882 Harvard Law graduate one of the main arguments for the change was uniformity Harvard s four professional schools theology law medicine and arts and sciences were all graduate schools and their degrees were therefore a second degree Two of them conferred a doctorate and the other two a baccalaureate degree The change from LLB to JD was intended to end this discrimination the practice of conferring what is normally a first degree upon persons who have already their primary degree 54 The JD was proposed as the equivalent of the German J U D to reflect the advanced study required to be an effective lawyer The University of Chicago Law School was the first to offer the JD in 1902 29 112 117 when it was just one of five law schools that demanded a college degree from its applicants 50 While approval was still pending at Harvard the degree was introduced at many other law schools including at the law schools at NYU Berkeley Michigan and Stanford Because of tradition and concerns about less prominent universities implementing a JD program prominent eastern law schools like those of Harvard Yale and Columbia refused to implement the degree Harvard for example refused to adopt the JD degree even though it restricted admission to students with college degrees in 1909 55 Indeed pressure from eastern law schools led almost every law school except at the University of Chicago and other law schools in Illinois to abandon the JD and re adopt the LLB as the first law degree by the 1930s 55 21 By 1962 the JD degree was rarely seen outside the Midwest 55 After the 1930s the LLB and the JD degrees co existed in some American law schools Some law schools especially in Illinois and the Midwest awarded both like Marquette University beginning in 1926 conferring JD degrees only to those with a bachelor s degree as opposed to two or three years of college before law school and those who met a higher academic standard in undergraduate studies finishing a thesis in their third year of law school 56 Because the JD degree was no more advantageous for bar admissions or for employment the vast majority of Marquette students preferred to seek the LLB degree 56 As more law students entered law schools with college degrees in the 1950s and 1960s a number of law schools may have introduced the JD to encourage law students to complete their undergraduate degrees 56 As late as 1961 there were still 15 ABA accredited law schools in the United States which awarded both LLB and JD degrees Thirteen of the 15 were located in the Midwest which may indicate regional variations in the United States 56 nbsp A Juris Doctor conferred by Suffolk Law School It was only after 1962 that a new push this time begun at less prominent law schools successfully led to the universal adoption of the JD as the first law degree The turning point appears to have occurred when the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar unanimously adopted a resolution recommending to all approved law schools that they give favorable consideration to the conferring of the JD degree as the first professional degree in 1962 and 1963 50 By the 1960s most law students were college graduates and by the end of that decade almost all were required to be 55 Student and alumni support were key in the LLB to JD change and even the most prominent schools were convinced to make the change Columbia and Harvard in 1969 and Yale last in 1971 55 22 23 50 57 Nonetheless the LLB at Yale retained the didactical changes of the practitioners courses of 1826 and was very different from the LLB in common law countries other than Canada 31 798 Following standard modern academic practice Harvard Law School refers to its Master of Laws and Doctor of Juridical Science degrees as its graduate level law degrees 58 Similarly Columbia refers to the LLM and the JSD as its graduate program 59 Yale Law School lists its LLM MSL JSD and Ph D as constituting graduate programs 60 A distinction thus remains between professional and graduate law degrees in the United States Major common law approaches edit See also Legal education in the United Kingdom The English legal system is the root of the systems of other common law countries such as the United States Originally common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in the Inns of Court Even though it took nearly 150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales the LLB eventually became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer In England and Wales the LLB is an undergraduate scholarly program and although it assuming it is a qualifying law degree fulfills the academic requirements for becoming a lawyer 61 further vocational and professional training as either a barrister the Bar Professional Training Course 62 followed by pupillage 63 or as a solicitor the Legal Practice Course 64 followed by a period of recognised training 65 is required before becoming licensed in that jurisdiction 44 The qualifying law degree in most English universities is the LLB although in some including Oxford and Cambridge it is the BA in law 66 Both of these can be taken with senior status in two years by those already holding an undergraduate degree in another discipline 67 A few universities offer exempting degrees usually integrated master s degrees denominated Master in Law MLaw that combine the qualifying law degree with the legal practice course or the bar professional training course in a four year undergraduate entry program 68 69 Legal education in Canada has unique variations from other Commonwealth countries Even though the legal system of Canada is mostly a transplant of the English system Quebec excepted the Canadian system is unique in that there are no Inns of Court the practical training occurs in the office of a barrister and solicitor with law society membership and since 1889 a university degree has been a prerequisite to initiating an articling clerkship 