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First Turkic Khaganate

January 01, 1970

The First Turkic Khaganate, also referred to as the First Turkic Empire,[11] the Turkic Khaganate or the Göktürk Khaganate, was a Turkic khaganate established by the Ashina clan of the Göktürks in medieval Inner Asia under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and his brother Istämi. The First Turkic Khaganate succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the hegemonic power of the Mongolian Plateau and rapidly expanded their territories in Central Asia, and became the first Central Asian transcontinental empire from Manchuria to the Black Sea.[4]: 49 [12]

First Turkic Khaganate
552–603
The First Turkic Khaganate at its greatest extent, in 576.
StatusKhaganate (Nomadic empire)
Capital
Common languages
Religion
Tengrism
Demonym(s)Türük
Türk
Qaghan 
• 552
Bumin Qaghan (first)
• 599–603
Tardu (last)
Yabgu 
• 552–575
Istämi (first)
• 575–599
Tardu (last)
Historical eraPost-classical
• Bumin Qaghan revolts against Rouran Khaganate
542
• Established
552
581
• Brief re-unification
603
• Division of Western and Eastern Turkic Khaganates
603
Area
571[8][9]9,300,000 km2 (3,600,000 sq mi)
Population
• 6th century[10]
3 million

Although the Göktürks spoke a Siberian Turkic language directly antecedent to the Orkhon Turkic of the Second Turkic Khaganate, the First Khaganate's early official texts and coins were written in Sogdian.[5][13] It was the first Turkic state to use the name Türk politically.[14] The Old Turkic script was invented at the first half of the sixth century.[15][16]

The Khaganate collapsed in 603, after a series of conflicts and civil wars which separated the polity into the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and Western Turkic Khaganate. The Tang China conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630 and the Western Turkic Khaganate in 657 in a series of military campaigns. The Second Turkic Khaganate emerged in 682 and lasted until 744, when it was overthrown by the Uyghur Khaganate.

History edit

See also: Timeline of the Göktürks

Origin edit

The origins of the Turkic Khanate trace back to 546, when Bumin Qaghan made a preemptive strike against the Uyghur and Tiele groups planning a revolt against their overlords, the Rouran Khanate. For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess, thus marrying into the royal family. However, the Rouran khagan, Yujiulü Anagui, sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him, saying, "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?" As Anagui's "blacksmith slave" (Chinese: 鍛奴; pinyin: duànnú) comment was recorded in Chinese chronicles, some claim that the Göktürks were indeed blacksmith servants for the Rouran elite,[17][18][19][20] and that "blacksmith slavery" may have indicated a form of vassalage within Rouran society.[21] According to Denis Sinor, this reference indicates that the Türks specialized in metallurgy, although it is unclear if they were miners or, indeed, blacksmiths.[22][23] Whatever the case, that the Turks were "slaves" need not be taken literally, but probably represented a form of vassalage, or even unequal alliance.[24]

 
Panel from the Tomb of Anjia, a Sogdian trader (right), who is shown welcoming a Turkic leader (left, with long hair combed in the back). 579 CE, Xi'an, China.[25][26]

A disappointed Bumin allied with the Western Wei against the Rouran, their common enemy, by marrying Princess Changle. In 552, Bumin defeated Anagui and his forces north of Huaihuang (modern Zhangjiakou, Hebei).[27][28]

Western expansion edit

Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy, Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the new khanate at Otukan, but died only months later. His son, Muqan Qaghan, defeated the Hephthalite Empire.[29]

Bumin's brother Istämi (d. 576) bore the title "Yabgu of the West". This western branch of the Ashina clan was de facto independent while the eastern khagan was formally recognized as the senior. In 557, Istämi forged an alliance with the Sassanid Empire of Iran to defeat and destroy the Hephthalites, who were allies of the Rouran.[30] This war tightened the Ashina clan's grip on the Silk Road. The alliance with China was further reinforced in 568 through the marriage of the Turkic princess Ashina, daughter of Muqan Qaghan, with Emperor Wu of the Xianbei-led Chinese Northern Zhou dynasty.

The appearance of the Pannonian Avars in the West has been interpreted as a nomadic faction fleeing the westward expansion of the Göktürks, although the specifics are a matter of irreconcilable debate given the lack of clear sources and chronology. Rene Grousset links the Avars with the downfall of the Hephthalites rather than the Rouran,[31] while Denis Sinor argues that Rouran-Avar identification is "repeated from article to article, from book to book with no shred of evidence to support it".[32]

Istämi's policy of western expansion brought the Göktürks into Europe.[33] In 576 the Göktürks crossed the Kerch Strait into the Crimea. Five years later they laid siege to Chersonesus; their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590.[34] As for the southern borders, they were drawn south of the Amu Darya, bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies, the Sasanian Empire. In 589, the Sasanian Empire attacked and defeated the Türks.[35] Much of Bactria (including Balkh) remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century.[34]

Relations with the Byzantine Empire edit

Main article: Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire § Göktürk relations: 6th–7th centuries
class=notpageimage|
The First Turkic Khaganate at its greatest extent, in 576, with neighbouring contemporary polities.[36]

The Göktürks played a major role with the Byzantine Empire's relationship with the Persian Sasanian Empire.[37] The first contact is believed to be 563 and relates to the incident in 558 where the slaves of the Turks (the Pannonian Avars) ran away during their war with the Hephthalites.[37][38]

The second contact occurred when Maniah, a Sogdian diplomat, convinced Istämi (also known as Silziboulos in Greek writings[39]) of the Göktürks to send an embassy directly to the Byzantine Empire's capital Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered silk as a gift to emperor Justin II and where they discussed an alliance. In 569 an embassy led by Zemarchus occurred which was well received and likely solidified their alliance for war.[37][40]

Another set of embassies occurred in 575–576 led by Valentine which were received with hostility by Turxanthos due to alleged treachery.[38] They required the members of the Byzantine delegation at the funeral of Istämi to lacerate their faces to humiliate them.[41] The subsequent hostility shown by the new ruler Tardu[41][42] would be matched in Byzantine writings.[43] With the insults reflecting a breakdown of the alliance, the likely cause is that the anger was due to the Turks not having their expectations met from their agreements and realising they were being used when they no longer aligned with the current goals of the Byzantine Empire (who correspondingly lacked trust in the Turks as partners).[37]

Civil war edit

Main article: Göktürk civil war
Göktürk civil war
 
The khaganate in 552 after its division into Western Turkic Khaganate and Eastern Turkic Khaganate
 
Gokturk khaganates at their height, c. 600 AD:
  Western Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.[citation needed]
  Eastern Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.

