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George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham

George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, KG (/ˈvɪlərz/; 28 August 1592 – 23 August 1628),[1][2] was an English courtier, statesman, and patron of the arts. He was a favourite and self-described "lover" of King James I of England.[3][4] Buckingham remained at the height of royal favour for the first three years of the reign of James's son, King Charles I, until a disgruntled army officer assassinated him.

The Duke of Buckingham
1st Duke of Buckingham
In office
1616–1628
Preceded byEdward Stafford
Succeeded byGeorge Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham
Personal details
Born(1592-08-28)28 August 1592
Brooksby, Leicestershire, England
Died23 August 1628(1628-08-23) (aged 35)
Portsmouth, Hampshire, England
Manner of deathAssassination
Resting placeWestminster Abbey
SpouseKatherine Manners, Baroness de Ros
Children
Parents
Signature

Early life

Villiers was born in Brooksby, Leicestershire, on 28 August 1592, the son of the minor gentleman Sir George Villiers (1550–1606). His mother, Mary (1570–1632), daughter of Anthony Beaumont of Glenfield, Leicestershire, was widowed early. She educated her son for a courtier's life and sent him to travel in France with John Eliot.

Villiers took to the training set by his mother: he could dance and fence well, spoke a little French, and overall became an excellent student. Godfrey Goodman (Bishop of Gloucester from 1624 to 1655) declared Villiers "the handsomest-bodied man in all of England; his limbs so well compacted, and his conversation so pleasing, and of so sweet a disposition".[5]

Ascent at court

 
Arms of Sir George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, KG, as quartered on his stall plate and banner within St George's Chapel

In August 1614, at age twenty-one, Villiers caught the eye of King James I at a hunt in Apethorpe.[6] Opponents of the King's favourite Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset, saw an opportunity to displace Somerset and began promoting Villiers. Money was raised to purchase Villiers a new wardrobe, and intense lobbying secured his appointment as Royal Cup-bearer, a position that allowed him to make conversation with the King.[7] Villiers began to appear as a dancer in masques from 1615, in which he could exhibit his grace of movement and beauty of body, a recognised avenue to royal favour since the time of Elizabeth I.[8]

Under the King's patronage, Villiers advanced rapidly through the ranks of the nobility, and his court appointments grew in importance. In 1615 he was knighted as a Gentleman of the Bedchamber. In 1616, when he became the King's Master of the Horse, he was elevated to the peerage as Baron Whaddon, Viscount Villiers, and made a Knight of the Garter.[9] The next year he was made Earl and in 1618 promoted Marquess of Buckingham, then finally in 1623 Duke of Buckingham. Villiers' new rank allowed him to dance side by side with the royal heir Charles I, with whom his friendship developed through his tutoring of the prince in dance.[8]

Villiers was appointed Lord High Admiral of England in 1619, and in 1623 the former dukedom of Buckingham was recreated for him when he was negotiating abroad on the king's behalf.[10] Since the dukedom of Norfolk had lapsed in 1572 with the attainder and execution of Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, Buckingham now became the only English duke who, at the time, was not a member of the royal family (James's two sons were Duke of Cornwall and Duke of York).[11]

Relationship with James I

Villiers was the last in a succession of handsome young favourites on whom the king lavished affection and patronage. The extent to which the relationship between the two was sexual has been much discussed. James's nickname for Buckingham was "Steenie", after St. Stephen who was said to have had "the face of an angel".[12] Speaking to the Privy Council in 1617, James tried to clarify the situation:

You may be sure that I love the Earl of Buckingham more than anyone else, and more than you who are here assembled. I wish to speak in my own behalf and not to have it thought to be a defect, for Jesus Christ did the same, and therefore I cannot be blamed. Christ had John, and I have George.[13]

Historian David M. Bergeron claims "Buckingham became James's last and greatest lover" citing flowery letters that followed 17th-century styles of masculinity.[14] Other scholars say there was no sexual relationship between the two, though at least one such assessment has been criticised as based on "highly speculative and possibly ahistorical assumptions about same-sex desire in the Renaissance."[15]

In a letter to Buckingham in 1623, the King ended with the salutation, "God bless you, my sweet child and wife, and grant that ye may ever be a comfort to your dear father and husband".[16] Buckingham reciprocated the King's affections, writing back to James: "I naturally so love your person, and adore all your other parts, which are more than ever one man had", "I desire only to live in the world for your sake" and "I will live and die a lover of you". Buckingham himself provides ambiguous evidence, writing to James many years later that he had pondered "whether you loved me now...better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where the bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog".[17]

Speculation about the close relationship between king and favourite was not confined to Great Britain. It was carried back to France by the poet Théophile de Viau, who was resident in England in 1621 and had then addressed to Buckingham the flattering ode Au marquis du Boukinquan.[18] On his return, he went on to justify his own masculine preferences by a witty appeal both to Classical mythology and to the contemporary gossip:

Apollo with his songs
Debauched young Hyacinth
...
And that learned English king,
Wasn't Buckingham his fuck?[19]

Influence under James I

 
Villiers as Lord High Admiral, a portrait by Daniel Mytens the Elder, 1619

Until James I died in 1625, Buckingham was the king's constant companion and closest advisor, enjoying control of all royal patronage. Buckingham used his influence to prodigiously enrich his relatives and advance their social positions, which soured public opinion towards him.[20]

In his rise to power, Buckingham became connected with the philosopher and jurist Francis Bacon. Bacon wrote letters of advice to the young favourite and drafted the patent of nobility when Buckingham ascended to the peerage.[21] With Buckingham's support, Bacon was appointed Lord Chancellor in 1618.[22] In gratitude, Bacon honoured Buckingham's many requests for favours from the court for friends and allies. Following an investigation by Parliament into royal grants of monopoly, financial speculation and corrupt officials, Bacon was convicted of corruption and forced into retirement. Neither Buckingham nor the King attempted to intervene on Bacon's behalf.[23] Many of Buckingham's contemporaries believed he had sacrificed Bacon to save himself from Parliamentary scrutiny, as he had been liberally spending public funds and accepting gifts and bribes.[24]

From 1616, Buckingham also established a dominant influence in Irish affairs, beginning with the appointment of his client, Sir Oliver St John, as Lord Deputy, 1616–22. Thence, he acquired control of the Irish customs farm (1618), dominated Irish patronage at court, particularly with the sale of Irish titles and honours, and (from 1618) began to build substantial Irish estates for himself, his family and clients—with the aid of a plantation lobby, composed of official clients in Dublin. To the same end, he secured the creation of an Irish Court of Wards in 1622. Buckingham's influence thus crucially sustained an aggressive Irish plantation policy into the 1620s.

When Parliament began its investigation into monopolies and other abuses in England, and later Ireland in 1621, Buckingham made a show of support to avoid action being taken against him. However, the king's decision to send a commission of inquiry to Ireland, which included parliamentary firebrands, threatened to expose Buckingham's growing, often clandestine, interests there. Knowing that the king had assured the Spanish ambassador that the Parliament would not be allowed to imperil a Spanish matrimonial alliance, he therefore surreptitiously instigated a conflict between the Parliament and the king over the Spanish Match, which resulted in the Parliament's premature dissolution in December 1621 and a hobbling of the Irish commission in 1622. Irish reforms introduced in 1623–24 by Lionel Cranfield, Earl of Middlesex and Lord Treasurer, were largely nullified by Middlesex's impeachment and disgrace in the violently anti-Spanish 1624 parliament—spurred on by Buckingham and Prince Charles.

Charles I, the Lord Admiral and foreign affairs

 
Portrait by Paul van Somer, before 1622

In 1623 Buckingham, now Lord Admiral and effective Foreign Minister, accompanied Charles I, then Prince of Wales, to Spain for marriage negotiations regarding the Infanta Maria. The negotiations had long been stuck, but it is believed that Buckingham's crassness was key to the total collapse of the agreement, and they returned in a black mood.[25] The Spanish ambassador asked Parliament to have Buckingham executed for his behaviour in Madrid, but Buckingham gained popularity by calling for war with Spain on his return.

He headed further marriage negotiations, but when, in December 1624, the betrothal to Henrietta Maria of France was announced, the choice of a Catholic was widely condemned. Buckingham, whose popularity had suffered a further setback, took a decision to help the rebellious Huguenot Admiral Benjamin, Duke of Soubise. An ardent Protestant, Buckingham ordered Sir John Penington to help; but the Navy only succeeded in attacking Richelieu's enemies, defeating his objects in August 1625 and losing La Rochelle.[26] Similarly he was blamed for the failure of the military expedition under the command of Ernst von Mansfeld, a famous German mercenary general, sent to the continent to recover the Electorate of the Palatinate (1625), which had belonged to Frederick V, Elector Palatine, son-in-law of King James I of England. However, when the Duke of York became King Charles I, Buckingham was the only man from the court of James to maintain his position.[27][28]

In 1625, Buckingham proposed to send an expedition to Spain in an attempt to reenact what he viewed as the glorious actions of Sir Francis Drake by once again seizing the main Spanish port at Cádiz and burning the Spanish fleet in its harbour. Buckingham's past failures had provoked the Commons to refuse further levies of taxation to fund his extravagant adventures, but at the same time Parliament was intrigued by the prospect of dealing a blow to the international Catholic conspiracy, and the expedition was authorized. Yet even before the troops set sail the food prepared for the expedition was consumed awaiting the Board of Ordnance to deliver the required cannonry and musket balls. On this occasion, Buckingham himself was not in command. As experienced admirals were unavailable, Buckingham assigned command of the expedition to Sir Edward Cecil, a battle-hardened soldier who had won renown fighting on behalf of the Dutch against the Spanish. This choice of commander proved foolhardy, as while Cecil was a good soldier on land he had no knowledge of the sea.