49 27 The education in law schools in Canada was similar to that in the United States at the turn of the 20th century but with a greater concentration on statutory drafting and interpretation and elements of a liberal education The bar associations in Canada were influenced by the changes at Harvard and were sometimes quicker to nationally implement the changes proposed in the United States such as requiring previous college education before studying law 51 390 Modern variants and curriculum editLegal education is rooted in the history and structure of the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education is given therefore law degrees are vastly different from country to country making comparisons among degrees problematic 70 This has proven true in the context of the various forms of the JD which have been implemented around the world clarification needed Comparisons of J D variants c Jurisdiction Duration years Differentcurriculumfrom LL B injurisdiction Furthervocational trainingrequiredfor license Australia 3 No Yes Canada 3 No Yes Hong Kong 2 3 No Yes Italy 5 Integrated Yes Japan 2 3 Yes Yes Philippines 4 Varies No d Singapore 3 No Yes 71 United States 3 No No except Delaware 72 dd Types and characteristics edit Standard Juris Doctor curriculum edit See also Law school in the United States Curriculum As stated by Hall and Langdell who were involved in the creation of the JD the JD is a professional degree like the MD intended to prepare practitioners through a scientific approach of analysing and teaching the law through logic and adversarial analysis such as the casebook and Socratic methods 73 This system of curriculum has existed in the United States for over 100 years The JD program generally requires a bachelor s degree for entry though this requirement is sometimes waived 74 75 76 As a study of the substantive law and its professional applications the JD curriculum has not changed substantially since its creation As a professional degree JD programs typically allow practitioners It requires at least three academic years of full time study While the JD is a doctoral degree in the US lawyers usually use the suffix Esq as opposed to the prefix Dr and that only in a professional context when needed to alert others that they are a biased party acting as an agent for their client 55 Replacement for the LLB edit An initial attempt to rename the LLB to the JD in the US in the early 20th century started with a petition at Harvard in 1902 This was rejected but the idea took hold at the new law school established at the University of Chicago and other universities By 1925 80 of US law schools awarded the JD to students who had entered the program with an undergraduate degree while granting undergraduate entrants the LLB The change was initially rejected by the leading law schools of the time Harvard Yale and Columbia By the late 1920s schools were moving away from the JD and once again granting only the LL B with only law schools in Illinois holding out This changed in the 1960s by which time almost all law school entrants were graduates The JD was reintroduced in 1962 and by 1971 had replaced the LLB with many schools going offering a JD as a replacement to their LLB alumni 55 Canadian and Australian universities have had graduate entry law programs that are very similar to the JD programs in the United States but typically called the LLB Some students at these universities advocated for the renaming of the graduate entry LLB to the JD to recognise the graduate characteristics of the program and to obtain a so called doctoral level qualification 77 Descriptions of the JD outside the United States edit See also Legal education Australia edit The traditional law degree in Australia is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws LLB Beginning in the 2010s many Australian universities now offer JD programs including the country s best ranked universities e g the University of New South Wales 78 the University of Sydney 79 the Australian National University 80 the University of Melbourne 81 Monash University 82 and Western Sydney University 83 Generally universities that offer the JD also offer the LLB although at some universities only the graduate entry JD is offered The University of Melbourne for example has phased out its undergraduate LLB program for a graduate JD one 84 An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of full time study or the equivalent The course varies across different universities though all are obliged to teach the Priestley 11 subjects per the requirements of state admissions boards in Australia 85 JDs are considered equivalent to LLBs and graduates must meet the same requirements to qualify including undergoing a practical training On the Australian Qualifications Framework the Juris Doctor is classified as a masters degree extended with an exception having been granted to use the term doctor in the title other such exceptions include Doctor of Medicine Doctor of Dentistry and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine It may not be described as a doctoral degree and holders may not use the title doctor 9 86 Canada edit The JD degree is the dominant common law law degree in Canada having replaced many of the nation s former LLB programs Unlike other jurisdictions the Canadian LLB was historically typically second entry undergraduate degree that required the prior completion of another undergraduate degree 87 88 The University of Toronto became the first law school to rename its law degree in 2001 As with the second entry LLB in order to be admitted to a Juris Doctor program applicants must have completed a minimum of two or three years of study toward a bachelor s degree and scored well on the North American Law School Admission Test 89 Notwithstanding the formal requirements nearly all successful applicants have completed undergraduate degrees before admission