When the fourth ruler of the khaganate, Taspar Qaghan, died in 581, the realm split in two over the succession.[28] He had willed the title of khagan to Muqan's son Apa Qaghan, but the high council appointed Ishbara Qaghan instead. Factions formed around both leaders. Before long, four rivals claimed the title. They were successfully played off against each other by the Sui and Tang dynasties.[citation needed]

Istämi's son, Tardu the leader of the western Türks, made a bid for total independence.[28] He now seized the title and led an army east to claim the seat of imperial power, Otukan.[citation needed]

In order to buttress his position, Ishbara of the Eastern Khaganate, acknowledged the suzerainty of Emperor Yang of Sui in order to seek their protection.[28] Tardu attacked Chang'an, the Sui capital, around 600, demanding Emperor Yangdi end his interference in the civil war. In retaliation, Sui diplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardu's Tiele vassals, which led to the end of Tardu's reign in 603. Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghurs and Xueyantuo.[citation needed]

Eastern Turkic Khaganate edit

Main article: Eastern Turkic Khaganate
Further information: Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks
 
Shoroon Bumbagar tomb mural, Göktürk, 7th century CE, Mongolia.[46][47][48][49]

The civil war left the empire divided into eastern and western parts. The eastern part, still ruled from Otukan, remained in the orbit of the Sui and retained the name Göktürk. The Shibi Khan (609–619) and Illig Qaghan (620–630) attacked the Central Plain at its weakest moment during the transition between the Sui and Tang. Shibi Khan's surprise attack against Yanmen Commandery during an imperial tour of the northern frontier almost captured Emperor Yang, but his ethnic Han wife Princess Yicheng—who had been well treated by Empress Xiao during an earlier visit—sent a warning ahead, allowing the emperor and empress time to flee to the commandery seat at present-day Daixian in Shanxi.[50] This was besieged by the Turkic army on September 11, 615,[51][52] but Sui reinforcements and a false report from Princess Yicheng to her husband about a northern attack on the khaganate caused him to lift the siege before its completion.[50]

In 626, Illig Qaghan took advantage of the Xuanwu Gate Incident and drove on to Chang'an. On September 23, 626,[51] Illig Qaghan and his iron cavalry reached the bank of the Wei River north of Bian Bridge (in present-day Xianyang, Shaanxi). On September 25, 626,[51]Tang Taizong allied with Iligh Khan and met with the khan on the border bridge, Tang Taizong accused Iligh Khan of crossing the border, the khan saw that Taizong was imposing, mistakenly thought that the reinforcements of the Tang Dynasty had arrived, plus two years ago, he had seen Li Shimin, who was still the crown prince at that time, in Binzhou (彬州), and was asked to duel. The khan was afraid and agreed to retreat in an alliance, which is called the Weishui Alliance (渭水之盟) or the Alliance of Bian Qiao (便橋會盟 / 便桥会盟).[53] On the third day after the meeting, the khan sent 3,000 horses and 10,000 sheep to the border to be prepared as compensation for the Tang dynasty, which Emperor Taizong did not accept, believing that this was too little. [54] All in all, 67 incursions into China proper were recorded.[34]

Before mid-October 627, heavy snows on the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland covered the ground to a depth of several feet, preventing the nomads' livestock from grazing and causing a massive die-off among the animals.[55] According to the New Book of Tang, in 628, Taizong mentioned that "There has been a frost in midsummer. The sun had risen from same place for five days. The moon had had the same light level for three days. The field was filled with red atmosphere (dust storm)."[56]

Illig Qaghan was brought down by a revolt of his Tiele vassal tribes (626–630), allied with Emperor Taizong of Tang. This tribal alliance figures in Chinese records as the Huihe (Uyghur).[57]

On March 27, 630,[51] a Tang army under the command of Li Jing defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate under the command of Illig Qaghan at the Battle of Yinshan (陰山之戰 / 阴山之战).[58][59][60] Illig Qaghan fled to Ishbara Shad, but on May 2, 630[61] Zhang Baoxiang's army advanced to Ishbara Shad's headquarters. Illig Qaghan was taken prisoner and sent to Chang'an.[60] The Eastern Turkic Khaganate collapsed and was incorporated into the Jimi system of Tang. Emperor Taizong said, "It's enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River."[59]

Western Turkic Khaganate edit

Main article: Western Turkic Khaganate
Further information: Third Perso-Turkic War, Tang campaigns against the Western Turks, and Conquest of the Western Turks
 
Western Turkic officers during an audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand. 648–651 CE, Afrasiyab murals, Samarkand.[62][63]

The Western khagan Sheguy and Tong Yabghu Qaghan constructed an alliance with the Byzantine Empire against the Sasanian Empire and defeated the Sasanians in 628, successfully restoring the southern borders along the Tarim and Amu Darya rivers.[64] Their capital was Suyab in the Chu River valley, about 6 km south east of modern Tokmok. In 627 Tung Yabghu, assisted by the Khazars and Emperor Heraclius, launched a massive invasion of Transcaucasia which culminated in the taking of Derbent and Tbilisi (see the Third Perso-Turkic War for details). In April 630 Tung's deputy Böri Shad sent the Göktürk cavalry to invade Armenia, where his general Chorpan Tarkhan succeeded in routing a large Persian force. Tung Yabghu's murder in 630 forced the Göktürks to evacuate Transcaucasia.[citation needed]

The Western Turkic Khaganate was modernized through an administrative reform of the Ashina clan (reigned 634–639) and came to be known as the Onoq.[65] The name refers to the "ten arrows" that were granted by the khagan to ten leaders (shads) of its two constituent tribal confederations, the Duolu (five churs) and Nushibi (five irkins), whose lands were divided by the Chui River.[65] The division fostered the growth of separatist tendencies. Soon, chieftain Kubrat of the Dulo clan, whose relation ship with the Duolu is possible but not proven, seceded from the Khaganate. The Tang dynasty campaigned against the khaganate and its vassals, the oasis states of the Tarim Basin. The Tang campaign against Karakhoja in 640 led to the retreat of the Western Turks, who were defeated during the Tang campaigns against Karasahr in 644 and the Tang campaign against Kucha in 648,[66][67] leading to the 657 conquest of the Western Turks by the Tang general Su Dingfang.[68] Emperor Taizong of Tang was proclaimed Khagan of the Göktürks in 658.[64]