Although Buckingham's plan was tactically sound, calling for landing further up the coast and marching the militia army on the city, the troops were badly equipped, ill-disciplined, and poorly trained. Coming upon a warehouse filled with wine, they simply got drunk, and the attack had to be called off. The English army briefly occupied a small port further down the coast before re-boarding its ships.[29] After the embarrassing fiasco at Cádiz, Cecil decided to try to intercept a Spanish silver fleet on its way back to Spain from the American territories. However, the Spanish were forewarned by their intelligence and easily avoided the planned ambush. With supplies running out and men sick and dying from starvation and disease, the English limped home in disgrace.[30] Public opinion blamed Buckingham for yet another disaster, leading to serious political consequences. The Parliament of 1626 began the process of impeachment against Buckingham, causing King Charles to dissolve Parliament rather than risk a successful impeachment of his favourite.

 
Study for Rubens' equestrian portrait, 1625

Buckingham then negotiated with the French Chief Minister, Cardinal Richelieu, for English ships to aid Richelieu in his fight against the French Protestant Huguenots, in return for French aid against the Spanish occupying the Palatinate. Seven English warships participated in operations against La Rochelle and in the siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré,[31] but Parliament was disgusted and horrified at the thought of English Protestants fighting French Protestants. The plan only fuelled their fears of crypto-Catholicism at court. In the end, seven English ships were delivered to the French after much debate[32] and were employed in the conflict,[33] although they were essentially manned by French crews, as most of the English crews had refused to serve against their coreligionists and had disembarked in Dieppe. Following the successful recovery of Ré island by the French forces, the Treaty of Paris (1626) was signed between the city of La Rochelle and King Louis XIII on 5 February 1626, preserving religious freedom but imposing some guaranties against possible future rebellions.[34] Moreover, the French made peace with the Spanish in April 1626, destroying any remaining hope of an Anglo-French alliance against the Habsburgs and obviating any further need to make a show of siding with the French crown against the Huguenots.[35]

In 1627, Buckingham led another expeditionary force to relieve La Rochelle, once again attempting to aid the Huguenots rather than oppose them. To the remnants of the disastrous Cadiz expedition of 1625 were added newly pressed men, which allowed Buckingham to cobble together a force of around 6,000 men.[36] As Parliament was still refusing to appropriate funds for further adventures as long as Buckingham was in charge, and Buckingham himself was nearly bankrupt, he funded the force with help from Sir William Russell, the two men raising approximately £70,000 between them to pay for the men, food, and supplies out of their own pockets.[37] Raising the money took time, and the troops looted the King's stores after going unpaid for 10 months. Finally arriving in France in the summer of 1627, Buckingham besieged the fortress of Saint Martin on the isle of Ré, which was now controlled by royalist forces, but soon found himself trapped between the besieged forces and relief forces sent by Cardinal Richelieu.[38] Realizing he risked annihilation, Buckingham abandoned the siege and fought his way back to his ships, but at a heavy cost: altogether, Buckingham lost more than 5,000 men in the brief campaign.[39]

In April 1628, another English fleet was sent to relieve the Huguenots, this time under the command of William Feilding, Earl of Denbigh, but Denbigh proved hesitant to fight the large, well-armed French fleet, and returned to Portsmouth without engaging the enemy.[40] Thereafter, Buckingham tried to organise a third expedition, once again under his direct command, and was engaged in this enterprise when he was felled in Portsmouth by an assassin.[41]

Assassination

 
Drawing made in Paris by Daniel Dumonstier, 1625

During the course of the duke's incompetent leadership, Parliament had twice attempted to impeach him. The king had rescued him by dissolving Parliament both times, but public feeling was so inflamed as a result that the duke was widely blamed as a public enemy. Eventually, his physician, Dr. Lambe, popularly supposed to assert a diabolic influence over him, was mobbed in the streets and died as a result. Among the pamphlets issued afterwards was one that prophesied

Let Charles and George do what they can,
The Duke shall die like Doctor Lambe.[42]

The duke was stabbed to death, on 23 August 1628, at the Greyhound Inn in Portsmouth, where he had gone to organise yet another campaign to aid La Rochelle. According to the eyewitness account sent by Dudley Carleton, 1st Viscount Dorchester to the queen, "he turned about, uttering only this word, villaine! and never spoke more: but presently, plucking out the knife from himself, before he fell to the ground, he made towards the traitor two or three paces, and then fell against a table."[43] The assassin was John Felton, an army officer who had been wounded in the earlier military adventure and believed he had been passed over for promotion by Buckingham.[44]

Such was the duke's unpopularity by this time that Felton was widely acclaimed as a hero by the public. A large number of poems celebrating Felton and justifying his action were published. Copies of written statements Felton carried in his hat during the assassination were also widely circulated.[45] Many of these described Buckingham as effeminate, cowardly and corrupt, and contrasted him with Felton, who was held up as an example of manliness, courage and virtue.[45] The son of Alexander Gill the Elder was sentenced to a fine of £2000 and the removal of his ears, after being overheard drinking to the health of Felton, and stating that Buckingham had joined King James I in hell. However, these punishments were remitted after his father and Archbishop Laud appealed to King Charles I.[46] Felton was hanged on 29 November and his body was taken to Portsmouth for public display. However, this proved to be a miscalculation by the authorities as it became an object of veneration by the public.[45]

Buckingham was buried in Westminster Abbey.[47] His lavish tomb bears a Latin inscription that may be translated as "The Enigma of the World".[48] Here, too, he was depicted surrounded by mythical figures. The black marble sculptures at each corner include Mars and Neptune, in reference to his military and naval exploits; on the catafalque lie bronze-gilt effigies of the duke and his wife (who long survived him), cast by Hubert Le Sueur.[49] Buckingham is clad in armour, enriched with crossed anchors and with an ermine cloak over it. He wears on his breast the chain and George of the Garter and on his head a ducal coronet, summing up the principal steps in his brief career.[50] He had died at the age of 35.

Self-promotion through the arts

As a means of manoeuvring for political as well as court advancement, Villiers commissioned masques in which he was able to promote himself in a leading role. By appearing there as a dancer himself his grace of movement and beauty of body was put on show. By 1618 his elevation in rank allowed him to dance side by side with the royal heir, with whom his friendship developed through his tutoring of the prince in dance. "Command over his body had provided him with the privilege of commanding the moves of a future king".[8] This culminated in connivance by his supporters in licensing Thomas Middleton's notorious play A Game at Chess (1624) as an extension of their anti-Spanish foreign policy. The duke and Prince Charles are acknowledged as figuring there as The White Duke and The White Knight, while very obvious depictions of the Spanish monarch and his former ambassador in England eventually brought about the play's closure.[51]

 
Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt's pearl-studded portrait of the duke, 1625

Villiers also commissioned portraits of himself as "a medium for the cultivation of his personal image".[52] William Larkin's portrait of 1616 records the start of his climb, showing him in the dress of a Knight of the Garter and emphasising the felicity of his stance and sumptuousness of dress.[53] A 1619 portrait by Daniel Mytens the Elder is equally elegant. There he is dressed in white brocade and white silk hose, wearing the Garter and standing in a decor of costly silks. Another full-length portrait by the same artist celebrates his succession as Lord High Admiral in 1619. Here he wears three-quarter armour; on the right, behind a balustrade, is a shoreline with the fleet beyond.[54] Buckingham's growing wealth was emphasised by the detail of his clothes. This is evident in the lovingly depicted lace about his collar and cuffs in the full-length portrait by Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen.[55] and the head and shoulders by Anthony van Dyck.[56] The 1625 painting by Michiel van Miereveld is not only of unparalleled magnificence, with a jacket encrusted with pearls which also hang in ropes across it, but may also contain a reference to his diplomatic coup that year in negotiating the marriage of the future Charles I. At his entry to the French Court, he is recorded as wearing a grey velvet suit from which the loosely threaded pearls dropped to the ground as he advanced to make his bow to the queen, to the general wonder.[57]

 
Van Dyke's double portrait of Buckingham and Manners

A series of more theatrical depictions heighten Buckingham's self-dramatisation and in certain cases make policy statements as well. Two of these are connected with his betrothal to and marriage with Lady Katherine Manners in 1620.[58] In Van Dyck's historical painting The Continence of Scipio, Buckingham is clearly recognisable standing at the centre, receiving from Scipio the hand of his captured betrothed.[59] A mythical composition commissioned from Van Dyck later commemorates the actual marriage.[60] In contrast to the former painting, this was highly unconventional at the time. The couple are pictured all but naked as Venus and Adonis, emphasising heterosexual love and so countering all the rumours of the duke's relations with the king. There is a further literary connection since the story is found in Ovid, but the picture again defies convention by hinting at a different, happier ending.[61]

 
A miniature of the duke wearing the knight's sash

Buckingham probably met Peter Paul Rubens while conducting the royal marriage negotiations in Paris in 1625 and commissioned two ambitious advertisements of his standing from the painter. The first of these was destined for the ceiling of his York House residence and depicts a masque-like theme in which Minerva and Mercury conduct the Duke of Buckingham to the Temple of Virtue (also known as The Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham and The Duke of Buckingham Triumphing over Envy and Anger). In front of the marble temple to which he is carried upwards are the probable figures of Virtue and Abundance; the three Graces offer the duke a crown of flowers, while Envy seeks to pull him down and a lion challenges him. The picture is an allegory of Buckingham's political aspirations and the forces that he saw as impeding him.[62] Though the painting was destroyed in a fire in 1949, it was survived by a preparatory sketch now held in the National Gallery in London[63] and by a copy made by William Etty.[64] Yet another Rubens portrait was rediscovered in 2017, when the painter's preparatory portrait of Buckingham was identified at Pollok House in Scotland.[65]