to a JD program 90 The JD in Canada is considered to be a bachelor s degree qualification 12 All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of three years and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses including public law property law tort law contract law criminal law and legal research and writing 91 Beyond first year and other courses required for graduation course selection is elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law taxation international law natural resources law real estate transactions employment law criminal law and Aboriginal law 92 After graduation from an accredited law school each province s or territory s law society requires completion of a bar admission course or examination and a period of supervised articling prior to independent practice 93 United States jurisdictions other than New York and Massachusetts do not recognize Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically 94 95 96 Likewise United States JD graduates are not automatically recognized in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario 97 To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of the border some pairs of law schools have developed joint Canadian American JD programs As of 2018 these include a three year program conducted concurrently at the University of Windsor and the University of Detroit Mercy 98 as well as a four year program with the University of Ottawa and either Michigan State University or American University in which students spend two years studying on each side of the border 99 Previously New York University NYU Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School offered a similar program but this has since been terminated 100 Two notable exceptions are Universite de Montreal and Universite de Sherbrooke which both offer a one year JD program aimed at Quebec civil law graduates in order to practice law either elsewhere in Canada or in the state of New York 101 102 York University offered the degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence D Jur as a research degree until 2002 when the name of the program was changed to Ph D in law 103 China edit The primary law degree in the People s Republic of China is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws The Juris Magister is the graduate level professional law degree in China which is regarded as the counterpart of a Juris Doctor 104 In fall 2008 the Shenzhen graduate campus of Peking University started the School of Transnational Law which offers a United States style education and awards a Chinese Juris Doctor degree 105 Hong Kong edit The JD degree is currently offered at the Chinese University of Hong Kong 106 The University of Hong Kong 107 and City University of Hong Kong The JD in Hong Kong is almost identical to the LLB and is reserved for graduates of non law disciplines However the JD requires a thesis or dissertation 108 The JD in Hong Kong is a 2 year program including study during the summer term but can be extended to three years with summer vacations 109 The JD is considered a master s degree by universities and the Hong Kong Qualification Framework 110 111 Neither the LLB nor the JD provides the education sufficient for a license to practice Graduates of both are also required to undertake the PCLL course and a solicitor traineeship or barrister pupillage 112 Italy edit In Italy only one program gives access to traditional legal professions such as lawyer magistrate or public notary and that is the Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza 113 Legal studies have a long history in Italy with the University of Bologna being the main Italian center for studies of both canon law and civil law in the 12th and 13th centuries 114 The laurea magistrale in giurisprudenza is a five year academic program deemed a master s level degree under the Bologna process 115 that can be entered into with a high school diploma The program comprises universities classes in legal theory and legal subjects excluding practical courses and is concluded with a thesis Italian tesi di laurea to be defended before an academic commission 113 In a novel approach a few universities are trialing a 3 2 model which initially offers a bachelor s degree in law followed by the option to undertake an additional two years to earn the Italian Juris Doctor 116 117 Italian graduates in law are awarded the title of Doctor of Law Italian Dottore Magistrale in Giurisprudenza commonly known as Dottore in legge in keeping with standard Italian practice of awarding the title of doctor to holders of master s level degrees Holders of the Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza are eligible to register with an Italian bar association which is a prerequisite for the mandatory eighteen month apprenticeship under a practicing attorney at law before taking the bar examination 118 Alternatively graduates may opt for two additional years of study at the Scuole di Specializzazione per le Professioni Legali Specialization Schools for the Legal Profession leading to a Diploma di Specializzazione per le Professioni Legali Specialization Diploma for the Legal Profession akin to a master s degree 119 120 121 Possession of the Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza also qualifies individuals to partake in the competitive public examination administered by the Ministry of Justice for entry into the ordinary magistracy 122 Japan edit In Japan the JD is known as Homu Hakushi 法務博士 hōmu hakushi 123 The program generally lasts three years Two year JD programs for applicants with legal knowledge mainly undergraduate level law degree holders are also offered This curriculum is professionally oriented 124 but does not provide the education sufficient for a license to practice as an attorney in Japan All candidates for licensing must undertake a 12 month practical training by the Legal Training and Research