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Wikipedia

Draft evasion

February 16, 2024

Conscription evasion or draft evasion (American English)[1] is any successful attempt to elude a government-imposed obligation to serve in the military forces of one's nation. Sometimes draft evasion involves refusing to comply with the military draft laws of one's nation.[2] Illegal draft evasion is said to have characterized every military conflict of the 20th and 21st centuries, in which at least one party of such conflict has enforced conscription.[3] Such evasion is generally considered to be a criminal offense,[2] and laws against it go back thousands of years.[4]

There are many draft evasion practices. Those that manage to adhere to or circumvent the law, and those that do not involve taking a public stand, are sometimes referred to as draft avoidance. Draft evaders are sometimes pejoratively referred to as draft dodgers,[5] although in certain contexts that term has also been used non-judgmentally[6][7] or as an honorific.[8]

Practices that involve lawbreaking or taking a public stand are sometimes referred to as draft resistance. Although draft resistance is discussed below as a form of "draft evasion", draft resisters and scholars of draft resistance reject the categorization of resistance as a form of evasion or avoidance. Draft resisters argue that they seek to confront, not evade or avoid, the draft.[9]

Draft evasion has been a significant phenomenon in nations as different as Colombia, Eritrea, Canada, France, Russia, South Korea, Syria, Ukraine and the United States. Accounts by scholars and journalists, along with memoiristic writings by draft evaders, indicate that the motives and beliefs of the evaders cannot be usefully stereotyped.

Draft evasion practices edit

 
Anti-draft meeting held by women in New York City, 1917

Young people have engaged in a wide variety of draft evasion practices around the world, some of which date back thousands of years.[10][4] This section aims to delineate a representative sampling of draft evasion practices and support activities as identified by scholars and journalists. Examples of many of these practices and activities can be found in the section on draft evasion in the nations of the world, further down this page.

Draft avoidance edit

One type of draft avoidance consists of attempts to follow the letter and spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a legally valid draft deferment or exemption.[4][3] Sometimes these deferments and exemptions are prompted by political considerations.[11] Another type consists of attempts to circumvent, manipulate, or surreptitiously violate the substance or spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a deferment or exemption.[12][13] Nearly all attempts at draft avoidance are private and unpublicized.[14][15] Examples include:

By adhering to the law edit

 
US Secretary of War Newton Baker drawing the first number in the World War I draft lottery, 1917
  • Claiming conscientious objector status on the basis of sincerely held religious or ethical beliefs.[16][17][nb 1]
  • Claiming a student deferment, when one is in school primarily in order to study and learn.[3][19][11][12]
  • Claiming a medical or psychological problem, if the purported health issue is genuine and serious.[4][3]
  • Claiming to be homosexual, when one is truly so and the military excludes homosexuals.[20]
  • Claiming economic hardship, if the hardship is genuine and the law recognizes such a claim.[21]
  • Holding a job in what the government considers to be an essential civilian occupation.[4][3]
  • Purchasing exemptions from military service, in nations where such payments are permitted.[22]
  • Not being chosen in a draft lottery, where lotteries determine the order of call to military service;[14] or not being in a certain age group, where age determines the order of call.[4]
  • Not being able to afford armor or other equipment, in polities where conscripts were required to provide their own.[4]

By circumventing the law edit

 
Tribunal for conscientious objectors in Britain during World War II
  • Obtaining conscientious objector status by professing insincere religious or ethical beliefs.[12][nb 1]
  • Obtaining a student deferment, if the student wishes to attend or remain in school largely to avoid the draft.[23]
  • Claiming a medical or psychological problem, if the purported problem is feigned, overstated, or self-inflicted.[4][3][12][14]
  • Finding a doctor who would certify a healthy draft-age person as medically unfit, either willingly or for pay.[24]
  • Falsely claiming to be homosexual, where the military excludes homosexuals.[12]
  • Claiming economic hardship, if the purported hardship is overstated.[25]
  • Deliberately failing one's military-related intelligence tests.[12]
  • Becoming pregnant primarily in order to evade the draft, in nations where women who are not mothers are drafted.[26]
  • Having someone exert personal influence on an officer in charge of the conscription process.[4]
  • Successfully bribing an officer in charge of the conscription process.[23][24]