Rubens' other major commission, Equestrian Portrait of the Duke of Buckingham (1625) is accounted "the finest state portrait of its date in England".[66] The original was destroyed in a fire at the Le Gallais depository in St Helier, Jersey, on 30 September 1949, but a sketch by Rubens is now in the Kimbell Art Museum.[67] A summation of his career to date, it depicts Buckingham as Lord High Admiral of the fleet that is just visible in the background. Several other personal references are also incorporated. As Master of the King's Horses, he sits on a Spanish jennet (a breed he introduced to Britain), lifting a baton as his horse rears on command. Beneath him, the sea god Neptune and a naiad adorned with pearls indicate the duke's dominion over the sea. Overhead, a winged allegory of Fame signals victory (which nevertheless evaded the commander in real life) with trumpet in hand. Privately Rubens noted Buckingham's "arrogance and caprice" and predicted that he was "heading for the precipice".[68]

 
A mythological treatment of Buckingham in Gerrit van Honthorst's allegorical The Liberal Arts presented to King Charles and Henrietta Maria

Popular prints, often drawing on his painted portraits, particularly Miervelt's of 1625, had served to advertise Buckingham's position more broadly over the years. These now form part of the collection at the National Portrait Gallery.[53] At the same time martial statements were being made through this medium in support of Buckingham's foreign policy, as for instance in Willem de Passe's equestrian portrait of the duke, executed at the same time as Rubens was engaged on his monumental work on the same theme. There he is similarly depicted as Lord Admiral with a military baton in his right hand. During the 1627 expedition that he led personally, Buckingham was recorded as sponsoring "an unprecedented campaign of intensive print propaganda".[69]

In 1628, during the political turmoil that culminated in his assassination, Buckingham commissioned another masque-like painting from Gerrit van Honthorst, The Liberal Arts presented to King Charles and Henrietta Maria. In this the duke is cast as Mercury, the patron of the arts, the procession of whom is brought in his train to the presence of the king and queen in the guise of Apollo and Diana.[70] In this validation of his artistic credentials, it is appropriate to remember that Buckingham had taken part in the masque Mercury Vindicated at the start of his career in 1615.

Marriage and children

 
Buckingham with his wife Katherine Manners, their daughter Mary and son George. Gerrit van Honthorst, 1628

Buckingham married the daughter of the 6th Earl of Rutland, Lady Katherine Manners, later suo jure Baroness de Ros, on 16 May 1620, against her father's objections. The children of this marriage were:

  1. Mary Villiers (before 30 March 1622 – November 1685), married firstly Charles Herbert, Lord Herbert, secondly James Stewart, 1st Duke of Richmond and thirdly Colonel Thomas Howard.
  2. Charles Villiers, Earl of Coventry (17 November 1625 – 16 March 1627), died in infancy.
  3. George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham (30 January 1628 – 16 April 1687).
  4. Lord Francis Villiers (bef. 21 April 1629 – 7 July 1648), died in a skirmish at Kingston during the Second English Civil War.

Legacy

 
 
Crop of Christopher and John Greenwood's 8 inch-to-mile map published in 1827 from an 1830 republication (click to view all), showing George Court, Villiers Street, Duke Street, Of Alley and Buckingham Street; some have since been renamed.

During the duke's short tenure as Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, he had initiated the purchase of Thomas van Erpe's collection of oriental books and manuscripts on its behalf, although his widow only transferred it to Cambridge University Library after his death.[71] With it came the first book in Chinese to be added to the Library's collections.[72]

After Buckingham's assassination, a large amount of satirical verse was circulated on the subject. Most of this reflected on how pride goes before a fall and the damage he had done to the kingdom, while several pieces commended John Felton's action.[73] The dagger, claimed to have been used by him, was recorded by a late Victorian gazetteer as still on display at the now demolished Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire. This was the seat of the Earls of Denbigh, whose first earl married Buckingham's sister Susan.[74]

The duke's residence of York House occupied what eventually became the Adelphi district in London. When his son sold the area to developers, it was on condition that his father and titles were commemorated in naming the new streets. These were, accordingly, George Court, Villiers Street, Duke Street, Of Alley and Buckingham Street.[75][76]

Fictional appearances

A fictionalised Buckingham is one of the characters in Alexandre Dumas's celebrated 1844 novel Les Trois Mousquetaires (The Three Musketeers), which paints him as in love with Anne of Austria as well as dealing with the siege of La Rochelle and his assassination by Felton. He is described:

At thirty-five, which was then his age, he passed, with just title, for the handsomest gentleman and the most elegant cavalier of France or England. The favourite of two kings, immensely rich, all-powerful in a kingdom which he disordered at his fancy and calmed again at his caprice, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, had lived one of those fabulous existences which survive, in the course of centuries, to astonish posterity.[77]

In the 1973 two-film, Anglo-American adaptation of the book—The Three Musketeers and The Four Musketeers—Buckingham also has a prominent role as an ally of the main characters. The second film includes his assassination by Felton, but (following the original novel in this) depicts the killing as being orchestrated by the fictional Milady de Winter, an agent of the principal villain, Cardinal Richelieu.

Taylor Caldwell's The Arm and the Darkness (1943) also deals with this period in France, while Hilda Lewis' Wife to Great Buckingham (1959) goes so far as to make Buckingham's love for the French queen the main cause of his undoing. The duke also figures in historical romances like Evelyn Anthony's Charles, The King (1963) and Bertrice Small's Darling Jasmine (2007), although the main focus there is on other protagonists. The Spanish Match and Buckingham's part in it is made an episode in Spanish author Arturo Pérez-Reverte's novel El Capitán Alatriste (1996). There he and the then Prince of Wales are the subjects of an assassination attempt by Spanish plotters.[78]

In Philippa Gregory's Earthly Joys (1998), which has as its subject the famous gardener John Tradescant the Elder, the bewitching Duke appears halfway through the novel as the object of Tradescant's love. Another historical fiction, Ronald Blythe's The Assassin (2004), is written from his killer's point of view as a final confession while awaiting execution in the Tower of London.[79]

Nicholas Galitzine will portray him in the upcoming TV miniseries Mary & George.[80]