Tang vassals edit

The Tang retained a member of the Ashina clan as a puppet khagan of the Türks. In 639, Ashina Jiesheshuai attempted to kill Emperor Taizong of Tang but failed, causing him to relocate the Türks. These khagans were not well respected among their peers and a new group of leaders known as the Turgesh were established by 699.[69]

In 657, the Tang emperor could impose indirect rule along the Silk Road as far as modern-day Iran. He installed two khagans to rule the ten arrows (tribes) of Göktürks. Five arrows of Tulu (咄陆) were ruled by khagans bearing the title of Xingxiwang (興昔亡可汗) while five arrows of Nushipi (弩失畢可汗) were ruled by Jiwangjue (繼往絕可汗). Five Tulu corresponded to the area east of Lake Balkash while five arrows of Nushipi corresponded to the land east of the Aral Sea. Göktürks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars. The era spanning from 657 to 699 in the steppes was characterized by numerous rulers – weak, divided, and engaged in constant petty wars under the Anxi Protectorate until the rise of Turgesh.

 
Turkic Balbal, Kyrgyzstan.[70][71]

The Second Turkic Khaganate was founded by Ilterish Qaghan after rebelling against the Tang in 681.[72]

Genetics edit

Main article: Göktürks § Genetics

The population of the First Turkic Khaganate displayed genetic heterogeneity. Türk remains analysed displayed on average c. 62% Ancient Northeast Asian, c. 27% Western Steppe Herders, and c. 11% BMAC-associated ancestry. A sample belonging to the Ashina tribe, the ruling clan of the Göktürks, was found to be nearly entirely derived from Ancient Northeast Asians (96-98%) and also displayed affinity for the Slab-grave culture. According to the authors, these findings "once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages" and refutes "the western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses".[73]

Gallery edit

See also edit

References edit

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  61. ^ 貞觀四年 三月庚辰
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  63. ^ Grenet, Frantz (2004). "Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole". Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales. 5/6: Fig. B.
  64. ^ a b Kamola 2023, p. 15.
  65. ^ a b Gumilev 238.
  66. ^ Grousset 1970, pp. 99–100.
  67. ^ Wechsler 1979, pp. 225–228.
  68. ^ Skaff 2009, p. 183.
  69. ^ Kamola 2023, p. 15-16.
  70. ^ a b c d Bemmann, Jan; Brosseder, Ursula. "A Long Standing Tradition – Stelae in the Steppes with a Special Focus on the Slab Grave Culture". Current research shows that only during the time of the Turk qaghanates (552-630, 682-742 CE) were different types of stelae widely used in Inner Asia: there are rows of balbals in association with ritual sites, kamennye babas in association with memorials, and also inscription stelae were erected at important Turkic ritual sites [e.g., Kubarev, 1984; Voitov, 1996; Baiar, 1997]. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  71. ^ a b c d Bazarov, B. V.; Institut mongolovedenii︠a︡, buddologii i tibetologii (Rossiĭskai︠a︡ akademii︠a︡ nauk. Sibirskoe otdelenie), eds. (2017). Aktualʹnye voprosy arkheologii i ėtnologii T︠S︡entralʹnoĭ Azii: materialy II mezhdunarodnoĭ nauchnoĭ konferent︠s︡ii, Ulan-Udė, 4-6 dekabri︠a︡ 2017 [Actual problems of archaeology and ethnology of Central Asia: materials of the II International conference (Ulan-Ude, 4-6th December, 2017)]. Ulan-Udė: Izd-vo BNT︠s︡ SO RAN. ISBN 978-5-7925-0494-3.
  72. ^ Barfield 1989, p. 149.
  73. ^ Yang, Xiao-Min; Meng, Hai-Liang; Zhang, Jian-Lin; Yu, Yao; Allen, Edward; Xia, Zi-Yang; Zhu, Kong-Yang; Du, Pan-Xin; Ren, Xiao-Ying; Xiong, Jian-Xue; Lu, Xiao-Yu; Ding, Yi; Han, Sheng; Liu, Wei-Peng; Jin, Li (November 2023). "Ancient genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 61 (6): 1056–1064. doi:10.1111/jse.12938. ISSN 1674-4918.