Draft resistance edit

 
Muhammad Ali refused induction in 1967.[27]

Draft evasion that involves overt lawbreaking or that communicates conscious or organized resistance to government policy is sometimes referred to as draft resistance.[15][28][29] Examples include:

Actions by resisters edit

  • Declining to register for the draft, in nations where that is required by law.[16][23]
  • Declining to report for one's draft-related physical examination, or for military induction or call-up, in nations where these are required by law.[30][6]
  • Participating in draft card burnings or turn-ins.[16][31]
  • Living "underground" (e.g., living with false identification papers) and working at an unreported job after being indicted for draft evasion.[16]
  • Traveling or emigrating to another country, rather than submitting to induction or to trial.[4][32]
  • Going to jail, rather than submitting to induction or to alternative government service.[33][34]
  • Shooting and/or killing draft officers and civil authorities.[35]

Actions by supporters or resisters edit

 
In 1863, anti-draft riots broke out in New York City.[36]
  • Organizing or participating in a peaceful street assembly or demonstration against the draft.[16]
  • Publicly encouraging, aiding, or abetting draft evaders.[16]
  • Deliberately disrupting a military draft agency's processes or procedures.[12][37]
  • Destroying a military draft agency's records.[16][38][39]
  • Organizing or participating in a riot against the draft.[36][40]
  • Building an anti-war movement that treats draft resistance as a vital and integral part of it.[15][28]

By country edit

Draft evasion is said to have characterized every military conflict of the 20th and 21st centuries.[3] Laws against certain draft evasion practices go back at least as far as the ancient Greeks.[41] Examples of draft evasion can be found in many nations over many time periods:

Belgium edit

Nineteenth century Belgium was one of the few places where most citizens accepted the practice of legally buying one's way out of the military draft, sometimes referred to as the practice of "purchasable military commutation".[22] Even so, some Belgian politicians denounced it as a system that appeared to trade the money of the rich for the lives of the poor.[22]

Britain edit

In January 1916, during World War I, the British government passed a military conscription bill. By July of that year, 30% of draftees had failed to report for service.[3]

Canada edit

Canada employed a military draft during World Wars I and II, and some Canadians chose to evade it. According to Canadian historian Jack Granatstein, "no single issue has divided Canadians so sharply" as the military draft.[42] During both World Wars, political parties collapsed or were torn apart over the draft issue, and ethnicity seeped into the equation, with most French Canadians opposing conscription and a majority of English Canadians accepting it.[42] During both wars, riots and draft evasion followed the passage of the draft laws.[42]

World War I edit

 
Anti-conscription march in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, May 1917

Conscription had been a dividing force in Canadian politics during World War I, and those divisions led to the Conscription Crisis of 1917. Canadians objected to conscription for diverse reasons: some thought it unnecessary, some did not identify with the British, and some felt it imposed unfair burdens on economically struggling segments of society.[43] When the first draft class (single men between 20 and 34 years of age) was called up in 1917, nearly 281,000 of the approximately 404,000 men filed for exemptions.[44] Throughout the war, some Canadians who feared conscription left for the United States or elsewhere.[45]

World War II edit

Canada introduced an innovative kind of draft law in 1940 with the National Resources Mobilization Act.[46] While the move was not unpopular outside French Canada, controversy arose because under the new law, conscripts were not compelled to serve outside Canada. They could choose simply to defend the country against invasion.[46] By the middle of the war, many Canadians – not least of all, conscripts committed to overseas service – were referring to NRMA men pejoratively as "Zombies", that is, as dead-to-life or utterly useless.[47] Following costly fighting in Italy, Normandy, and the Scheldt, overseas Canadian troops were depleted, and during the Conscription Crisis of 1944 a one-time levy of approximately 17,000 NRMA men was sent to fight abroad.[48] Many NRMA men deserted after the levy rather than fight abroad.[48] One brigade of NRMA men declared itself on "strike" after the levy.[48]