Notes

  1. ^ Montague-Smith 1970, p. 409.
  2. ^ Debrett's 2011.
  3. ^ "13", The Western Heritage (8th ed.), p. 420[full citation needed]
  4. ^ Bergeron, David M. (2002). "4: George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham". King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. ISBN 9781587292729.
  5. ^ Gregg, Pauline (1981). "5: Prince of Wales". King Charles I. Berkeley: University of California Press (published 1984). p. 49. ISBN 9780520051461. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
  6. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 264.
  7. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 268.
  8. ^ a b c Hille 2012, p. 113.
  9. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 279.
  10. ^ Wroughton 2013, p. 221.
  11. ^ Lockyer, Roger (1984). Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham 1592-1628. Routledge (published 2014). ISBN 9781317870821. Retrieved 6 August 2020. The dukedom of Norfolk had [...] been revived in 1553, but it lapsed again after Thomas Howard, the fourth Duke, was attainted of treason in 1572. The only dukes in early Stuart England were the King's sons, Prince Henry being Duke of Cornwall and his brother, Prince Charles, Duke of York. Buckingham, then, was the first duke for nearly a century to have no trace of royal blood in his veins [...].
  12. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 280.
  13. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 281.
  14. ^ David M. Bergeron (April 2002). King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire. University of Iowa Press. p. 98. ISBN 9781587292729.
  15. ^ Timothy Murphy, ed. (2013). Reader's Guide to Lesbian and Gay Studies. Taylor & Francis. pp. 314–15. ISBN 9781135942410.
  16. ^ Bergeron 1999, p. 175.
  17. ^ Lockyer 1981, p. 22.
  18. ^ Text at Wikisource
  19. ^ Apollon avec ses chansons
    Desbaucha le jeune Hyacinthe...
    Et ce sçavant Roy d'Angleterre,
    Foutoit-il pas le Boukinquan?
    Matthieu Dupas, "La sodomie dans l’affaire Théophile de Viau", Les Dossiers du Grihl, January 2010, Paragraphs 57-8
  20. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 314.
  21. ^ Zagorin 1999, pp. 20–21.
  22. ^ Zagorin 1999, pp. 21.
  23. ^ Zagorin 1999, pp. 22.
  24. ^ Stewart 2003, p. 309.
  25. ^ Rodger 1997, p. 357.
  26. ^ Rodger 1997, p. 356.
  27. ^ Kritzler, Edward (2009). Jewish Pirates of the Caribbean. Amazon.com: Random House Inc. pp. 165–183. ISBN 9780767919524.
  28. ^ Thomson, Katherine (2017). The Life and Times of George Villier, Duke of Buckingham. Amazon.com: Andesite Press. ISBN 978-3337589042.
  29. ^ Lockyer 1981, pp. 250–4, 266.
  30. ^ Godfrey Davies, The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 (Oxford University Press, 1959). pp 61-63.
  31. ^ Manning 2006, p. 115.
  32. ^ Huguenot warrior Jack Alden Clarke p. 129
  33. ^ An apprenticeship in arms by Roger Burrow Manning p.115
  34. ^ Europe's physician by Hugh Redwald Trevor-Roper p.289
  35. ^ Davies, The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 (1959). p 65.
  36. ^ Davies, The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 (1959). p 65.
  37. ^ Lockyer 2014, p. 460.
  38. ^ Davies, The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 (1959). pp 65-66.
  39. ^ Charles I by Michael B. Young, p.54
  40. ^ An apprenticeship in arms by Roger Burrow Manning p.119
  41. ^ Davies, The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 (1959). p 66.
  42. ^ Fairholt 1850, pp. xiv–xv.
  43. ^ "Ellis' Letters", The Universal Review, September 1824, p.132
  44. ^ Fairholt 1850, pp. xviii–xxiii.
  45. ^ a b c Bellany 2004.
  46. ^ Masson 1859, pp. 150–151.
  47. ^ "The roll-call of Westminster Abbey" Murray-Smith, E.T. p312: London; Smith, Elder & Co; 1903
  48. ^ Stanley, A.P., Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey (London; John Murray; 1882), p. 196.
  49. ^ "Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey" Stanley, A.P. p197: London; John Murray; 1882
  50. ^ Lockyer 2014, p. 458.
  51. ^ Taylor 2013, p. 712.[verification needed]
  52. ^ Hille 2012, p. 125.
  53. ^ a b National Portrait Gallery 2017.
  54. ^ National Maritime Museum & BHC2582.
  55. ^ Art UK & 80501.
  56. ^ WikiGallery.org 2017.
  57. ^ Hille 2012, p. 99.
  58. ^ Hille 2012, pp. 126 ff.
  59. ^ PubHist & 20047.
  60. ^ David Koetser.
  61. ^ Hille 2012, pp. 145 ff.
  62. ^ Graham Parry, The Golden Age Restor'd: The Culture of the Stuart Court 1603-42, Manchester University 1981, p.143
  63. ^ National Gallery: The Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham
  64. ^ (Art UK 8154)
  65. ^ Lost Rubens portrait of James I's 'lover' is rediscovered in Glasgow, Nicola Slawson, the guardian.com, 24-09-2017
  66. ^ Parry 1981, p. 142.
  67. ^ Kimbell Art Museum: Equestrian Portrait of the Duke of Buckingham
  68. ^ milesbarton.com 2015.
  69. ^ Bellany 2010, p. 219.
  70. ^ RC & 405746.
  71. ^ Cambridge University Library 2015.
  72. ^ Cambridge Digital Library - University of Cambridge (Chinese).
  73. ^ Fairholt 1850, pp. 36 ff.
  74. ^ Southhall 2009.
  75. ^ Fairfield, S. The Streets of London – A dictionary of the names and their origins, p47
  76. ^ Henry Benjamin Wheatley, Peter Cunningham, London Past and Present: Its History, Associations, and Traditions, Cambridge University 2011, p.539
  77. ^ Dumas 2016, "Chapter 12".
  78. ^ Captain Alatriste: A swashbuckling tale of action and adventure, Google Books
  79. ^ Mann 2004.
  80. ^ Wiseman, Andreas (13 January 2023). "Nicholas Galitzine Joins Julianne Moore In Sky & AMC Series 'Mary & George' About Royal Court Intrigue In King James I's England; Filming Underway". Deadline. Retrieved 27 March 2023.

References

 
George Villiers Duke of Buckingham, Collection of St John's College Cambridge
  • "Anthony van Dyck - The Continence of Scipio", PubHist, 20047, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • "Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham - Discover Artworks Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham", Art UK, 8154, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • Bellany, Alastair (2004), "Felton, John (died 1628), assassin", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9273 (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) The first edition of this text is available at Wikisource: "Felton, John (1595?-1628)" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
  • Bellany, Alastair (2010), "Buckingham Engraved: Politics, Print Images and the Royal Favourite in the 1620s", in Hunter, Michael Cyril William (ed.), Printed Images in Early Modern Britain: Essays in Interpretation, Ashgate Publishing, pp. 215–236, ISBN 978-0-7546-6654-7
  • Bergeron, David M. (1999), King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire, Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, p. 175, ISBN 9781587292729
  • Bergeron, David M. (2002), "Writing King James's Sexuality", in Fischlin, Fortier (ed.), Royal Subjects: Essays on the Writings of James VI and I, Detroit: Wayne State University Press
  • "History of the Collections", Cambridge University Library, 10 April 2015, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • "Chinese Works". Cambridge Digital Library - University of Cambridge. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
  • , Debrett's, archived from the original on 15 August 2011, retrieved 9 October 2011
  • Dumas, Alexandre (2016), "Chapter 12 George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham", The Three Musketeers, Gutenberg
  • , milesbarton.com, 20 June 2015, archived from the original on 20 June 2015, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • Fairholt, Frederick William (1850), Poems and Songs Relating to George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham and His Assassination by John Felton, 23 August 1628, London
  • "George Villiers (1592-1628), 1st Duke of Buckingham", National Maritime Museum, BHC2582, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • "George Villiers (1592–1628), 1st Duke of Buckingham - Discover Artworks George Villiers (1592–1628), 1st Duke of Buckingham", Art UK, 80501, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • , David Koetser (in Dutch), archived from the original on 5 January 2017, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • Gerrit van Honthorst. "Apollo and Diana". Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 405746.
  • Gregg, Pauline (1984), King Charles I, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, p. 49, ISBN 978-0-520-05146-1
  • Gregory, Philippa, "Earthly Joys", Philippa Gregory, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • Graham, Fiona (5 June 2008), "To the manor bought", BBC News, retrieved 22 September 2011
  • Mann, Jessica (26 September 2004), "The popular murderer", Daily Telegraph, archived from the original on 12 January 2022
  • Herbert, Edward (Lord Herbert of Cherbury) (1860), Lord Powis (ed.), The Expedition to the Isle of Rhe, London: Philobiblio Soc., OCLC 5093195
  • Hille, Christiane (2012), Visions of the Courtly Body: The Patronage of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, and the Triumph of Painting at the Stuart Court, Berlin, ISBN 9783050062556
  • "Large Image of the 1st Duke of Buckingham", National Portrait Gallery, 3 March 2017, NPG 3840, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • Lockyer, Roger (1981), Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham 1592–1628, London
  • Lockyer, Roger (1985), Tudor and Stuart Britain 1471–1714 (2nd ed.), London: Longman
  • Lockyer, Roger (2014), Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, London: Routledge, p. 458, ISBN 978-1-317-87083-8
  • Manning, Roger B. (2006), An Apprenticeship in Arms:The Origins of the British Army 1585-1702: The Origins of the British Army 1585-1702, OUP Oxford, p. 115, ISBN 978-0-19-926149-9
  • Masson, David (1859), The life of John Milton: narrated in connexion with the political, ecclesiastical, and literary history of his time, Macmillan and co., pp. 150–151
  • Montague-Smith, Patrick (1970), Debrett's Correct Form, London: Headline, p. 409, ISBN 978-0-7472-0658-3
  • Norbrook, David (28 January 2000), Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627-1660, Cambridge University Press, pp. 23 ff, ISBN 978-0-521-78569-3
  • Parry, Graham (1981), The Golden Age Restor'd: The Culture of the Stuart Court, 1603-42, Manchester University Press, p. 142, ISBN 978-0-7190-0825-2
  • "Portrait of George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham 1592-1628 - (after) Dyck, Sir Anthony van", WikiGallery.org, 12 April 2017, retrieved 13 April 2017
  • Ruigh, Robert E. (1971), The Parliament of 1624: Politics and Foreign Policy, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
  • Rodger, N.A.M. (1997), The Safeguard of the Sea, London, p. 356
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  • Stewart, Alan (2003), The Cradle King: A Life of James VI & I, London: Macmillan
  • Taylor, Gary (2013), "A Game at Chess: General Textual Introduction", in Taylor, Gary; Lavagnino, John (eds.), Thomas Middleton and Early Modern Textual Culture: A Companion to the Collected Works, Oxford University Press, p. 712, OCLC 922903742
  • Wroughton, John (2013), The Routledge Companion to the Stuart Age, 1603–1714, London: Routledge
  • Zagorin, Perez (1999), Francis Bacon, Princeton: Princeton University Press

Further reading

  • Coast, David. "Rumor and 'Common Fame': The Impeachment of the Duke of Buckingham and Public Opinion in Early Stuart England." Journal of British Studies 55.2 (2016): 241–267. online
  • French, Allen. "The Siege of Ré, 1627.” Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, vol. 28, no. 116, (1950), pp. 160–68. online
  • Hanrahan, David C. Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham (The History Press, 2006).
  • Jowitt, C. (2004), "Massinger's The 'Renegado' (1624) and the Spanish marriage", Cahiers Élisabéthains, 65: 45–53, doi:10.7227/CE.65.1.5, S2CID 154505848
  • MacIntyre, Jean. "Buckingham the Masquer." Renaissance and Reformation/Renaissance et Réforme (1998): 59–81. online, Covers his skill at dancing.
  • Opie, Iona; Opie, Peter (1951), The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes[full citation needed]
  • Parry, Mark. "The Bishops and the Duke of Buckingham, 1624–1626." History 100.343 (2015): 640–666.
  • Scott, John; Taylor, John (1828), The London Magazine, Hunt and Clarke, p. 71