Institute after passing the bar examination 125 Similarly to the United States the Juris Doctor is classed as a professional degree 専門職 senmonshoku in Japan which is separate from the academic class of postgraduate master s degrees and doctorates 126 127 Philippines edit In the Philippines the graduate JD exists alongside the more common undergraduate LLB Like the LLB it requires four years of study The JD comprises courses in core bar subjects in 2 5 years following which students may take elective courses an apprenticeship and the defence of a thesis 128 129 The degree was first conferred in the Philippines by the Ateneo de Manila Law School which developed the program later adopted by most law schools In 2008 the University of the Philippines College of Law began conferring the JD on its graduates renaming its LLB program into a JD to reflect the view that the nomenclature does not accurately reflect the fact that the LLB is a professional as well as a post baccalaureate degree 130 In 2009 the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila and the Silliman University College of Law also renamed their respective LL B programs to Juris Doctor 131 132 The newly established De La Salle University College of Law is likewise offering the JD Singapore edit The degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence is offered at all three law schools in Singapore which also offer LLB degrees It is a qualifying law degree for the purposes of admission to the legal profession in Singapore 71 A graduate of these programmes is a qualified person under Singapore s legislation governing entry to the legal profession and is eligible for admission to the Singapore Bar 133 United Kingdom edit The Quality Assurance Agency consulted in 2014 on the inclusion of Juris Doctor in the U K Framework for Higher Education Qualifications as an exception to the rule that doctor should only be used by doctoral degrees It was proposed that the Juris Doctor would be an award at bachelor level and would not confer the right to use the title doctor 134 135 This was not incorporated into the final framework published in 2014 136 The only JD degree currently awarded by a U K university is at Queen s University Belfast The 3 4 year degree is specified a professional doctorate at the doctoral qualifications level sitting above the LLM It includes a 30 000 word dissertation 137 138 Joint LLB JD courses for a small number of students are offered by University College London King s College London and the London School of Economics in collaboration with Columbia University King s also offers a joint LLB JD with Georgetown University 139 140 141 King s College London and the University of Exeter offer joint LLB JD degrees with the Chinese University of Hong Kong with two years in the UK followed by two years in Hong Kong 140 142 Harvard Law School and the University of Cambridge offer a JD LLM Joint Degree Program enabling Harvard JD candidates to earn a Cambridge LLM and a Harvard JD in 3 5 years 143 The University of Southampton offers a two year graduate entry LLB described as a JD pathway degree 144 The University of Surrey previously offered a course similar to Southampton s 145 The University of York offers a three year so called LLM Law Juris Doctor degree 146 In academia editIn the United States the Juris Doctor is the degree that prepares the recipient to enter the law profession as do the M D or D O in the medical profession and the D D S or D M D in the dental profession While the J D is the sole degree necessary to become a professor of law or to obtain a license to practice law it like the M D D O D D S or D M D is not a research degree 147 Research degrees in the study of law include the Master of Laws LL M which ordinarily requires the J D as a prerequisite 148 and the Doctor of Juridical Science S J D J S D which ordinarily requires the LL M as a prerequisite 148 However the American Bar Association which accredits US law schools has issued a Council Statement stating 149 WHEREAS the acquisition of a Doctor of Jurisprudence degree requires from 84 to 90 semester hours of post baccalaureate study and the Doctor of Philosophy degree usually requires 60 semester hours of post baccalaureate study along with the writing of a dissertation the two degrees shall be considered as equivalent degrees for educational employment purposes 150 Accordingly while most law professors are required to conduct original writing and research in order to be awarded tenure the majority have a J D as their highest degree and are qualified to teach and supervise LL M and J S D candidates However research in 2015 showed an increasing trend toward hiring professors with both J D and Ph D degrees particularly at more highly ranked schools 151 Professor Kenneth K Mwenda criticized the council s statement pointing out that it compares the J D only to the taught component of the Ph D degree in the United States ignoring the research and dissertation components 152 The United States Department of Education Center for Education Statistics classifies the J D and other professional doctorates as doctor s degree professional practice It classifies the Ph D and other research doctorates as doctor s degree research scholarship 153 Among legal degrees it accords the latter status only to the Doctor of Juridical Science degree In Europe the European Research Council follows a similar policy stating that a professional degree carrying the title doctor is not considered equivalent to a research degree such as a Ph D 154 The Dutch and Portuguese National Academic Recognition Information Centres both classify the JD granted in the United States along with other professional doctorate degrees as equivalent to a master s degree 155 156 while the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland states with respect to United States practice that The professional degree is a first degree