The number of men who actively sought to evade the World War II draft in Canada is not known. Granatstein says the evasion was "widespread".[42] In addition, in 1944 alone approximately 60,000 draftees were serving only as NRMA men, committed to border defense but not to fighting abroad.[48]

Colombia edit

Colombia maintains a large and well-funded military, often focused on counter-insurgency.[49] There is an obligatory military draft for all young men.[50] Nevertheless, according to Public Radio International, two types of draft evasion are widespread in Colombia; one is prevalent among the relatively well-off, and another is found among the poor.[50]

Young men from the middle-to-upper classes "usually" evade the Colombian draft.[50] They do so by obtaining college or medical deferments, or by paying bribes for a "military ID card" certifying they have served – a card that is often requested by potential employers.[50]

Young men from poorer circumstances sometimes simply avoid showing up for the draft and attempt to function without a military ID card. Besides facing limited employment prospects, these men are vulnerable to being forced into service through periodic army sweeps of poor neighborhoods.[50]

Eritrea edit

Eritrea instituted a military draft in 1995. Three years later, it became open-ended; everyone under 50 [sic] can be enlisted for an indefinite period of time.[26] According to The Economist, "release can depend on the arbitrary whim of a commander, and usually takes years".[26]

It is illegal for Eritreans to leave the country without government permission.[26] Nevertheless, in the mid-2010s around 2,000 Eritreans were leaving every month, "primarily to avoid the draft", according to The Economist.[26] Human rights groups and the United Nations have also claimed that Eritrea's draft policies are fueling the migration.[51] Most leave for Europe or neighboring countries; in 2015, Eritreans were the fourth largest group illicitly crossing the Mediterranean for Europe.[51]

Mothers are usually excused from the Eritrean draft. The Economist says that, as a result, pregnancies among single women – once a taboo in Eritrea – have increased.[26]

A 2018 article in Bloomberg News reported that Eritrea was considering altering some of its military draft policies.[51]

Finland edit

During World War II, there was no legal way to avoid the draft, and failure to obey was treated as insubordination or desertion, punished by execution or jail. Draft evaders were forced to escape to the forests and live there as outlaws, in a practice that was facetiously called serving in the käpykaarti (Pine Cone Guard) or metsäkaarti (Forest Guard).[52]

Approximately 1,500 men failed to show up for the draft at the start of the Continuation War (1941–1944, pitting Finland against the Soviet Union), and 32,186 cases of desertion were handled by the courts.[53] There were numerous reasons for draft evasion and desertion during this period: fear or war-weariness,[54] objection to the war as an offensive war,[52] ideological objections or outright support for Communism.[54] Finnish Communists were considered dangerous and could not serve, and were subject to "protective custody" – in practice, detention in a prison for the course of the war – because earlier attempts to conscript them had ended in disaster: one battalion called Pärmin pataljoona assembled from detained Communists suffered a large-scale defection to the Soviet side.

The käpykaarti (forest-dwelling Pine Cone Guard, mentioned above) was a diverse group including draft evaders, deserters, Communists, and Soviet desants (military skydivers).[55] They lived in small groups, sometimes even in military-style dugouts constructed from logs,[52][55] and often maintained a rotation to guard their camps. They received support from sympathizers who could buy from the black market; failing that, they stole provisions to feed themselves.[56] The Finnish Army and police actively searched for them, and if discovered, a firefight often ensued.[57] The Finnish Communist Party was able to operate among draft evaders.[55][58] Sixty-three death sentences were handed out to deserters; however, many of them were killed in military or police raids on their camps. Deserters captured near front lines would often be simply returned to the lines, but as the military situation deteriorated towards the end of the war, punishments were harsher: 61 of the death sentences given were in 1944, mostly in June and July during the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, where Finnish forces were forced to retreat.[59]

At the conclusion of the war, the Allied Control Commission immediately demanded an amnesty for draft evaders, and they were not further punished.[56]