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george, villiers, duke, buckingham, other, people, named, duke, buckingham, duke, buckingham, august, 1592, august, 1628, english, courtier, statesman, patron, arts, favourite, self, described, lover, king, james, england, buckingham, remained, height, royal, . For other people named 1st Duke of Buckingham see 1st Duke of Buckingham George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham KG ˈ v ɪ l er z 28 August 1592 23 August 1628 1 2 was an English courtier statesman and patron of the arts He was a favourite and self described lover of King James I of England 3 4 Buckingham remained at the height of royal favour for the first three years of the reign of James s son King Charles I until a disgruntled army officer assassinated him His GraceThe Duke of BuckinghamKGPortrait by Peter Paul Rubens 16251st Duke of BuckinghamIn office 1616 1628Preceded byEdward StaffordSucceeded byGeorge Villiers 2nd Duke of BuckinghamPersonal detailsBorn 1592 08 28 28 August 1592Brooksby Leicestershire EnglandDied23 August 1628 1628 08 23 aged 35 Portsmouth Hampshire EnglandManner of deathAssassinationResting placeWestminster AbbeySpouseKatherine Manners Baroness de RosChildrenMary Stewart Duchess of Richmond Charles Villiers Earl of Coventry George Villiers 2nd Duke of Buckingham Francis Villiers 1628 1648ParentsGeorge Villiers Mary BeaumontSignature Contents 1 Early life 2 Ascent at court 3 Relationship with James I 4 Influence under James I 5 Charles I the Lord Admiral and foreign affairs 6 Assassination 7 Self promotion through the arts 8 Marriage and children 9 Legacy 10 Fictional appearances 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External linksEarly life EditMain article Villiers family Villiers was born in Brooksby Leicestershire on 28 August 1592 the son of the minor gentleman Sir George Villiers 1550 1606 His mother Mary 1570 1632 daughter of Anthony Beaumont of Glenfield Leicestershire was widowed early She educated her son for a courtier s life and sent him to travel in France with John Eliot Villiers took to the training set by his mother he could dance and fence well spoke a little French and overall became an excellent student Godfrey Goodman Bishop of Gloucester from 1624 to 1655 declared Villiers the handsomest bodied man in all of England his limbs so well compacted and his conversation so pleasing and of so sweet a disposition 5 Ascent at court Edit Arms of Sir George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham KG as quartered on his stall plate and banner within St George s ChapelIn August 1614 at age twenty one Villiers caught the eye of King James I at a hunt in Apethorpe 6 Opponents of the King s favourite Robert Carr Earl of Somerset saw an opportunity to displace Somerset and began promoting Villiers Money was raised to purchase Villiers a new wardrobe and intense lobbying secured his appointment as Royal Cup bearer a position that allowed him to make conversation with the King 7 Villiers began to appear as a dancer in masques from 1615 in which he could exhibit his grace of movement and beauty of body a recognised avenue to royal favour since the time of Elizabeth I 8 Under the King s patronage Villiers advanced rapidly through the ranks of the nobility and his court appointments grew in importance In 1615 he was knighted as a Gentleman of the Bedchamber In 1616 when he became the King s Master of the Horse he was elevated to the peerage as Baron Whaddon Viscount Villiers and made a Knight of the Garter 9 The next year he was made Earl and in 1618 promoted Marquess of Buckingham then finally in 1623 Duke of Buckingham Villiers new rank allowed him to dance side by side with the royal heir Charles I with whom his friendship developed through his tutoring of the prince in dance 8 Villiers was appointed Lord High Admiral of England in 1619 and in 1623 the former dukedom of Buckingham was recreated for him when he was negotiating abroad on the king s behalf 10 Since the dukedom of Norfolk had lapsed in 1572 with the attainder and execution of Thomas Howard 4th Duke of Norfolk Buckingham now became the only English duke who at the time was not a member of the royal family James s two sons were Duke of Cornwall and Duke of York 11 Relationship with James I EditSee also Personal relationships of James VI and I George Villiers Villiers was the last in a succession of handsome young favourites on whom the king lavished affection and patronage The extent to which the relationship between the two was sexual has been much discussed James s nickname for Buckingham was Steenie after St Stephen who was said to have had the face of an angel 12 Speaking to the Privy Council in 1617 James tried to clarify the situation You may be sure that I love the Earl of Buckingham more than anyone else and more than you who are here assembled I wish to speak in my own behalf and not to have it thought to be a defect for Jesus Christ did the same and therefore I cannot be blamed Christ had John and I have George 13 Historian David M Bergeron claims Buckingham became James s last and greatest lover citing flowery letters that followed 17th century styles of masculinity 14 Other scholars say there was no sexual relationship between the two though at least one such assessment has been criticised as based on highly speculative and possibly ahistorical assumptions about same sex desire in the Renaissance 15 In a letter to Buckingham in 1623 the King ended with the salutation God bless you my sweet child and wife and grant that ye may ever be a comfort to your dear father and husband 16 Buckingham reciprocated the King s affections writing back to James I naturally so love your person and adore all your other parts which are more than ever one man had I desire only to live in the world for your sake and I will live and die a lover of you Buckingham himself provides ambiguous evidence writing to James many years later that he had pondered whether you loved me now better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham where the bed s head could not be found between the master and his dog 17 Speculation about the close relationship between king and favourite was not confined to Great Britain It was carried back to France by the poet Theophile de Viau who was resident in England in 1621 and had then addressed to Buckingham the flattering ode Au marquis du Boukinquan 18 On his return he went on to justify his own masculine preferences by a witty appeal both to Classical mythology and to the contemporary gossip Apollo with his songs Debauched young Hyacinth And that learned English king Wasn t Buckingham his fuck 19 dd Influence under James I Edit Villiers as Lord High Admiral a portrait by Daniel Mytens the Elder 1619Until James I died in 1625 Buckingham was the king s constant companion and closest advisor enjoying control of all royal patronage Buckingham used his influence to prodigiously enrich his relatives and advance their social positions which soured public opinion towards him 20 In his rise to power Buckingham became connected with the philosopher and jurist Francis Bacon Bacon wrote letters of advice to the young favourite and drafted the patent of nobility when Buckingham ascended to the peerage 21 With Buckingham s support Bacon was appointed Lord Chancellor in 1618 22 In gratitude Bacon honoured Buckingham s many requests for favours from the court for friends and allies Following an investigation by Parliament into royal grants of monopoly financial speculation and corrupt officials Bacon was convicted of corruption and forced into retirement Neither Buckingham nor the King attempted to intervene on Bacon s behalf 23 Many of Buckingham s contemporaries believed he had sacrificed Bacon to save himself from Parliamentary scrutiny as he had been liberally spending public funds and accepting gifts and bribes 24 From 1616 Buckingham also established a dominant influence in Irish affairs beginning with the appointment of his client Sir Oliver St John as Lord Deputy 1616 22 Thence he acquired control of the Irish customs farm 1618 dominated Irish patronage at court particularly with the sale of Irish titles and honours and from 1618 began to build substantial Irish estates for himself his family and clients with the aid of a plantation lobby composed of official clients in Dublin To the same end he secured the creation of an Irish Court of Wards in 1622 Buckingham s influence thus crucially sustained an aggressive Irish plantation policy into the 1620s When Parliament began its investigation into monopolies and other abuses in England and later Ireland in 1621 Buckingham made a show of support to avoid action being taken against him However the king s decision to send a commission of inquiry to Ireland which included parliamentary firebrands threatened to expose Buckingham s growing often clandestine interests there Knowing that the king had assured the Spanish ambassador that the Parliament would not be allowed to imperil a Spanish matrimonial alliance he therefore surreptitiously instigated a conflict between the Parliament and the king over the Spanish Match which resulted in the Parliament s premature dissolution in December 1621 and a hobbling of the Irish commission in 1622 Irish reforms introduced in 1623 24 by Lionel Cranfield Earl of Middlesex and Lord Treasurer were largely nullified by Middlesex s impeachment and disgrace in the violently anti Spanish 1624 parliament spurred on by Buckingham and Prince Charles Charles I the Lord Admiral and foreign affairs Edit Portrait by Paul van Somer before 1622In 1623 Buckingham now Lord Admiral and effective Foreign Minister accompanied Charles I then Prince of Wales to Spain for marriage negotiations regarding the Infanta Maria The negotiations had long been stuck but it is believed that Buckingham s crassness was key to the total collapse of the agreement and they returned in a black mood 25 The Spanish ambassador asked Parliament to have Buckingham executed for his behaviour in Madrid but Buckingham gained popularity by calling for war with Spain on his return He headed further marriage negotiations but when in December 1624 the betrothal to Henrietta Maria of France was announced the choice of a Catholic was widely condemned Buckingham whose popularity had suffered a further setback took a decision to help the rebellious Huguenot Admiral Benjamin Duke of Soubise An ardent Protestant Buckingham ordered Sir John Penington to help but the Navy only succeeded in attacking Richelieu s enemies defeating his objects in August 1625 and losing La Rochelle 26 Similarly he was blamed for the failure of the military expedition under the command of Ernst von Mansfeld a famous German mercenary general sent to the