External links edit

  • Turk Bitig

Bibliography edit

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  • Baratova, Larissa (2005). "Turko-Sogdian Coinage". Encyclopedia Iranica.
  • Barfield, Thomas (1989), The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, Basil Blackwell
  • Benson, Linda (1998), China's last Nomads: the history and culture of China's Kazaks, M.E. Sharpe
  • Bregel, Yuri (2003), An Historical Atlas of Central Asia, Brill
  • Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2000), The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century – Vol. 4, Part II : The Achievements (History of Civilizations of Central Asia), UNESCO Publishing
  • Bughra, Imin (1983), The history of East Turkestan, Istanbul: Istanbul publications
  • Drompp, Michael Robert (2005), Tang China And The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire: A Documentary History, Brill
  • Golden, Peter B. (2011), Central Asia in World History, Oxford University Press
  • Grousset, René (1970). The empire of the steppes : a history of central Asia. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
  • Haywood, John (1998), Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600–1492, Barnes & Noble
  • Jeong, Choongwon; Wang, Ke; Wilkin, Shevan; Taylor, William Timothy Treal; Miller, Bryan K.; Bemmann, Jan H.; Stahl, Raphaela; Chiovelli, Chelsea; Knolle, Florian; Ulziibayar, Sodnom; Khatanbaatar, Dorjpurev; Erdenebaatar, Diimaajav; Erdenebat, Ulambayar; Ochir, Ayudai; Ankhsanaa, Ganbold (2020-11-12). "A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe". Cell. 183 (4): 890–904.e29. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 7664836. PMID 33157037.
  • Kamola, Stefan (2023), I Made Him Praiseworthy: The Kül Tegin Inscription in World History, De Gruyter
  • Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1964), The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1–2, Macmillan
  • Mackerras, Colin (1990), "Chapter 12 – The Uighurs", in Sinor, Denis (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Cambridge University Press, pp. 317–342, ISBN 0-521-24304-1
  • Millward, James A. (2007), Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang, Columbia University Press
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  • Nachaeva, Ekaterina (2011). "The "Runaway" Avars and Late Antique Diplomacy". In Ralph W. Mathisen; Danuta Shanzer (eds.). Romans, Barbarians, and the Transformation of the Roman World: Cultural Interaction and the Creation of Identity in Late Antiquity. Ashgate.
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  • Vovin, A. (2019). "Groping in the Dark: The First Attempt to Interpret the Bugut Brahmi Inscription". Journal Asiatique. 307 (1): 121–134.
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January 01, 1970
first, turkic, khaganate, also, referred, first, turkic, empire, turkic, khaganate, göktürk, khaganate, turkic, khaganate, established, ashina, clan, göktürks, medieval, inner, asia, under, leadership, bumin, qaghan, brother, istämi, succeeded, rouran, khagana. The First Turkic Khaganate also referred to as the First Turkic Empire 11 the Turkic Khaganate or the Gokturk Khaganate was a Turkic khaganate established by the Ashina clan of the Gokturks in medieval Inner Asia under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan d 552 and his brother Istami The First Turkic Khaganate succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the hegemonic power of the Mongolian Plateau and rapidly expanded their territories in Central Asia and became the first Central Asian transcontinental empire from Manchuria to the Black Sea 4 49 12 First Turkic Khaganate552 603Tamga of Ashina tribe 1 FIRST TURKIC KHAGANATEThe First Turkic Khaganate at its greatest extent in 576 StatusKhaganate Nomadic empire CapitalOtuken eastern Suyab western Common languagesOld Turkic official dynastic and common 2 3 4 37 Sogdian official diplomacy coinage 5 6 Rouran official 7 ReligionTengrismDemonym s TurukTurkQaghan 552Bumin Qaghan first 599 603Tardu last Yabgu 552 575Istami first 575 599Tardu last Historical eraPost classical Bumin Qaghan revolts against Rouran Khaganate542 Established552 Gokturk civil war581 Brief re unification603 Division of Western and Eastern Turkic Khaganates603Area571 8 9 9 300 000 km2 3 600 000 sq mi Population 6th century 10 3 millionPreceded by Succeeded by Rouran Khaganate Hephthalite Empire Eastern Turkic Khaganate Western Turkic Khaganate Although the Gokturks spoke a Siberian Turkic language directly antecedent to the Orkhon Turkic of the Second Turkic Khaganate the First Khaganate s early official texts and coins were written in Sogdian 5 13 It was the first Turkic state to use the name Turk politically 14 The Old Turkic script was invented at the first half of the sixth century 15 16 The Khaganate collapsed in 603 after a series of conflicts and civil wars which separated the polity into the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and Western Turkic Khaganate The Tang China conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630 and the Western Turkic Khaganate in 657 in a series of military campaigns The Second Turkic Khaganate emerged in 682 and lasted until 744 when it was overthrown by the Uyghur Khaganate Contents 1 History 1 1 Origin 1 2 Western expansion 1 3 Relations with the Byzantine Empire 1 4 Civil war 1 4 1 Eastern Turkic Khaganate 1 4 2 Western Turkic Khaganate 1 5 Tang vassals 2 Genetics 3 Gallery 4 See also 5 References 6 External links 7 BibliographyHistory editSee also Timeline of the Gokturks Origin edit The origins of the Turkic Khanate trace back to 546 when Bumin Qaghan made a preemptive strike against the Uyghur and Tiele groups planning a revolt against their overlords the Rouran Khanate For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess thus marrying into the royal family However the Rouran khagan Yujiulu Anagui sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him saying You are my blacksmith slave How dare you utter these words As Anagui s blacksmith slave Chinese 鍛奴 pinyin duannu comment was recorded in Chinese chronicles some claim that the Gokturks were indeed blacksmith servants for the Rouran elite 17 18 19 20 and that blacksmith slavery may have indicated a form of vassalage within Rouran society 21 According to Denis Sinor this reference indicates that the Turks specialized in metallurgy although it is unclear if they were miners or indeed blacksmiths 22 23 Whatever the case that the Turks were slaves need not be taken literally but probably represented a form of vassalage or even unequal alliance 24 nbsp Panel from the Tomb of Anjia a Sogdian trader right who is shown welcoming a Turkic leader left with long hair combed in the back 579 CE Xi an China 25 26 A disappointed Bumin allied with the Western Wei against the Rouran