not a graduate degree even though it incorporates the word doctor in the title 157 Commonwealth countries also often consider the JD granted in the United States equivalent to a bachelor s degree 158 even though the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services has advised that while neither degree is likely equivalent to a Ph D a JD or MD degree would be considered to be equivalent to if not higher than a masters degree 159 Use of the title doctor editSince at least the 1920s it has been contrary to custom in the United States to address holders of the JD as doctor 160 161 In the late 1960s the rising number of American law schools awarding JDs led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title doctor Initial informal ethics opinions based on the Canons of Professional Ethics then in force came down against this 162 163 These were then reinforced with an ABA ethics opinion that maintained the ban on using the title in legal practice except when dealing with countries where the use of doctor by lawyers was standard practice but allowed the use of the title in academia if the school of graduation thinks of the JD degree as a doctor s degree 164 The opinion generated much debate 165 166 The introduction of the 1969 Code of Professional Responsibility settled the question in favour of allowing the use of the title in states where the code was adopted 167 There was some dispute over whether only the Ph D level Doctor of Juridical Science grant the title 168 but ethics opinions have read the Code as allowing JD holders to be called doctor while acknowledging that the older Canons did not 169 As not all state bars adopted the new code and some omitted the clause permitting the use of the title confusion over whether lawyers could ethically use the title doctor continued 170 While many state bars now allow the use of the title some prohibit its use where there is any chance of confusing the public about a lawyer s actual qualifications e g if the public might believe the lawyer is a doctor of medicine 171 There has been discussion on whether it is permissible in some other limited instances For example in June 2006 the Florida Bar Board of Governors ruled that a lawyer could refer to himself as a doctor en leyes doctor in laws in a Spanish language advertisement reversing an earlier decision 172 The decision was reversed again the following month when the board voted to only allow the use of untranslated names of degrees 173 The Wall Street Journal notes specifically in its stylebook that Lawyers despite their JD degrees aren t called doctor 174 Many other newspapers reserve the title for physicians only 175 or do not use titles at all 176 In 2011 Mother Jones published an article claiming that Michele Bachmann was misrepresenting her qualifications by using the bogus title Dr based on her JD They later amended the article to note that the use of the title by lawyers is a begrudgingly accepted practice in some states and not in others although they maintained that it was rarely used as it suggests that you re a medical doctor or a Ph D and therefore conveys a false level of expertise 177 See also editBachelor of Civil Law B C L LL B or LL L Bachelor of Laws LL B Doctor of Canon Law J C D Doctor of Juridical Science J S D or S J D Doctor of Laws LL D Master of Laws LL M Legal education Admission to practice law Accelerated JD program Law degree Law school in the United States describes general characteristics of the J D curriculum in the United States LawyerNotes edit Some sources have the first doctorates in theology at Paris being awarded prior to the doctorates in law at Bologna 25 For detailed discussions of the development of C C Langdell s method see la Piana 1994 47 and Stein 1981 30 449 450 Citations for verification of the data in this table can be found in the subsequent paragraphs of this section Juris Doctor degree qualifies one to sit for the bar examinations References edit The Doctor of Jurisprudence JD Degree Stanford Law School Archived from the original on 6 July 2022 Retrieved 9 April 2023 The Law School gt Academic Catalog The University of Chicago Graduate Announcements The University of Chicago Archived from the original on 15 June 2023 Retrieved 15 June 2023 JD Program amp Policies University of Washington School of Law Archived from the original on 23 September 2008 Retrieved 2 September 2008 Russo Eugene 2004 The changing length of Ph D s Nature 431 7006 382 383 Bibcode 2004Natur 431 382R doi 10 1038 nj7006 382a PMID 15372047 S2CID 4373950 Time to degree of U S research doctorate recipients Report NSF InfoBrief Science Resource Statistics Vol 06 312 U S National Science Foundation 2006 p 7 Archived from the original PDF on 8 March 2016 mentions that the J D is a professional doctorate in Data notes Ethics Opinion 1969 5 San Diego County Bar Association 1969 Archived from the original on 11 April 2003 Retrieved 26 May 2008 describes differences between academic and professional doctorates contains a statement that the J D is a professional doctorate in Other references Structure of U S Education First professional degrees DOC National Center for Education Statistics Report U S Department of Education April 2020 Archived from the original on 14 December 2020 Retrieved 15 December 2020 NCES discontinued the use of the term first professional degree as of its 2010 2011 data collection The Condition of Education National Center for Education Statistics 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Qualification Type Masters Degree PDF Australian Qualifications Framework Council May 2014 Archived from the original PDF on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 16 September 2016 Peter A Allard School of Law UBC Board of Governors Approves Request for LL B Bachelor of Laws degree to be renamed J D Juris Doctor Allard ubc ca Archived from the original on 11 April 2015 Retrieved 17 