continent to recover the Electorate of the Palatinate 1625 which had belonged to Frederick V Elector Palatine son in law of King James I of England However when the Duke of York became King Charles I Buckingham was the only man from the court of James to maintain his position 27 28 In 1625 Buckingham proposed to send an expedition to Spain in an attempt to reenact what he viewed as the glorious actions of Sir Francis Drake by once again seizing the main Spanish port at Cadiz and burning the Spanish fleet in its harbour Buckingham s past failures had provoked the Commons to refuse further levies of taxation to fund his extravagant adventures but at the same time Parliament was intrigued by the prospect of dealing a blow to the international Catholic conspiracy and the expedition was authorized Yet even before the troops set sail the food prepared for the expedition was consumed awaiting the Board of Ordnance to deliver the required cannonry and musket balls On this occasion Buckingham himself was not in command As experienced admirals were unavailable Buckingham assigned command of the expedition to Sir Edward Cecil a battle hardened soldier who had won renown fighting on behalf of the Dutch against the Spanish This choice of commander proved foolhardy as while Cecil was a good soldier on land he had no knowledge of the sea Although Buckingham s plan was tactically sound calling for landing further up the coast and marching the militia army on the city the troops were badly equipped ill disciplined and poorly trained Coming upon a warehouse filled with wine they simply got drunk and the attack had to be called off The English army briefly occupied a small port further down the coast before re boarding its ships 29 After the embarrassing fiasco at Cadiz Cecil decided to try to intercept a Spanish silver fleet on its way back to Spain from the American territories However the Spanish were forewarned by their intelligence and easily avoided the planned ambush With supplies running out and men sick and dying from starvation and disease the English limped home in disgrace 30 Public opinion blamed Buckingham for yet another disaster leading to serious political consequences The Parliament of 1626 began the process of impeachment against Buckingham causing King Charles to dissolve Parliament rather than risk a successful impeachment of his favourite Study for Rubens equestrian portrait 1625Buckingham then negotiated with the French Chief Minister Cardinal Richelieu for English ships to aid Richelieu in his fight against the French Protestant Huguenots in return for French aid against the Spanish occupying the Palatinate Seven English warships participated in operations against La Rochelle and in the siege of Saint Martin de Re 31 but Parliament was disgusted and horrified at the thought of English Protestants fighting French Protestants The plan only fuelled their fears of crypto Catholicism at court In the end seven English ships were delivered to the French after much debate 32 and were employed in the conflict 33 although they were essentially manned by French crews as most of the English crews had refused to serve against their coreligionists and had disembarked in Dieppe Following the successful recovery of Re island by the French forces the Treaty of Paris 1626 was signed between the city of La Rochelle and King Louis XIII on 5 February 1626 preserving religious freedom but imposing some guaranties against possible future rebellions 34 Moreover the French made peace with the Spanish in April 1626 destroying any remaining hope of an Anglo French alliance against the Habsburgs and obviating any further need to make a show of siding with the French crown against the Huguenots 35 In 1627 Buckingham led another expeditionary force to relieve La Rochelle once again attempting to aid the Huguenots rather than oppose them To the remnants of the disastrous Cadiz expedition of 1625 were added newly pressed men which allowed Buckingham to cobble together a force of around 6 000 men 36 As Parliament was still refusing to appropriate funds for further adventures as long as Buckingham was in charge and Buckingham himself was nearly bankrupt he funded the force with help from Sir William Russell the two men raising approximately 70 000 between them to pay for the men food and supplies out of their own pockets 37 Raising the money took time and the troops looted the King s stores after going unpaid for 10 months Finally arriving in France in the summer of 1627 Buckingham besieged the fortress of Saint Martin on the isle of Re which was now controlled by royalist forces but soon found himself trapped between the besieged forces and relief forces sent by Cardinal Richelieu 38 Realizing he risked annihilation Buckingham abandoned the siege and fought his way back to his ships but at a heavy cost altogether Buckingham lost more than 5 000 men in the brief campaign 39 In April 1628 another English fleet was sent to relieve the Huguenots this time under the command of William Feilding Earl of Denbigh but Denbigh proved hesitant to fight the large well armed French fleet and returned to Portsmouth without engaging the enemy 40 Thereafter Buckingham tried to organise a third expedition once again under his direct command and was engaged in this enterprise when he was felled in Portsmouth by an assassin 41 Assassination Edit Drawing made in Paris by Daniel Dumonstier 1625During the course of the duke s incompetent leadership Parliament had twice attempted to impeach him The king had rescued him by dissolving Parliament both times but public feeling was so inflamed as a result that the duke was widely blamed as a public enemy Eventually his physician Dr Lambe popularly supposed to assert a diabolic influence over him was mobbed in the streets and died as a result Among the pamphlets issued afterwards was one that prophesied Let Charles and George do what they can The Duke shall die like Doctor Lambe 42 The duke was stabbed to death on 23 August 1628 at the Greyhound Inn in Portsmouth where he had gone to organise yet another campaign to aid La Rochelle According to the eyewitness account sent by Dudley Carleton 1st Viscount Dorchester to the queen he turned about uttering only this word villaine and never spoke more but presently plucking out the knife from himself before he fell to the ground he made towards the traitor two or three paces and then fell against a table 43 The assassin was John Felton an army officer who had been wounded in the earlier military adventure and believed he had been passed over for promotion by Buckingham 44 Such was the duke s unpopularity by this time that Felton was widely acclaimed as a hero by the public A large number of poems celebrating Felton and justifying his action were published Copies of written statements Felton carried in his hat during the assassination were also widely circulated 45 Many of these described Buckingham as effeminate cowardly and corrupt and contrasted him with Felton who was held up as an example of manliness courage and virtue 45 The son of Alexander Gill the Elder was sentenced to a fine of 2000 and the removal of his ears after being overheard drinking to the health of Felton and stating that Buckingham had joined King James I in hell However these punishments were remitted after his father and Archbishop Laud appealed to King Charles I 46 Felton was hanged on 29 November and his body was taken to Portsmouth for public display However this proved to be a miscalculation by the authorities as it became an object of veneration by the public 45 Buckingham was buried in Westminster Abbey 47 His lavish tomb bears a Latin inscription that may be translated as The Enigma of the World 48 Here too he was depicted surrounded by mythical figures The black marble sculptures at each corner include Mars and Neptune in reference to his military and naval exploits on the catafalque lie bronze gilt effigies of the duke and his wife who long survived him cast by Hubert Le Sueur 49 Buckingham is clad in armour enriched with crossed anchors and with an ermine cloak over it He wears on his breast the chain and George of the Garter and on his head a ducal coronet summing up the principal steps in his brief career 50 He had died at the age of 35 Self promotion through the arts EditAs a means of manoeuvring for political as well as court advancement Villiers commissioned masques in which he was able to promote himself in a leading role By appearing there as a dancer himself his grace of movement and beauty of body was put on show By 1618 his elevation in rank allowed him to dance side by side with the royal heir with whom his friendship developed through his tutoring of the prince in dance Command over his body had provided him with the privilege of commanding the moves of a future king 8 This culminated in connivance by his supporters in licensing Thomas Middleton s notorious play A Game at Chess 1624 as an extension of their anti Spanish foreign policy The duke and Prince Charles are acknowledged as figuring there as The White Duke and The White Knight while very obvious depictions of the Spanish monarch and his former ambassador in England eventually brought about the play s closure 51 Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt s pearl studded portrait of the duke 1625Villiers also commissioned portraits of himself as a medium for the cultivation of his personal image 52 William Larkin s portrait of 1616 records the start of his climb showing him in the dress of a Knight of the Garter and emphasising the felicity of his stance and sumptuousness of dress 53 A 1619 portrait by Daniel Mytens the Elder is equally elegant There he is dressed in white brocade and white silk hose wearing the Garter and standing in a decor of costly silks Another full length portrait by the same artist celebrates his succession as Lord High Admiral in 1619 Here he wears three quarter armour on the right behind a balustrade is a shoreline with the fleet beyond 54 Buckingham s growing wealth was emphasised by the detail of his clothes This is evident in the lovingly depicted lace about his collar and cuffs in the full length portrait by Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen 55 and the head and shoulders by Anthony van Dyck 56 The 1625 painting by Michiel van Miereveld is not only of unparalleled magnificence with a jacket encrusted with pearls which also hang in ropes across it but may also contain a reference to his diplomatic coup that year in negotiating the marriage of the future Charles I At his entry to the French Court he is recorded as wearing a grey velvet suit from which the loosely threaded pearls dropped to the ground as he advanced to make his bow to the queen to the general wonder 57 