their common enemy by marrying Princess Changle In 552 Bumin defeated Anagui and his forces north of Huaihuang modern Zhangjiakou Hebei 27 28 Western expansion edit Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the new khanate at Otukan but died only months later His son Muqan Qaghan defeated the Hephthalite Empire 29 Bumin s brother Istami d 576 bore the title Yabgu of the West This western branch of the Ashina clan was de facto independent while the eastern khagan was formally recognized as the senior In 557 Istami forged an alliance with the Sassanid Empire of Iran to defeat and destroy the Hephthalites who were allies of the Rouran 30 This war tightened the Ashina clan s grip on the Silk Road The alliance with China was further reinforced in 568 through the marriage of the Turkic princess Ashina daughter of Muqan Qaghan with Emperor Wu of the Xianbei led Chinese Northern Zhou dynasty The appearance of the Pannonian Avars in the West has been interpreted as a nomadic faction fleeing the westward expansion of the Gokturks although the specifics are a matter of irreconcilable debate given the lack of clear sources and chronology Rene Grousset links the Avars with the downfall of the Hephthalites rather than the Rouran 31 while Denis Sinor argues that Rouran Avar identification is repeated from article to article from book to book with no shred of evidence to support it 32 Istami s policy of western expansion brought the Gokturks into Europe 33 In 576 the Gokturks crossed the Kerch Strait into the Crimea Five years later they laid siege to Chersonesus their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590 34 As for the southern borders they were drawn south of the Amu Darya bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies the Sasanian Empire In 589 the Sasanian Empire attacked and defeated the Turks 35 Much of Bactria including Balkh remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century 34 Relations with the Byzantine Empire edit Main article Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire Gokturk relations 6th 7th centuries nbsp nbsp KyrgyzsCHAM PA576CHENLAFIRST TURKIC KHAGANATESASANIANEMPIREALCHONHUNSCHALU KYASLATERGUPTASNORTH ZHOUNORTH QIZHANGZHUNGCHENBYZANTINEEMPIREAVARKHAGANATETUYUHUNKhitansPaleo SiberiansTungusGOGU RYEOTOCHA RIANS class notpageimage The First Turkic Khaganate at its greatest extent in 576 with neighbouring contemporary polities 36 The Gokturks played a major role with the Byzantine Empire s relationship with the Persian Sasanian Empire 37 The first contact is believed to be 563 and relates to the incident in 558 where the slaves of the Turks the Pannonian Avars ran away during their war with the Hephthalites 37 38 The second contact occurred when Maniah a Sogdian diplomat convinced Istami also known as Silziboulos in Greek writings 39 of the Gokturks to send an embassy directly to the Byzantine Empire s capital Constantinople which arrived in 568 and offered silk as a gift to emperor Justin II and where they discussed an alliance In 569 an embassy led by Zemarchus occurred which was well received and likely solidified their alliance for war 37 40 Another set of embassies occurred in 575 576 led by Valentine which were received with hostility by Turxanthos due to alleged treachery 38 They required the members of the Byzantine delegation at the funeral of Istami to lacerate their faces to humiliate them 41 The subsequent hostility shown by the new ruler Tardu 41 42 would be matched in Byzantine writings 43 With the insults reflecting a breakdown of the alliance the likely cause is that the anger was due to the Turks not having their expectations met from their agreements and realising they were being used when they no longer aligned with the current goals of the Byzantine Empire who correspondingly lacked trust in the Turks as partners 37 nbsp Gokturk petroglyphs from Mongolia 6th to 8th century 44 nbsp Turkic horsemen with long hair on the tomb of a Sogdian trader the Miho funerary couch Circa 570 CE Northern Dynasties China 45 26 nbsp The Sogdian trader An Jia with a Turkic Chieftain in his yurt 579 CE Tomb of An Jia Xi an China nbsp The Sogdian trader An Jia right brokering an alliance with Turks left 579 CE Tomb of An Jia Xi an China Civil war edit Main article Gokturk civil war Gokturk civil war nbsp The khaganate in 552 after its division into Western Turkic Khaganate and Eastern Turkic Khaganate nbsp Gokturk khaganates at their height c 600 AD Western Gokturk Lighter area is direct rule darker areas show sphere of influence citation needed Eastern Gokturk Lighter area is direct rule darker areas show sphere of influence When the fourth ruler of the khaganate Taspar Qaghan died in 581 the realm split in two over the succession 28 He had willed the title of khagan to Muqan s son Apa Qaghan but the high council appointed Ishbara Qaghan instead Factions formed around both leaders Before long four rivals claimed the title They were successfully played off against each other by the Sui and Tang dynasties citation needed Istami s son Tardu the leader of the western Turks made a bid for total independence 28 He now seized the title and led an army east to claim the seat of imperial power Otukan citation needed In order to buttress his position Ishbara of the Eastern Khaganate acknowledged the suzerainty of Emperor Yang of Sui in order to seek their protection 28 Tardu attacked Chang an the Sui capital around 600 demanding Emperor Yangdi end his interference in the civil war In retaliation Sui diplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardu s Tiele vassals which led to the end of Tardu s reign in 603 Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghurs and Xueyantuo citation needed Eastern Turkic Khaganate edit Main article Eastern Turkic Khaganate Further information Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks nbsp Shoroon Bumbagar tomb mural Gokturk 7th century CE Mongolia 46 47 48 49 The civil war left the empire divided into eastern and western parts The eastern part still ruled from Otukan remained in the orbit of the Sui and retained the name Gokturk The Shibi Khan 609 619 and Illig Qaghan 620 630 attacked the Central Plain at its weakest moment during the transition between the Sui and Tang Shibi Khan s surprise attack against Yanmen Commandery during an imperial tour of the northern frontier almost captured Emperor Yang but his ethnic Han wife Princess Yicheng who had been well treated by Empress Xiao during an earlier visit sent a warning ahead allowing the emperor and empress time to flee to the commandery seat at present day Daixian in Shanxi 50 This was besieged by the Turkic army on September 11 615 51 52 but Sui reinforcements and a false report from Princess Yicheng to her husband about a northern attack on the khaganate caused him to lift the siege before its completion 50 In 