As of 2020, deliberate draft evasion is a rare phenomenon, since absence from a drafting event, in most cases, leads to an immediate search warrant. Evaders are taken by police officers to the draft board, or to the regional military office.[60]

France edit

In France, the right of all draftees to purchase military exemption – introduced after the French Revolution – was abolished in 1870.[22] One scholar refers to the permissible buy-out as a "bastard form of equality" that bore traces of the Ancien Régime.[61]

Israel edit

Main article: Refusal to serve in the IDF
 
Rock star Aviv Geffen is one of several Israeli entertainers who have encouraged draft evasion.[62]

There has always been a military draft in Israel.[63][64] It is universal for all non-Arab Israeli citizens, men and women alike, and can legally be evaded only on physical or psychological grounds or by strictly Orthodox Jews.[63][64] The draft has become part of the fabric of Israeli society: according to Le Monde senior editor Sylvain Cypel, Israel is a place where military service is seen not just as a duty but a "certificate of entry into active life".[65]

Yet by the middle of the decade of the 2000s, draft evasion (including outright draft refusal) and desertion had reached all-time highs.[62] Fully 5% of young men and 3% of young women were supposedly failing their pre-military psychological tests, both all-time highs.[62] Some popular entertainers, including rock star Aviv Geffen, grand-nephew of military hero Moshe Dayan, have been encouraging draft evasion (Geffen publicly said he would commit suicide if he were taken by the military).[62] In 2007 the Israeli government initiated what some called a "shaming campaign", banning young entertainers from holding concerts and making television appearances if they failed to fulfill their military requirement.[62] By 2008 over 3,000 high school students belonged to "Shministim" (Hebrew for twelfth graders), a group of young people claiming to be conscientiously opposed to military service.[62] American actor Ed Asner wrote a column supporting the group.[66] Another group, New Profile, was started by Israeli peace activists to encourage draft refusal.[62]

University of Manchester sociologist Yulia Zemilinskaya has interviewed members of New Profile and Shministim, along with members of two groups of Israeli soldiers and reservists who have expressed an unwillingness to engage in missions they disapprove of – Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse.[67] Despite commonalities, she found a difference between the draft refusers and the military selective-refusers:

The analysis of these interviews demonstrated that, in their appeal to [the] Israeli public, members of Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse utilized symbolic meanings and codes derived from dominant militarist and nationalist discourses. In contrast, draft-resisters, members of New Profile and Shministim, refusing to manipulate nationalistic and militaristic codes, voice a much more radical and comprehensive critique of the state’s war making plans. Invoking feminist, anti-militarist and pacifist ideologies, they openly challenge and criticize dominant militarist and Zionist discourses. While the majority of members of Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse choose selective refusal, negotiating conditions of their reserve duty, [the] anti-militarist, pacifist, and feminist ideological stance of members of New Profile and Shministim leads them to absolutist refusal.[68]

Russia/Soviet Union edit

 
Draft registration office near Moscow. In the mid-2010s, half of all eligible Russians called up were reported to be evading service.[23]

According to London-based journalist Elisabeth Braw, writing in Foreign Affairs, draft evasion was "endemic" in the Soviet Union during the Soviet–Afghan War, which ended with Soviet defeat in 1989.[23] A declassified Central Intelligence Agency report revealed that the Soviet elite routinely bribed its sons' way out of deployment to Afghanistan, or out of military service altogether.[23]

In Russia, all men aged 18 through 27 are subject to the military draft, continuing the Soviet practice.[23] According to a report from the European Parliamentary Research Service, an organ of the Secretariat of the European Parliament, in the mid-2010s fully half of the 150,000 young men called up each year were thought to be evading the draft.[23] During Dmitry Medvedev's presidency, the service duration was reduced from two years to one.[69]

Invasion of Ukraine edit

In September 2022, during the Russo-Ukrainian War over 600,000 mobilization-eligible citizens left the country to avoid the draft.[70][71] Reportedly, Georgia, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia became primary, visa-free destinations for Russians seeking to avoid President Vladimir Putin’s mobilization order.[72][73]