April 2017 Dean Patrick Monahan on the growing number of Canadian law schools switching from the LL B to J D degree designation Osgoode Law School May 2012 Archived from the original on 10 June 2008 First Year Admission Standards Queen s University Archived from the original on 15 July 2009 Retrieved 15 July 2009 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link LL B program admission University of Calgary Archived from the original on 10 December 2007 Retrieved 10 December 2007 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Degree Requirements First Year Courses Osgoode Hall Law School Osgoode yorku ca J D program Canada York University Archived from the original on 21 July 2011 Retrieved 25 August 2011 Bachelor of Law degree programs in Canada Canadian universities net Archived from the original on 10 May 2017 Retrieved 17 April 2017 What you need to know PDF Resource Center rc lsuc on ca Licensing process lawyer Toronto Ontario Canada Law Society of Upper Canada Archived from the original PDF on 5 July 2010 Retrieved 11 September 2009 University of Toronto Faculty of Law Prospective Students Law utoronto ca Archived from the original on 28 August 2011 Retrieved 25 August 2011 NYU Law Archived 11 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine Law nyu edu Retrieved on 15 July 2013 Foreign Legal Education Nybarexam org 27 April 2011 Archived from the original on 3 September 2011 Retrieved 25 August 2011 Lawyers Citizenship Ontario Working career professionals dead link JD LLB Welcome University of Windsor Archived from the original on 16 February 2008 Retrieved 17 April 2017 Joint J D LL B Degree Program Michigan State University College of Law Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 Retrieved 2 June 2008 Osgoode J D LL B Program New York University School of Law Office of Admissions Archived from the original on 18 May 2008 Retrieved 19 June 2008 J D University of Montreal Programme No 2 328 1 1 Archived from the original on 2 January 2014 Retrieved 31 December 2013 Diplome Juris Doctor Faculte de droit Usherbrooke ca Canada Universite de Sherbrooke Archived from the original on 11 August 2014 Retrieved 17 April 2017 September senate York University 10 October 2002 Archived from the original on 14 February 2017 Retrieved 13 February 2017 Regulations of the People s Republic of China on Academic Degrees 2004 P R C National People s Congress 28 August 2005 Archived from the original on 7 July 2011 Circular authorizing Peking University to offer the international Fa Lv Shuo Shi on a trial basis PDF Academic Degree Commission of the State Council of the People s Republic of China 27 August 2007 Archived from the original PDF on 7 July 2011 Juris Doctor Academic programmes The Chinese University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 26 December 2013 Retrieved 25 December 2013 Juris Doctor J D overview The University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 2 December 2008 Retrieved 15 December 2008 Juris Doctor J D overview The University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 2 December 2008 Retrieved 15 December 2008 JD programme structure The Chinese University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 3 July 2008 Retrieved 29 June 2008 Juris Doctor Academic Programmes City University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 13 April 2008 Retrieved 29 June 2008 Juris Doctor JD overview The University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 2 December 2008 Retrieved 15 December 2008 The Juris Doctor J D programme Courses and Recommended Sequences The Chinese University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 10 June 2008 Retrieved 29 June 2008 Juris Doctor Academic Programmes City University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 24 December 2007 Retrieved 29 June 2008 The C U H K website says at the top of the webpage that it is a 2 year program but later on the same page and on other pages in the site states that normally full time J D students can complete the programme in 3 years Juris Doctor J D CUHK Law FAQ Chinese University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 10 September 2016 Retrieved 16 September 2016 Is the J D programme a doctoral or a master s degree The J D programme is formally classified as a taught master s degree programme and it is not customary for J D graduates to use the title Doctor Masters degrees Calendar University of Hong Kong 2016 2017 Archived from the original on 21 September 2016 Retrieved 16 September 2016 Juris Doctor JD Information for entrants to be admitted in 2013 2014 and thereafter School of Law City University of Hong Kong Archived from the original on 25 February 2021 Retrieved 16 September 2016 Although the award has the word doctor in its title this is a traditional usage and it is not generally regarded as equivalent to the Ph D degree or other doctoral awards It is a first law degree for students who are already graduates in a non law discipline Award Titles Scheme PDF Special Administrative Region Qualifications Framework Government of the Hong Kong Archived PDF from the original on 7 April 2022 Retrieved 16 September 2016 8 Providers may continue to adopt titles traditionally used for degree and sub degree qualifications in the mainstream education i e Associate at Level 4 Bachelor at Level 5 Master at Level 6 Doctor at Level 79 The following qualifications currently offered by the university sector are recognised globally These award titles will continue to be recognised under QF although they do not conform to ATS Juris Doctor J D at QF Level 6 General Admission Hong Kong Bar Association Archived from the original on 3 June 2008 Retrieved 1 June 2008 a b Degree Programmes School of Law www law unibo it University of Bologna Archived from the original on 15 September 2018 Retrieved 14 September 2018 University of Bologna History amp