626 Illig Qaghan took advantage of the Xuanwu Gate Incident and drove on to Chang an On September 23 626 51 Illig Qaghan and his iron cavalry reached the bank of the Wei River north of Bian Bridge in present day Xianyang Shaanxi On September 25 626 51 Tang Taizong allied with Iligh Khan and met with the khan on the border bridge Tang Taizong accused Iligh Khan of crossing the border the khan saw that Taizong was imposing mistakenly thought that the reinforcements of the Tang Dynasty had arrived plus two years ago he had seen Li Shimin who was still the crown prince at that time in Binzhou 彬州 and was asked to duel The khan was afraid and agreed to retreat in an alliance which is called the Weishui Alliance 渭水之盟 or the Alliance of Bian Qiao 便橋會盟 便桥会盟 53 On the third day after the meeting the khan sent 3 000 horses and 10 000 sheep to the border to be prepared as compensation for the Tang dynasty which Emperor Taizong did not accept believing that this was too little 54 All in all 67 incursions into China proper were recorded 34 Before mid October 627 heavy snows on the Mongolian Manchurian grassland covered the ground to a depth of several feet preventing the nomads livestock from grazing and causing a massive die off among the animals 55 According to the New Book of Tang in 628 Taizong mentioned that There has been a frost in midsummer The sun had risen from same place for five days The moon had had the same light level for three days The field was filled with red atmosphere dust storm 56 Illig Qaghan was brought down by a revolt of his Tiele vassal tribes 626 630 allied with Emperor Taizong of Tang This tribal alliance figures in Chinese records as the Huihe Uyghur 57 On March 27 630 51 a Tang army under the command of Li Jing defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate under the command of Illig Qaghan at the Battle of Yinshan 陰山之戰 阴山之战 58 59 60 Illig Qaghan fled to Ishbara Shad but on May 2 630 61 Zhang Baoxiang s army advanced to Ishbara Shad s headquarters Illig Qaghan was taken prisoner and sent to Chang an 60 The Eastern Turkic Khaganate collapsed and was incorporated into the Jimi system of Tang Emperor Taizong said It s enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River 59 Western Turkic Khaganate edit Main article Western Turkic Khaganate Further information Third Perso Turkic War Tang campaigns against the Western Turks and Conquest of the Western Turks nbsp Western Turkic officers during an audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand 648 651 CE Afrasiyab murals Samarkand 62 63 The Western khagan Sheguy and Tong Yabghu Qaghan constructed an alliance with the Byzantine Empire against the Sasanian Empire and defeated the Sasanians in 628 successfully restoring the southern borders along the Tarim and Amu Darya rivers 64 Their capital was Suyab in the Chu River valley about 6 km south east of modern Tokmok In 627 Tung Yabghu assisted by the Khazars and Emperor Heraclius launched a massive invasion of Transcaucasia which culminated in the taking of Derbent and Tbilisi see the Third Perso Turkic War for details In April 630 Tung s deputy Bori Shad sent the Gokturk cavalry to invade Armenia where his general Chorpan Tarkhan succeeded in routing a large Persian force Tung Yabghu s murder in 630 forced the Gokturks to evacuate Transcaucasia citation needed The Western Turkic Khaganate was modernized through an administrative reform of the Ashina clan reigned 634 639 and came to be known as the Onoq 65 The name refers to the ten arrows that were granted by the khagan to ten leaders shads of its two constituent tribal confederations the Duolu five churs and Nushibi five irkins whose lands were divided by the Chui River 65 The division fostered the growth of separatist tendencies Soon chieftain Kubrat of the Dulo clan whose relation ship with the Duolu is possible but not proven seceded from the Khaganate The Tang dynasty campaigned against the khaganate and its vassals the oasis states of the Tarim Basin The Tang campaign against Karakhoja in 640 led to the retreat of the Western Turks who were defeated during the Tang campaigns against Karasahr in 644 and the Tang campaign against Kucha in 648 66 67 leading to the 657 conquest of the Western Turks by the Tang general Su Dingfang 68 Emperor Taizong of Tang was proclaimed Khagan of the Gokturks in 658 64 Tang vassals edit The Tang retained a member of the Ashina clan as a puppet khagan of the Turks In 639 Ashina Jiesheshuai attempted to kill Emperor Taizong of Tang but failed causing him to relocate the Turks These khagans were not well respected among their peers and a new group of leaders known as the Turgesh were established by 699 69 In 657 the Tang emperor could impose indirect rule along the Silk Road as far as modern day Iran He installed two khagans to rule the ten arrows tribes of Gokturks Five arrows of Tulu 咄陆 were ruled by khagans bearing the title of Xingxiwang 興昔亡可汗 while five arrows of Nushipi 弩失畢可汗 were ruled by Jiwangjue 繼往絕可汗 Five Tulu corresponded to the area east of Lake Balkash while five arrows of Nushipi corresponded to the land east of the Aral Sea Gokturks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars The era spanning from 657 to 699 in the steppes was characterized by numerous rulers weak divided and engaged in constant petty wars under the Anxi Protectorate until the rise of Turgesh nbsp Turkic Balbal Kyrgyzstan 70 71 The Second Turkic Khaganate was founded by Ilterish Qaghan after rebelling against the Tang in 681 72 Genetics editMain article Gokturks GeneticsThe population of the First Turkic Khaganate displayed genetic heterogeneity Turk remains analysed displayed on average c 62 Ancient Northeast Asian c 27 Western Steppe Herders and c 11 BMAC associated ancestry A sample belonging to the Ashina tribe the ruling clan of the Gokturks was found to be nearly entirely derived from Ancient Northeast Asians 96 98 and also displayed affinity for the Slab grave culture According to the authors these findings once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages and refutes the western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses 73 Gallery edit nbsp Statue of Niri Qaghan Xinjiang China nbsp Shahnameh illustration of Bahram Chobin fighting Bagha Qaghan nbsp Shahnameh illustration of Bahram Chobin and Bagha Qaghan fighting nbsp Turkic Balbal Tuva Siberia 70 71 nbsp Turkic Balbal Tuva Siberia 70 71 nbsp Turkic Balbal Kyrgyzstan 70 71 See also editGokturk family tree Turks in the Tang military Horses in East Asian warfare Kangly Orkhon inscription Qaghans of the Turkic khaganates Timeline of the Turkic peoples 500 1300 AshideReferences edit The tamga of the royal clan of the first Turkish empire was a neatly drawn lineal picture of an ibex Kljastornyj 1980 p 93 Sinor 1969 p 101 Peter Roudik 2007 The History of the Central Asian Republics p 