South Korea edit

South Korea maintains mandatory military service.[74][75] According to the Korea JoongAng Daily, since the early 2000s, the country has been rocked by scandals involving celebrities who try to use their fame to evade the draft or receive special treatment from the military.[74] South Koreans are reportedly so hostile to draft evasion that one South Korean commentator said that it is "almost like suicide" for celebrities to engage in it.[76] Yoo Seung-jun was one of the biggest stars on the South Korean rock scene until 2002, when he chose to evade the draft and become a U.S. citizen. South Korea subsequently deported him and banned him for life.[74]

Some South Korean draft evaders have been sentenced to prison. In 2014, The Christian Science Monitor ran a headline claiming that South Korea had the "most draft dodgers in prison".[77] The article, by veteran correspondent Donald Kirk, explained that South Korea's government did not allow for conscientious objection to war; as a result, 669 mostly religiously motivated South Koreans were said to be in jail for draft evasion in 2013. Only 723 draft evaders were said to be in jail worldwide at that time.[78]

According to the South China Morning Post (Hong Kong), in June 2013 Lee Yeda became the first South Korean to be granted asylum specifically because he evaded the South Korean draft. His asylum claim was granted by France. "[In South] Korea, it is ... difficult to find a job for anyone who has not completed their national service," Lee was reported to have said. "Refusing to serve means that, in society, your life is terminated."[75]

Syria edit

 
Aleppo during the Syrian Civil War. By 2016, 70,000 draft evaders had fled Syria,[79] while others remained undetected inside it.[80]

Syria requires men over 18 to serve in the army for two years (except for college graduates, who need serve only 18 months). Draft evasion carries stiff punishments, including fines and years of imprisonment.[80] After the Syrian Civil War broke out in 2011, many draft-age men began fleeing the country, sometimes paying thousands of dollars to be smuggled out. Others paid to have their names expunged from the draft rolls.[80] Meanwhile, the government erected billboards exhorting young people to join the army – and set up road checkpoints to capture draft evaders.[80] By 2016, an estimated 70,000 draft evaders had left Syria,[79] and others remained undetected within its borders.[80]

Observers have identified several motives among the Syrian draft evaders. One is fear of dying in that country's civil war.[80][79] Others include obeying parental wishes and disgust with the government of Bashar al-Assad.[79] Thomas Spijkerboer [Wikidata], a professor of migration law at VU University Amsterdam, has argued that Syrian draft evaders motivated by a refusal to participate in violations of international law should be given refugee status by other nations.[79]

In October 2018, the Syrian government announced an amnesty for draft evaders. However, an officer with Syria's "Reconciliation Ministry" told the Los Angeles Times that, while punishment would be canceled, military service would still be required. "Now the war is practically at its end, which means enlisting is no longer such a fearful situation", he said. "We expect we'll have very large numbers taking advantage of the amnesty".[80]

Tunisia edit

Tunisia has had a draft since gaining its independence in 1956. Most males are required to submit documents to local officials at age 18 and to begin service two years later.[81] However, according to the Lebanon-based Carnegie Middle East Center, the Tunisian draft has long been poorly enforced and draft evasion has long been rampant.[81]

In order to minimize draft evasion, Tunisia began allowing young men to substitute "civilian" service (such as working on rural development projects) or "national" service (such as working as civil servants) for military service.[81] But that has not helped: the defense minister reported that, in 2017, only 506 young men turned up out of an eligibility pool of more than 31,000.[81]

Ukraine edit

In 2015, responding to perceived threats from pro-Russian rebels in eastern Ukraine, the Ukrainian military instituted a compulsory draft for males between 20 and 27 years of age. However, according to independent journalist Alec Luhn, writing in Foreign Policy magazine, a "huge number" of Ukrainians refused to serve. Luhn gives three reasons for this. One was fear of death. Another was that some young Ukrainians were opposed to war in general. A third was that some were unwilling to take up arms against those whom they perceived to be their countrymen.[6]

The Ukrainian military itself has stated that, during a partial call-up in 2014, over 85,000 men failed to report to their draft offices, and nearly 10,000 of those were eventually declared to be illegal draft evaders.[6]

United States edit

The United States has employed a draft several times, usually during war but also during the Cold War. Each time the draft has been met with at least some resistance.