Van Dyke s double portrait of Buckingham and MannersA series of more theatrical depictions heighten Buckingham s self dramatisation and in certain cases make policy statements as well Two of these are connected with his betrothal to and marriage with Lady Katherine Manners in 1620 58 In Van Dyck s historical painting The Continence of Scipio Buckingham is clearly recognisable standing at the centre receiving from Scipio the hand of his captured betrothed 59 A mythical composition commissioned from Van Dyck later commemorates the actual marriage 60 In contrast to the former painting this was highly unconventional at the time The couple are pictured all but naked as Venus and Adonis emphasising heterosexual love and so countering all the rumours of the duke s relations with the king There is a further literary connection since the story is found in Ovid but the picture again defies convention by hinting at a different happier ending 61 A miniature of the duke wearing the knight s sashBuckingham probably met Peter Paul Rubens while conducting the royal marriage negotiations in Paris in 1625 and commissioned two ambitious advertisements of his standing from the painter The first of these was destined for the ceiling of his York House residence and depicts a masque like theme in which Minerva and Mercury conduct the Duke of Buckingham to the Temple of Virtue also known as The Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham and The Duke of Buckingham Triumphing over Envy and Anger In front of the marble temple to which he is carried upwards are the probable figures of Virtue and Abundance the three Graces offer the duke a crown of flowers while Envy seeks to pull him down and a lion challenges him The picture is an allegory of Buckingham s political aspirations and the forces that he saw as impeding him 62 Though the painting was destroyed in a fire in 1949 it was survived by a preparatory sketch now held in the National Gallery in London 63 and by a copy made by William Etty 64 Yet another Rubens portrait was rediscovered in 2017 when the painter s preparatory portrait of Buckingham was identified at Pollok House in Scotland 65 Rubens other major commission Equestrian Portrait of the Duke of Buckingham 1625 is accounted the finest state portrait of its date in England 66 The original was destroyed in a fire at the Le Gallais depository in St Helier Jersey on 30 September 1949 but a sketch by Rubens is now in the Kimbell Art Museum 67 A summation of his career to date it depicts Buckingham as Lord High Admiral of the fleet that is just visible in the background Several other personal references are also incorporated As Master of the King s Horses he sits on a Spanish jennet a breed he introduced to Britain lifting a baton as his horse rears on command Beneath him the sea god Neptune and a naiad adorned with pearls indicate the duke s dominion over the sea Overhead a winged allegory of Fame signals victory which nevertheless evaded the commander in real life with trumpet in hand Privately Rubens noted Buckingham s arrogance and caprice and predicted that he was heading for the precipice 68 A mythological treatment of Buckingham in Gerrit van Honthorst s allegorical The Liberal Arts presented to King Charles and Henrietta MariaPopular prints often drawing on his painted portraits particularly Miervelt s of 1625 had served to advertise Buckingham s position more broadly over the years These now form part of the collection at the National Portrait Gallery 53 At the same time martial statements were being made through this medium in support of Buckingham s foreign policy as for instance in Willem de Passe s equestrian portrait of the duke executed at the same time as Rubens was engaged on his monumental work on the same theme There he is similarly depicted as Lord Admiral with a military baton in his right hand During the 1627 expedition that he led personally Buckingham was recorded as sponsoring an unprecedented campaign of intensive print propaganda 69 In 1628 during the political turmoil that culminated in his assassination Buckingham commissioned another masque like painting from Gerrit van Honthorst The Liberal Arts presented to King Charles and Henrietta Maria In this the duke is cast as Mercury the patron of the arts the procession of whom is brought in his train to the presence of the king and queen in the guise of Apollo and Diana 70 In this validation of his artistic credentials it is appropriate to remember that Buckingham had taken part in the masque Mercury Vindicated at the start of his career in 1615 Marriage and children Edit Buckingham with his wife Katherine Manners their daughter Mary and son George Gerrit van Honthorst 1628Buckingham married the daughter of the 6th Earl of Rutland Lady Katherine Manners later suo jure Baroness de Ros on 16 May 1620 against her father s objections The children of this marriage were Mary Villiers before 30 March 1622 November 1685 married firstly Charles Herbert Lord Herbert secondly James Stewart 1st Duke of Richmond and thirdly Colonel Thomas Howard Charles Villiers Earl of Coventry 17 November 1625 16 March 1627 died in infancy George Villiers 2nd Duke of Buckingham 30 January 1628 16 April 1687 Lord Francis Villiers bef 21 April 1629 7 July 1648 died in a skirmish at Kingston during the Second English Civil War Legacy Edit Crop of Christopher and John Greenwood s 8 inch to mile map published in 1827 from an 1830 republication click to view all showing George Court Villiers Street Duke Street Of Alley and Buckingham Street some have since been renamed During the duke s short tenure as Chancellor of the University of Cambridge he had initiated the purchase of Thomas van Erpe s collection of oriental books and manuscripts on its behalf although his widow only transferred it to Cambridge University Library after his death 71 With it came the first book in Chinese to be added to the Library s collections 72 After Buckingham s assassination a large amount of satirical verse was circulated on the subject Most of this reflected on how pride goes before a fall and the damage he had done to the kingdom while several pieces commended John Felton s action 73 The dagger claimed to have been used by him was recorded by a late Victorian gazetteer as still on display at the now demolished Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire This was the seat of the Earls of Denbigh whose first earl married Buckingham s sister Susan 74 The duke s residence of York House occupied what eventually became the Adelphi district in London When his son sold the area to developers it was on condition that his father and titles were commemorated in naming the new streets These were accordingly George Court Villiers Street Duke Street Of Alley and Buckingham Street 75 76 Fictional appearances EditA fictionalised Buckingham is one of the characters in Alexandre Dumas s celebrated 1844 novel Les Trois Mousquetaires The Three Musketeers which paints him as in love with Anne of Austria as well as dealing with the siege of La Rochelle and his assassination by Felton He is described At thirty five which was then his age he passed with just title for the handsomest gentleman and the most elegant cavalier of France or England The favourite of two kings immensely rich all powerful in a kingdom which he disordered at his fancy and calmed again at his caprice George Villiers Duke of Buckingham had lived one of those fabulous existences which survive in the course of centuries to astonish posterity 77 In the 1973 two film Anglo American adaptation of the book The Three Musketeers and The Four Musketeers Buckingham also has a prominent role as an ally of the main characters The second film includes his assassination by Felton but following the original novel in this depicts the killing as being orchestrated by the fictional Milady de Winter an agent of the principal villain Cardinal Richelieu Taylor Caldwell s The Arm and the Darkness 1943 also deals with this period in France while Hilda Lewis Wife to Great Buckingham 1959 goes so far as to make Buckingham s love for the French queen the main cause of his undoing The duke also figures in historical romances like Evelyn Anthony s Charles The King 1963 and Bertrice Small s Darling Jasmine 2007 although the main focus there is on other protagonists The Spanish Match and Buckingham s part in it is made an episode in Spanish author Arturo Perez Reverte s novel El Capitan Alatriste 1996 There he and the then Prince of Wales are the subjects of an assassination attempt by Spanish plotters 78 In Philippa Gregory s Earthly Joys 1998 which has as its subject the famous gardener John Tradescant the Elder the bewitching Duke appears halfway through the novel as the object of Tradescant s love Another historical fiction Ronald Blythe s The Assassin 2004 is written from his killer s point of view as a final confession while awaiting execution in the Tower of London 79 Nicholas Galitzine will portray him in the upcoming TV miniseries Mary amp George 80 Notes Edit Montague Smith 1970 p 409 Debrett s 2011 13 The Western Heritage 8th ed p 420 full citation needed Bergeron David M 2002 4 George Villiers Duke of Buckingham King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire Iowa City University of Iowa Press ISBN 9781587292729 Gregg Pauline 1981 5 Prince of Wales King Charles I Berkeley University of California Press published 1984 p 49 ISBN 9780520051461 Retrieved 30 December 2018 Stewart 2003 p 264 Stewart 2003 p 268 a b c Hille 2012 p 113 Stewart 2003 p 279 Wroughton 2013 p 221 Lockyer Roger 1984 Buckingham The Life and Political Career of George Villiers First Duke of Buckingham 1592 1628 Routledge published 2014 ISBN 9781317870821 Retrieved 6 August 2020 The dukedom of Norfolk had been revived in 1553 but it lapsed again after Thomas Howard the fourth Duke was attainted of treason in 1572 The only dukes in early Stuart England were the King s sons Prince Henry being Duke of Cornwall and his brother Prince Charles Duke of York Buckingham then was the first duke for nearly a century to have no trace of royal blood in his veins Stewart 2003 p 280 Stewart 2003 p 281 David M Bergeron April 2002 King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire University of Iowa Press p 98 ISBN 9781587292729 Timothy Murphy ed 2013 Reader s Guide to Lesbian and Gay Studies Taylor amp Francis pp 314 15 ISBN 9781135942410 Bergeron 1999 p 175 Lockyer 1981 p 22 Text at Wikisource Apollon avec ses chansons Desbaucha le jeune Hyacinthe Et ce scavant Roy d Angleterre Foutoit il pas le Boukinquan dd Matthieu Dupas La sodomie dans l affaire Theophile de Viau Les Dossiers du Grihl January 2010 Paragraphs 57 8 Stewart 2003 p 314 Zagorin 1999 pp 20 21 Zagorin 1999 pp 21 Zagorin 