Development Britannica www britannica com 25 January 2024 Retrieved 23 March 2024 MIUR Universita www miur it Archived from the original on 13 May 2021 Retrieved 14 September 2018 Russo Maria 24 November 2010 Laurea in Giurisprudenza Universita it in Italian Retrieved 24 March 2024 Trento nuova laurea per giuristi cosmopoliti Cronaca l Adige it l Adige in Italiano 22 July 2017 Retrieved 24 March 2024 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint unrecognized language link Riforma dell ordinamento professionale forense Consiglio Nazionale Forense in Italian Italy January 2013 L 247 2012 Archived from the original on 15 September 2018 Retrieved 14 September 2018 DECRETO LEGISLATIVO 5 aprile 2006 n 160 normattiva it Retrieved 8 February 2024 LEGGE 30 luglio 2007 n 111 normattiva it Retrieved 8 February 2024 Trento nuova laurea per giuristi cosmopoliti Cronaca l Adige in Italian 22 July 2017 Archived from the original on 23 May 2023 Retrieved 8 February 2024 NUOVO ACCESSO DIRETTO AL CONCORSO IN MAGISTRATURA CON LA SOLA LAUREA RIFORMA CARTABIA 2022 ART 4 LEGGE 17 GIUGNO 2022 N 71 n 98 in Italian 16 June 2022 Retrieved 20 April 2023 For a Justice System to Support Japan in the 21st Century Report Justice System Reform Council 2001 Program Introduction and Dean s Message Yokohama National University Law School Archived from the original on 10 September 2009 Retrieved 7 April 2008 Foote D 2005 Justice system reform in Japan PDF Annual meeting of the Research of Sociology of Law Paris FR European Network on Law and Society Archived from the original PDF on 20 March 2009 Degree Regulations of Nagoya University Nagoya University Archived from the original on 27 August 2016 Retrieved 16 September 2016 Kobe University degree regulations PDF Report Kobe University Archived from the original PDF on 24 February 2021 Retrieved 16 September 2016 Ateneo de Manila University Ateneolaw ateneo edu 10 February 2017 Archived from the original on 27 September 2007 Retrieved 17 April 2017 Ateneo de Manila Law School Philippine Leadership Crisis and the J D Program Archived from the original on 8 May 2008 Retrieved 17 April 2017 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link News University of Philippines College of Law 25 April 2008 Archived from the original on 31 May 2008 Decierdo Princess Dianne Kris S 15 July 2009 S U Law adopts Juris Doctor Program The Weekly Sillimanian Vol LXXXII no 4 Archived copies can be viewed and verified at the Sillimaniana Section of the Silliman University Main Library Curricula Manila PH Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila Archived from the original on 8 July 2009 Retrieved 14 July 2009 Rule 5A Legal profession qualified persons rules PDF Report Singapore Ministry of Law Cap 161 s 2 2 Archived from the original PDF on 22 February 2014 Retrieved 14 February 2014 Part A Setting and maintaining academic standards PDF U K Quality Code for Higher Education Report The frameworks for higher education qualifications of U K degree awarding bodies Post consultation draft v 4 ed QAA August 2014 pp 34 35 Archived from the original PDF on 10 January 2017 Comment s4 Footnote as follows will need to be added depending on decision re the J D the award of a Juris Doctor is an exception to the principle that the title doctor should only be used for qualifications meeting the qualification descriptor for FHEQ level 8 SCQF level 12 on the FQHEIS in full the Juris Doctor is not a doctoral qualification at level 8 of the FHEQ SQCF level 12 but at level 6 of the FHEQ SCQF level 10 on the FQHEIS with some modules at level 7 of the FHEQ SCQF level 11 on the FQHEIS holders of the qualification are not entitled to use the title Dr Part A Setting and maintaining academic standards the U K frameworks for higher education qualifications PDF Consultation on the U K Quality Code for Higher Education Learning and Teaching Committee Report University of Ulster 18 June 2014 p 6 Archived from the original PDF on 10 January 2017 Retrieved 8 December 2018 The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of U K Degree Awarding Bodies PDF Report QAA October 2014 Archived PDF from the original on 22 October 2021 Retrieved 4 August 2018 Law J Dr Programme Specifications 2019 2020 Academic Affairs Report Queen s University Belfast Archived from the original on 7 April 2022 Retrieved 20 November 2019 Study regulations for research degree programmes Report Queen s University Belfast Archived from the original on 14 September 2016 Retrieved 16 September 2016 Dual LLB Juris Doctor JD with Columbia University New York University College London 14 September 2017 Archived from the original on 30 August 2022 Retrieved 30 August 2022 a b Undergraduate The Dickson Poon School of Law King s College London Archived from the original on 30 August 2022 Retrieved 30 August 2022 Double degree programme Columbia Law School London School of Economics Archived from the original on 30 August 2022 Retrieved 30 August 2022 Dual LLB Juris Doctor JD with the Chinese University of Hong Kong 2023 entry University of Exeter Archived from the original on 30 August 2022 Retrieved 30 August 2022 School Harvard Law Harvard Law School and University of Cambridge J D LL M Joint Degree Program Harvard Law School Archived from the original on 15 June 2022 Retrieved 7 June 2022 Law Accelerated Programme JD Pathway LLB University of Southampton Archived from the original on 30 August 2022 Retrieved 30 August 2022 Law J D pathway LL B Hons University of Surrey 2017 Archived from the original on 18 September 2016 Retrieved 17 September 2016 LL M law Juris Doctor Postgraduate courses University of York Archived from the original on 7 April 2022 Retrieved 24 July 2020 Mwenda Kenneth Kaoma Muuka Gerry Nkombo eds 2009 The academic rank of a J D The Challenge of Change in Africa s Higher Education in the 21st Century Cambria Press pp 87 88 ISBN 978 1604976106 see