In Sketches of America (1818) British author Henry Bradshaw Fearon, who visited the young United States on a fact-finding mission to inform Britons considering emigration, described the New York Guard—although he did not name it—as he found it in New York City in August 1817:

Every male inhabitant can be called out, from the age of 18 to 45, on actual military duty. During a state of peace, there are seven musters annually: the fine for non-attendance is, each time, five dollars. Commanding officers have discretionary power to receive substitutes. An instance of their easiness to be pleased was related to me by Mr. —, a tradesman of this city. He never attends the muster, but, to avoid the fine, sends some of his men, who answer to his name; the same man is not invariably his deputy on parade: in this, Mr. — suits his own convenience; sometimes the collecting clerk, sometimes one of the brewers, at others a drayman: and to finish this military pantomime, a firelock is often dispensed with, for the more convenient wartime weapon—a cudgel. Courts-martial have the power of mitigating the fine, on the assignment of a satisfactory cause of absence, and in cases of poverty. Upon legal exemptions I cannot convey certain information. During a period of three months in the late war, martial law existed, and no substitutes were received. Aliens were not called out.[82]

Civil War edit

See also: Confederate Conscription Acts 1862–1864
 
Parody of Confederate troops forcing a pro-Union Southerner (left foreground) and other reluctant Southerners to comply with the Confederate draft, c. 1862.[83]

Both the Union (the North) and the Confederacy (the South) instituted drafts during the American Civil War – and both drafts were often evaded.[5] In the North, evaders were most numerous among poor Irish immigrants. In the South, evaders were most numerous in hill country and in certain other parts of Texas, Louisiana, and Georgia.[5]

Resistance to the draft was sometimes violent. In the North, nearly 100 draft enrollment officers were injured in attacks.[5] Anti-draft riots in New York City in 1863 lasted several days and resulted in up to 120 deaths and 2,000 injuries.[5]

According to historian David Williams, by 1864 the Southern draft had become virtually unenforceable.[84] Some believe that draft evasion in the South, where manpower was scarcer than in the North, contributed to the Confederate defeat.[5]

World War I edit

The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples and by prohibiting all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. In 1917 and 1918 some 24 million men were registered and nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the overt resistance that characterized the Civil War.[85]

 
Eugene V. Debs spoke out against the draft during World War I.[86]

In the United States during World War I, the word "slacker" was commonly used to describe someone who was not participating in the war effort, especially someone who avoided military service, an equivalent of the later term "draft dodger." Attempts to track down such evaders were called "slacker raids."[87][88] Under the Espionage Act of 1917, activists including Eugene V. Debs and Emma Goldman were arrested for speaking out against the draft.[86]

Despite such circumstances, draft evasion was substantial. According to one scholar, nearly 11 percent of the draft-eligible population refused to register, or to report for induction;[89] according to another, 12 percent of draftees either failed to report to their training camps or deserted from them.[3] A significant amount of draft evasion took place in the South, in part because many impoverished Southerners lacked documentation[89] and in part because many Southerners recalled the "horrible carnage" of the Civil War.[90] In 2017, historian Michael Kazin concluded that a greater percentage of American men evaded the draft during World War I than during the Vietnam War.[91]

World War II edit

According to scholar Anna Wittmann, about 72,000 young Americans applied for conscientious objector (CO) status during World War II, and many of their applications were rejected.[92] Some COs chose to serve as noncombatants in the military, others chose jail, and a third group – taking a position in between – chose to enter a specially organized domestic Civilian Public Service.[92][93]

Korean War edit

The Korean War, which lasted from 1950 to 1953, generated 80,000 cases of alleged draft evasion.[92]

Vietnam War edit

Main article: Draft evasion in the Vietnam War
 
A Vietnam War-era draft card. Retention of the card was legally required.[94]
 
Draft card burning in New York City, 1967

The Vietnam War (1955–1975) was controversial in the US[95] and was accompanied by a significant amount of draft evasion among young Americans, with many managing to remain in the U.S. by various means and some eventually leaving for Canada or elsewhere.