1999 pp 22 Stewart 2003 p 309 Rodger 1997 p 357 Rodger 1997 p 356 Kritzler Edward 2009 Jewish Pirates of the Caribbean Amazon com Random House Inc pp 165 183 ISBN 9780767919524 Thomson Katherine 2017 The Life and Times of George Villier Duke of Buckingham Amazon com Andesite Press ISBN 978 3337589042 Lockyer 1981 pp 250 4 266 Godfrey Davies The Early Stuarts 1603 1660 Oxford University Press 1959 pp 61 63 Manning 2006 p 115 Huguenot warrior Jack Alden Clarke p 129 An apprenticeship in arms by Roger Burrow Manning p 115 Europe s physician by Hugh Redwald Trevor Roper p 289 Davies The Early Stuarts 1603 1660 1959 p 65 Davies The Early Stuarts 1603 1660 1959 p 65 Lockyer 2014 p 460 Davies The Early Stuarts 1603 1660 1959 pp 65 66 Charles I by Michael B Young p 54 An apprenticeship in arms by Roger Burrow Manning p 119 Davies The Early Stuarts 1603 1660 1959 p 66 Fairholt 1850 pp xiv xv Ellis Letters The Universal Review September 1824 p 132 Fairholt 1850 pp xviii xxiii a b c Bellany 2004 Masson 1859 pp 150 151 The roll call of Westminster Abbey Murray Smith E T p312 London Smith Elder amp Co 1903 Stanley A P Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey London John Murray 1882 p 196 Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey Stanley A P p197 London John Murray 1882 Lockyer 2014 p 458 Taylor 2013 p 712 verification needed Hille 2012 p 125 a b National Portrait Gallery 2017 National Maritime Museum amp BHC2582 Art UK amp 80501 WikiGallery org 2017 Hille 2012 p 99 Hille 2012 pp 126 ff PubHist amp 20047 David Koetser Hille 2012 pp 145 ff Graham Parry The Golden Age Restor d The Culture of the Stuart Court 1603 42 Manchester University 1981 p 143 National Gallery The Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham Art UK 8154 Lost Rubens portrait of James I s lover is rediscovered in Glasgow Nicola Slawson the guardian com 24 09 2017 Parry 1981 p 142 Kimbell Art Museum Equestrian Portrait of the Duke of Buckingham milesbarton com 2015 Bellany 2010 p 219 RC amp 405746 Cambridge University Library 2015 Cambridge Digital Library University of Cambridge Chinese Fairholt 1850 pp 36 ff Southhall 2009 Fairfield S The Streets of London A dictionary of the names and their origins p47 Henry Benjamin Wheatley Peter Cunningham London Past and Present Its History Associations and Traditions Cambridge University 2011 p 539 Dumas 2016 Chapter 12 Captain Alatriste A swashbuckling tale of action and adventure Google Books Mann 2004 Wiseman Andreas 13 January 2023 Nicholas Galitzine Joins Julianne Moore In Sky amp AMC Series Mary amp George About Royal Court Intrigue In King James I s England Filming Underway Deadline Retrieved 27 March 2023 References Edit George Villiers Duke of Buckingham Collection of St John s College Cambridge Anthony van Dyck The Continence of Scipio PubHist 20047 retrieved 13 April 2017 Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham Discover Artworks Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham Art UK 8154 retrieved 13 April 2017 Bellany Alastair 2004 Felton John died 1628 assassin Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 9273 Subscription or UK public library membership required The first edition of this text is available at Wikisource Felton John 1595 1628 Dictionary of National Biography London Smith Elder amp Co 1885 1900 Bellany Alastair 2010 Buckingham Engraved Politics Print Images and the Royal Favourite in the 1620s in Hunter Michael Cyril William ed Printed Images in Early Modern Britain Essays in Interpretation Ashgate Publishing pp 215 236 ISBN 978 0 7546 6654 7 Bergeron David M 1999 King James and Letters of Homoerotic Desire Iowa City University of Iowa Press p 175 ISBN 9781587292729 Bergeron David M 2002 Writing King James s Sexuality in Fischlin Fortier ed Royal Subjects Essays on the Writings of James VI and I Detroit Wayne State University Press History of the Collections Cambridge University Library 10 April 2015 retrieved 13 April 2017 Chinese Works Cambridge Digital Library University of Cambridge Retrieved 13 April 2017 Surname Pronunciation Vavasour to Woburn Debrett s archived from the original on 15 August 2011 retrieved 9 October 2011 Dumas Alexandre 2016 Chapter 12 George Villiers Duke of Buckingham The Three Musketeers Gutenberg Equestrian Portrait of the Duke of Buckingham milesbarton com 20 June 2015 archived from the original on 20 June 2015 retrieved 13 April 2017 Fairholt Frederick William 1850 Poems and Songs Relating to George Villiers Duke of Buckingham and His Assassination by John Felton 23 August 1628 London George Villiers 1592 1628 1st Duke of Buckingham National Maritime Museum BHC2582 retrieved 13 April 2017 George Villiers 1592 1628 1st Duke of Buckingham Discover Artworks George Villiers 1592 1628 1st Duke of Buckingham Art UK 80501 retrieved 13 April 2017 George Villiers and Lady Katherine Manners as Adonis and Venus Image zoom David Koetser in Dutch archived from the original on 5 January 2017 retrieved 13 April 2017 Gerrit van Honthorst Apollo and Diana Royal Collection Trust Inventory no 405746 Gregg Pauline 1984 King Charles I Berkeley CA University of California Press p 49 ISBN 978 0 520 05146 1 Gregory Philippa Earthly Joys Philippa Gregory retrieved 13 April 2017 Graham Fiona 5 June 2008 To the manor bought BBC News retrieved 22 September 2011 Mann Jessica 26 September 2004 The popular murderer Daily Telegraph archived from the original on 12 January 2022 Herbert Edward Lord Herbert of Cherbury 1860 Lord Powis ed The Expedition to the Isle of Rhe London Philobiblio Soc OCLC 5093195 Hille Christiane 2012 Visions of the Courtly Body The Patronage of George Villiers First Duke of Buckingham and the Triumph of Painting at the Stuart Court Berlin ISBN 9783050062556 Large Image of the 1st Duke of Buckingham National Portrait Gallery 3 March 2017 NPG 3840 retrieved 13 April 2017 Lockyer Roger 1981 Buckingham The Life and Political Career of George Villiers First Duke of Buckingham 1592 1628 London Lockyer Roger 1985 Tudor and Stuart Britain 1471 1714 2nd ed London Longman Lockyer Roger 2014 Buckingham The Life and Political Career of George Villiers First Duke of Buckingham London Routledge p 458 ISBN 978 1 317 87083 8 Manning Roger B 2006 An Apprenticeship in Arms The Origins of the British Army 1585 1702 The Origins of the British Army 1585 1702 OUP Oxford p 115 ISBN 978 0 19 926149 9 Masson David 1859 The life of John Milton narrated in connexion with the political ecclesiastical and literary history of his time Macmillan and co pp 150 151 Montague Smith Patrick 1970 Debrett s Correct Form London Headline p 409 ISBN 978 0 7472 0658 3 Norbrook David 28 January 2000 Writing the English Republic Poetry Rhetoric and Politics 1627 1660 Cambridge University Press pp 23 ff ISBN 978 0 521 78569 3 Parry Graham 1981 The Golden Age Restor d The Culture of the Stuart Court 1603 42 Manchester University Press p 142 ISBN 978 0 7190 0825 2 Portrait of George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham 1592 1628 after Dyck Sir Anthony van WikiGallery org 12 April 2017 retrieved 13 April 2017 Ruigh Robert E 1971 The Parliament of 1624 Politics and Foreign Policy Cambridge Harvard University Press Rodger N A M 1997 The Safeguard of the Sea London p 356 Southhall Humphrey ed 2009 History of Newnham Paddox in Rugby and Warwickshire Map and description A Vision of Britain through Time Department of Geography of the University of Portsmouth retrieved 15 April 2017 Stewart Alan 2003 The Cradle King A Life of James VI amp I London Macmillan Taylor Gary 2013 A Game at Chess General Textual Introduction in Taylor Gary Lavagnino John eds Thomas Middleton and Early Modern Textual Culture A Companion to the Collected Works Oxford University Press p 712 OCLC 922903742 Wroughton John 2013 The Routledge Companion to the Stuart Age 1603 1714 London Routledge Zagorin Perez 1999 Francis Bacon Princeton Princeton University PressFurther reading EditCoast David Rumor and Common Fame The Impeachment of the Duke of Buckingham and Public Opinion in Early Stuart England Journal of British Studies 55 2 2016 241 267 online French Allen The Siege of Re 1627 Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research vol 28 no 116 1950 pp 160 68 onlineHanrahan David C Charles II and the Duke of Buckingham The History Press 2006 Jowitt C 2004 Massinger s The Renegado 1624 and the Spanish marriage Cahiers Elisabethains 65 45 53 doi 10 7227 CE 65 1 5 S2CID 154505848 MacIntyre Jean Buckingham the Masquer Renaissance and Reformation Renaissance et Reforme 1998 59 81 online Covers his skill at dancing Opie Iona Opie Peter 1951 The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes full citation needed Parry Mark The Bishops and the Duke of Buckingham 1624 1626 History 100 343 2015 640 666 Scott John Taylor John 1828 The London Magazine Hunt and Clarke p 71External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham Gardiner Samuel Rawson 1878 George Villiers Duke of Buckingham Encyclopaedia Britannica vol 4 9th ed pp 417 419 Gardiner Samuel Rawson Yorke Philip Chesney 1911 Buckingham George Villiers 1st Duke of Encyclopaedia Britannica vol 4 11th ed pp 722 724 The impeachment of Buckingham 1626 Historical Collections of Private Passages of State Volume 1 1618 29 1721 pp 302 358 Political officesPreceded byThe Earl of Worcester Master of the Horse1616 1628 Succeeded byThe Earl of HollandPreceded byThe Baron Ellesmere Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire1616 1628 Succeeded byThe Earl of MontgomeryPreceded bySir Francis Fortescue Custos Rotulorum of Buckinghamshire1617 1628 Succeeded byThe Earl of BridgewaterPreceded byThe Earl of Nottingham Lord High Admiral1619 1628 Succeeded byIn Commission First Lord The Earl of Portland Preceded byThe Lord Wotton Lord Lieutenant of Kent1620 Succeeded byThe Duke of LennoxPreceded byIn Commission Lord Lieutenant of Middlesex1622 1628 Succeeded byThe Earl of DorsetThe Earl of HollandPreceded byThe Earl of Exeter Custos Rotulorum of Rutland1623 1628 Succeeded byThe Lord NoelHonorary titlesPreceded byThe Lord Zouche Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports1625 1628 Succeeded byThe Earl of SuffolkLegal officesPreceded byThe Earl of Shrewsbury Justice in Eyrenorth of the Trent1616 1619 Succeeded byThe Earl of RutlandPreceded byThe Earl of Nottingham Justice in Eyresouth of the Trent1625 1628 Succeeded byThe Earl of PembrokePeerage of EnglandNew creation Duke of Buckingham1623 1628 Succeeded byGeorge VilliersMarquess of Buckingham1618 1628Earl of Buckingham1617 1628Viscount Villiers1616 1628 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham amp oldid 1164302401, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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