esp Mwenda s comments on pp 87 88 in the section labeled The Academic Rank of a JD and the quoted material from Pappas immediately preceding it a b LL M admission Law yale edu Yale Law School Archived from the original on 10 January 2017 Retrieved 17 April 2017 Council Statements PDF Legal Education Accreditation ABANet org American Bar Association Archived PDF from the original on 26 July 2010 Retrieved 17 April 2017 Archived copy PDF www americanbar org Archived PDF from the original on 23 September 2022 Retrieved 23 September 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Kerr Orin 22 October 2015 The rise of the Ph D law professor The Washington Post Mwenda Kenneth K 2007 Comparing American and British Legal Education Systems Lessons for Commonwealth African Law Schools Cambria Press pp 21 22 ISBN 9781621969594 The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System Nces ed gov Archived from the original on 16 May 2022 Retrieved 5 May 2022 PhD and Equivalent Doctoral Degrees The ERC Policy PDF Report European Research Council Archived from the original PDF on 6 November 2013 Retrieved 25 May 2013 First professional degrees will not be considered in themselves as Ph D equivalent even if recipients carry the title doctor Recognition of Qualifications PDF Report NARIC Portugal p 49 Archived from the original PDF on 11 July 2018 Retrieved 18 September 2016 The American education system described and compared with the Dutch system PDF Report NUFFIC p 3 Archived from the original on 9 April 2023 Retrieved 18 September 2016 Review of Professional Doctorates PDF Report Dublin IE National Qualifications Authority of Ireland October 2006 p 3 Archived from the original PDF on 10 January 2017 Retrieved 18 September 2016 Mwenda Kenneth K 2007 Comparing American and British legal education systems Lessons for Commonwealth African law schools Cambria Press p 27 ISBN 9781621969594 via Google Books Aytes Michael 2 May 2006 Chapter 31 H 1B cap exemption for aliens holding a master s or higher degree from a U S institution PDF AFM Update U S Citizenship and Immigration Services AD06 24 Archived PDF from the original on 12 February 2017 Retrieved 13 February 2017 Crabbe A L March 1925 Who is a doctor Peabody Journal of Education 2 5 268 273 doi 10 1080 01619562509534672 JSTOR 1487677 Hickey Robert How to address an attorney or lawyer in the United States Protocol School of Washington Archived from the original on 9 May 2011 Retrieved 18 September 2016 Summaries of informal opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics American Bar Association Journal 54 7 657 July 1968 JSTOR 25724462 1001 A lawyer holding a J D degree may not ethically use either orally or in print the title doctor professionally or socially Summaries of informal opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics American Bar Association Journal 55 6 589 June 1969 JSTOR 25724818 Boodell Thomas J Carson C A Gates Benton E Joiner Charles W McAlpin Kirk M Myers Samuel P Sperry Floyd B Armstrong Walter P May 1969 Opinions of the Committee on Professional Ethics American Bar Association Journal 55 5 451 453 JSTOR 25724785 Hittner David June 1969 The juris doctor a question of ethics American Bar Association Journal 55 7 663 665 JSTOR 25724845 Shields William H June 1969 Don t call me doctor American Bar Association Journal 55 20 960 963 JSTOR 25724927 Hillsberg Richard W McGiffert David E Herbert Williard A Lansdowne Robert J Hyatt Hudson Chandler Kent Pederson Virgil L Bodkin Henry G Marks Edward Wasby Stephen L Kandt William C Taylor Herman E Berall Frank S Collins Hugh B Barr J E Mellor Phillip Hittner David Turnbull Frederick W Adams Paul Widman Joel L Tollett Kenneth S November 1969 Views of our readers American Bar Association Journal Editor s note 55 11 1024 JSTOR 25724947 Yuter S C August 1971 Revisiting the doctor debate American Bar Association Journal 57 8 790 892 JSTOR 25725564 Summaries of informal opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics American Bar Association Journal 56 8 750 August 1970 JSTOR 25725213 Kathleen Maher November 2006 Lawyers are doctors too But there is no clear ethics rule on whether they may say so American Bar Association Journal 92 11 24 JSTOR 27846360 S A P 1 March 2013 Trust me I m a doctor of law The Economist blog Samuel Johnson Archived from the original on 1 July 2017 Retrieved 13 July 2017 Blankenship Gary 1 July 2006 Debate over doctor of law title continues The Florida Bar News Florida Bar Association Archived from the original on 10 January 2017 Retrieved 18 September 2016 Blankenship Gary 15 August 2006 Bar board settles Dr of Law debate The Florida Bar News Florida Bar Association Archived from the original on 10 January 2017 Retrieved 18 September 2016 Martin Paul 15 June 2010 The Wall Street Journal Guide to Business Style and Us Simon and Schuster p 72 ISBN 9781439122693 Archived from the original on 9 April 2023 Retrieved 1 November 2020 via Google Books Abcarian Robin 2 February 2009 Hi I m Jill Jill Biden But please call me Dr Biden National Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on 22 October 2018 Retrieved 2 May 2017 Newspapers including the Times generally do not use the honorific Dr unless the person in question has a medical degree Why doesn t the Times call Condi Dr Rice Slate 27 December 2000 Archived from the original on 24 January 2017 Retrieved 1 May 2017 Most newspapers dispense with such formalities and on second reference call people only by their last names Murphy Tim 18 August 2011 Michele Bachmann is not a doctor Mother Jones Archived from the original on 9 July 2018 Retrieved 9 July 2018 External links edit nbsp Look up Juris Doctor in Wiktionary the free dictionary Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Juris Doctor amp oldid 1219813122, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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