24 a b Golden Peter B 2011 Central Asia in World History a b Roux 2000 p 79 Smirnova 1952 Vovin 2019 p 133 Turchin Peter Adams Jonathan M Hall Thomas D December 2006 East West Orientation of Historical Empires Journal of World Systems Research 12 2 222 ISSN 1076 156X Retrieved 16 September 2016 Taagepera Rein 1979 Size and Duration of Empires Growth Decline Curves 600 B C to 600 A D Social Science History 3 3 4 129 doi 10 2307 1170959 JSTOR 1170959 Karatay Osman Gokturk Cagi Turk Nufusu Uzerine Dusunceler 18 Turk Tarih Kongresi 1 4 Ekim 2018 Ankara Kwanten Luc 1979 Imperial Nomads A History of Central Asia 500 1500 p 35 OCLC 4193301 Tasagil Ahmet 2021 Turk Model Devleti Gok Turkler Bilge Kultur Sanat ISBN 9786059521598 Baratova 2005 West Barbara A 19 May 2010 Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania Infobase Publishing p 829 ISBN 978 1 4381 1913 7 The first people to use the ethnonym Turk to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth century Tryjarski E 2002 Runes and runelike scripts of Eurasian area Part 1 Archivum Ottomanicum 20 Mouton 49 de Laet Sigfried J Herrmann Joachim 1996 History of Humanity From the seventh century B C to the seventh century A D p 478 馬長壽 突厥人和突厥汗國 上海人民出版社 1957 p 10 11 in Chinese 陳豐祥 余英時 中國通史 五南圖書出版股份有限公司 2002 ISBN 978 957 11 2881 8 p 155 in Chinese Gao Yang The Origin of the Turks and the Turkish Khanate X Turk Tarih Kongresi Ankara 22 26 Eylul 1986 Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler V Cilt Turk Tarih Kurumu 1991 s 731 in English Oguz Burhan 1976 Demirci kole olmaktan kurtulup reisleri Bumin e Turkiye halkinin kultur kokenleri Giris beslenme teknikleri in Turkish Istanbul Matbaasi p 147 ISBN 9789758586226 Moses Larry W 1976 Relations with the Inner Asian Barbarian In Perry John Curtis Smith Bardwell Leith eds Essays on Tʻang Society Leiden Brill Archive p 65 ISBN 978 90 04 04761 7 Slave probably meant vassalage to the Juan Juan Rouran or Ruanruan qaghan whom they the Turks served in battle by providing iron weapons and also marching with the qaghan s armies Denis Sinor Inner Asia history civilization languages a syllabus Routledge 1997 ISBN 978 0 7007 0380 7 p 26 Contacts had already begun in 545 A D between the so called blacksmith slave Turk and certain of the kingdoms of north China Denis Sinor ibid p 101 Beyond A na kui s disdainful reference to his blacksmith slaves there is ample evidence to show that the Turks were indeed specializing in metallurgy though it is difficult to establish whether they were miners or rather blacksmiths in English Nachaeva 2011 Baumer Christoph 18 April 2018 History of Central Asia The 4 volume set Bloomsbury Publishing p 228 ISBN 978 1 83860 868 2 a b Yatsenko Sergey A August 2009 Early Turks Male Costume in the Chinese Art Transoxiana 14 Linghu Defen et al Book of Zhou Vol 50 in Chinese a b c d Kamola 2023 p 13 Li Yanshou 李延寿 History of Northern Dynasties Vol 99 Kamola 2023 p 13 14 Grousset 1970 p 82 History and historiography of the Nomad Empires of Central Eurasia D Sinor Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientarum Hung 58 1 3 14 2005 Walter Pohl Die Awaren ein Steppenvolk im Mitteleuropa 567 822 n Chr C H Beck 2002 ISBN 978 3 406 48969 3 p 26 29 a b c Grousset 81 Kamola 2023 p 14 Haug Robert 27 June 2019 The Eastern Frontier Limits of Empire in Late Antique and Early Medieval Central Asia Bloomsbury Publishing p 65 ISBN 978 1 78831 722 1 The collapse of the Hephthalite domains made neighbours of the Turk Khaqanate and the Sasanian Empire both sharing a border that ran the length of the River Oxus Further Turkish expansion to the west and around the Caspian Sea saw them dominate the western steppes and its people and extend this frontier down to the Caucasus where they also shared a border with the Sasanians Khusrow is noted at the time for improving the fortifications on either side of the Caspian Bab al Abwab at Derbent and the Great Wall of Gorgan a b c d Qiang Li Kordosis Stefanos 2018 The Geopolitics on the Silk Road Resurveying the Relationship of the Western Turks with Byzantium through Their Diplomatic Communications Medieval Worlds medieval worlds 8 109 125 doi 10 1553 medievalworlds no8 2018s109 ISSN 2412 3196 a b Sinor Dennis 1996 The First Turk Empire 553 682 UNESCO pp 327 332 ISBN 978 92 3 103211 0 Retrieved 2022 01 23 Eliot C 1908 Turkey in Europe United Kingdom E Arnold Page 76 Whittow Mark 2018 04 26 Di Cosmo Nicola Maas Michael eds Byzantium s Eurasian Policy in the Age of the Turk Empire Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity 1 ed Cambridge University Press pp 271 286 doi 10 1017 9781316146040 021 ISBN 978 1 316 14604 0 retrieved 2022 01 23 Mark Whittow directly suggests that this embassy reached an agreement for a joint attack on the Persians planned for 573 a b Menander Protector activeth century 1985 The history of Menander the Guardsman R C Blockley Liverpool Great Britain F Cairns pp 173 177 ISBN 0 905205 25 1 OCLC 14355502 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Peter B Golden 2011 Central Asia in World History p 39 At a subsequent embassy Tardu yelled at Valentine in anger venting his rage saying Are you not those very Romans who use ten tongues and lie with all of them Maurice Strategikon ed Dennis and Gamillscheg 360 Maurice s Strategikon handbook of Byzantine military strategy Emperor of the East Maurice Orbicius George T Dennis Philadelphia 1984 p 116 ISBN 0 8122 7899 2 OCLC 9575024 They the Turks were superstitious treacherous foul faithless possessed by an insatiate desire for riches They scorn their oath do not observe agreements and are not satisfied by gifts Even before they accept the gift they are making plans for treachery and betrayal of their agreements They are clever at estimating suitable opportunities to do this and taking prompt advantage of them They prefer to prevail over their enemies not so much by force as by deceit surprise attacks and cutting off supplies a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link CS1 maint others link ALTINKILIC Dr Arzu Emel 2020 Gokturk giyim kusaminin plastik sanatlarda degerlendirilmesi PDF Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences Research 1101 1110 Archived from the original PDF on 2020 10 24 Retrieved 2020 10 22 Inagaki Hajime Galleries and Works of the MIHO MUSEUM Miho Museum p 121 panel 8 ALTINKILIC Dr Arzu Emel 2020 Gokturk giyim kusaminin plastik sanatlarda degerlendirilmesi PDF Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences Research 1101 1110 Narantsatsral D THE SILK ROAD CULTURE AND ANCIENT TURKISH WALL PAINTED TOMB PDF The Journal of International Civilization Studies Cosmo Nicola Di Maas Michael 26 April 2018 Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity Rome China Iran and the Steppe ca 250 750 Cambridge University Press pp 350 354 ISBN 978 1 108 54810 6 Baumer Christoph 18 April 2018 History of Central Asia The 4 volume set Bloomsbury Publishing pp 185 186 ISBN 978 1 83860 868 2 a b Xiong 2006 pp 63 4 a b c d 武德九年 八月癸未 Academia Sinica Archived 2010 05 22 at the Wayback Machine in Chinese Sima Guang Zizhi Tongjian Vol 182 in Chinese 司 马光 1086 资治通鉴 卷第一百九十一 唐纪七 In 1086 the government of Emperor Shenzong of Song pp 资治通鉴 卷第一百九十一 唐纪七 上自出玄武门 与高士廉 房玄龄等立骑径诣渭水上 与颉利隔水而语 责以负约 突厥大惊 皆下马罗拜 俄而诸军继至 旌甲蔽野 颉利见执失思力不返 而上挺身轻出 军容甚盛 有惧色 上麾诸军使却而布陈 独留与颉利语 萧瑀以上轻敌 叩马固谏 上曰 吾筹之已熟 非卿所知 突厥所以敢倾国而来 直抵郊甸者 以我国内有难 朕新即位 谓我不能抗御故也 我若示之心弱 闭门拒守 虏必放兵大掠 不可复制 故朕轻骑独出 示若轻之 又震曜军容 使之必战 出虏不意 使之失图 虏入我地既深 必有惧心 故与战则克 与和则固矣 制服突厥 在此一举 卿第观之 刘 昫 945 旧唐书 本纪第二 Later Jin Shi Jingtang government pp 旧唐书 本纪第二 乙酉 又幸便桥 与颉利刑白马设盟 突厥引退 九月丙戌 颉利献马三千匹 羊万口 David Andrew Graff Medieval Chinese warfare 300 900 Routledge 2002 ISBN 978 0 415 23955 4 p 186 Ouyang Xiu New Book of Tang Vol 215 I in Chinese Liu 劉 Xu 昫 945 Old Book of Tang 舊唐書 Vol 194 amp Vol 195 Old Book of Tang Vol 3 in Chinese a b Ouyang Xiu et al New Book of Tang Vol 93 in Chinese a b Sima Guang Zizhi Tongjian Vol 193 in Chinese 貞觀四年 三月庚辰 Baumer Christoph 18 April 2018 History of Central Asia The 4 volume set Bloomsbury Publishing p 243 ISBN 978 1 83860 868 2 Grenet Frantz 2004 Maracanda Samarkand une metropole pre mongole Annales Histoire Sciences Sociales 5 6 Fig B a b Kamola 2023 p 15 a b Gumilev 238 Grousset 1970 pp 99 100 Wechsler 1979 pp 225 228 Skaff 2009 p 183 Kamola 2023 p 15 16 a b c d Bemmann Jan Brosseder Ursula A Long Standing Tradition Stelae in the Steppes with a Special Focus on the Slab Grave Culture Current research shows that only during the time of the Turk qaghanates 552 630 682 742 CE were different types of stelae widely used in Inner Asia there are rows of balbals in association with ritual sites kamennye babas in association with memorials and also inscription stelae were erected at important Turkic ritual sites e g Kubarev 1984 Voitov 1996 Baiar 1997 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b c d Bazarov B V Institut mongolovedenii a buddologii i tibetologii Rossiĭskai a akademii a nauk Sibirskoe otdelenie eds 2017 Aktualʹnye voprosy arkheologii i etnologii T S entralʹnoĭ Azii materialy II mezhdunarodnoĭ nauchnoĭ konferent s ii Ulan Ude 4 6 dekabri a 2017 Actual problems of archaeology and ethnology of Central Asia materials of the II International conference Ulan Ude 4 6th December 2017 Ulan Ude Izd vo BNT s SO RAN ISBN 978 5 7925 0494 3 Barfield 1989 p 149 Yang Xiao Min Meng Hai Liang Zhang Jian Lin Yu Yao Allen Edward Xia Zi Yang Zhu Kong Yang Du Pan Xin Ren Xiao Ying Xiong Jian Xue Lu Xiao Yu Ding Yi Han Sheng Liu Wei Peng Jin Li November 2023 Ancient genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Gokturk Khanate Journal of Systematics and Evolution 61 6 1056 1064 doi 10 1111 jse 12938 ISSN 1674 4918 External links editTurk BitigBibliography editAsimov M S 1998 History of civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV The age of achievement A D 750 to the end of the fifteenth century Part One The historical social and economic setting UNESCO Publishing Baratova Larissa 2005 Turko Sogdian Coinage Encyclopedia Iranica Barfield Thomas 1989 The Perilous Frontier Nomadic Empires and China Basil Blackwell Benson Linda 1998 China s last Nomads the history and culture of China s Kazaks M E Sharpe Bregel Yuri 2003 An Historical Atlas of Central Asia Brill Bosworth Clifford Edmund 2000 The Age of Achievement A D 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century Vol 4 Part II The Achievements History of Civilizations of Central Asia UNESCO Publishing Bughra Imin 1983 The history of East Turkestan Istanbul Istanbul publications Drompp Michael Robert 2005 Tang China And The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire A Documentary History Brill Golden Peter B 2011 Central Asia in World History Oxford University Press Grousset Rene 1970 The empire of the steppes a history of central Asia Rutgers University Press ISBN 978 0 8135 1304 1 Haywood John 1998 Historical Atlas of the Medieval World AD 600 1492 Barnes amp Noble Jeong Choongwon Wang Ke Wilkin Shevan Taylor William Timothy Treal Miller Bryan K Bemmann Jan H Stahl Raphaela Chiovelli Chelsea Knolle Florian Ulziibayar Sodnom Khatanbaatar Dorjpurev Erdenebaatar Diimaajav Erdenebat Ulambayar Ochir Ayudai Ankhsanaa Ganbold 2020 11 12 A Dynamic 6 000 Year Genetic History of Eurasia s Eastern Steppe Cell 183 4 890 904 e29 doi 10 1016 j cell 2020 10 015 ISSN 0092 8674 PMC 7664836 PMID 33157037 Kamola Stefan 2023 I Made Him Praiseworthy The Kul Tegin Inscription in World History De Gruyter Latourette Kenneth Scott 1964 The Chinese their history and culture Volumes 1 2 Macmillan Mackerras Colin 1990 Chapter 12 The Uighurs in Sinor Denis ed The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia Cambridge University Press pp 317 342 ISBN 0 521 24304 1 Millward James A 2007 Eurasian Crossroads A History of Xinjiang Columbia University Press Mackerras Colin 1972 The Uighur Empire According to the T ang Dynastic Histories A Study in Sino Uighur Relations Australian National University Press pp 744 840 ISBN 0 7081 0457 6 Nachaeva Ekaterina 2011 The Runaway Avars and Late Antique Diplomacy In Ralph W Mathisen Danuta Shanzer eds Romans Barbarians and the Transformation of the Roman World Cultural Interaction and the Creation of Identity in Late Antiquity Ashgate Roux Jean Paul 2000 Histoire des Turcs in French Fayard Sinor Denis 1969 Inner Asia History Civilization Languages Indiana University Press Sinor Denis 1990 The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 24304 9 Skaff Jonathan Karem 2009 Nicola Di Cosmo ed Military Culture in Imperial China Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 03109 8 Smirnova 1952 TURKO SOGDIAN COINAGE Encyclopaedia Iranica issues of the khaqans ḵaqans of the Western Turkic khanate in Central Asia between the 6th and 8th centuries CE so called because the Turkic rulers issued them with Sogdian inscriptions Vovin A 2019 Groping in the Dark The First Attempt to Interpret the Bugut Brahmi Inscription Journal Asiatique 307 1 121 134 Wechsler Howard J 1979 T ai Tsung Reign 626 49 The Consolidator In Denis Twitchett John Fairbank eds The Cambridge History of China Volume 3 Sui and T ang China Part I Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 21446 9 Xiong Victor Cunrui 2006 Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty His Life Times and Legacy Albany State University of New York Press ISBN 9780791482681 Xiong Victor 2008 Historical Dictionary of Medieval China United States of America Scarecrow Press Inc ISBN 978 0810860537 薛宗正 1992 突厥史 中国社会科学出版社 ISBN 978 7 5004 0432 3 OCLC 28622013 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title First Turkic Khaganate amp oldid 1222665189, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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