Avoidance and resistance at home edit

Significant draft avoidance was taking place even before the US became heavily involved in the Vietnam War. The large cohort of Baby Boomers allowed for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college and graduate students.[96] According to peace studies scholar David Cortright, more than half of the 27 million men eligible for the draft during the Vietnam War were deferred, exempted, or disqualified.[96]

The number of draft resisters was also significant. According to Cortright, "Distinct from the millions who [avoided] the draft were the many thousands who resisted the conscription system and actively opposed the war".[97] The head of US President Richard Nixon's task force on the all-volunteer military reported in 1970 that the number of resisters was "expanding at an alarming rate" and that the government was "almost powerless to apprehend and prosecute them".[98] It is now known that, during the Vietnam era, approximately 570,000 young men were classified as draft offenders,[96] and approximately 210,000 were formally accused of draft violations;[99][96] however, only 8,750 were convicted and only 3,250 were jailed.[96] Some draft eligible men publicly burned their draft cards, but the Justice Department brought charges against only 50, of whom 40 were convicted.[100]

As US troop strength in Vietnam increased, some young men sought to evade the draft by pro-actively enlisting in military forces that were unlikely to see combat in Vietnam. For example, conscription scholars Lawrence Baskir and William Strauss say that the Coast Guard may have served that purpose for some,[101] though they also point out that Coast Guardsmen had to maintain readiness for combat in Vietnam,[102] and that some Coast Guardsmen eventually served and were killed there.[101] Similarly, the Vietnam-era National Guard was seen by some as an avenue for avoiding combat in Vietnam,[103] although that too was less than foolproof: about 15,000 National Guardsmen were sent to Vietnam before the war began winding down.[103]

 
Phil Ochs (1940–1976) was one of several countercultural figures to encourage draft evasion.

Other young men sought to evade the draft by avoiding or resisting any military commitment. In this they were bolstered by certain countercultural figures. "Draft Dodger Rag", a 1965 song by Phil Ochs, employed satire to provide a how-to list of available deferments: ruptured spleen, poor eyesight, flat feet, asthma, and many more.[104] Folksinger Arlo Guthrie lampooned the paradox of seeking a deferment by acting crazy in his song "Alice's Restaurant": "I said, 'I wanna kill! Kill! Eat dead burnt bodies!' and the Sergeant said, 'You're our boy'!"[105] The book 1001 Ways to Beat the Draft was co-authored by Tuli Kupferberg, a member of the band The Fugs. It espoused such methods as arriving at the draft board in diapers.[106] Another text pertinent to draft-age men was Jules Feiffer's cartoon novella from the 1950s, Munro, later a short film, in which a four-year-old boy is drafted by mistake.[107]

Draft counseling groups were another source of support for potential draft evaders. Many such groups were active during the war. Some were connected to national groups, such as the American Friends Service Committee and Students for a Democratic Society; others were ad hoc campus or community groups.[108] Many specially trained individuals worked as counselors for such groups.[109]

 
David Harris and "The Resistance" helped organize Stop the Draft Week in Oakland, California, October 1967.[110][111]

Alongside the draft counseling groups, a substantial draft resistance movement emerged.[112] Students for a Democratic Society sought to play a major role in it,[113] as did the War Resisters League,[111] the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee's "National Black Anti-War Anti-Draft Union"[114] and other groups.[111] Many say that the draft resistance movement was spearheaded by an organization called The Resistance.[112][115] It was founded by David Harris and others in the San Francisco Bay Area in March 1967, and quickly spread nationally.[111] The insignia of the organization was the Greek letter omega, Ω, the symbol for ohms—the unit of electrical resistance. Members of The Resistance publicly burned their draft cards or refused to register for the draft. Other members deposited their cards into boxes on selected dates and then mailed them to the government. They were then drafted, refused to be inducted, and fought their cases in the federal courts. These draft resisters hoped that their public civil disobedience would help to bring the war and the draft to an end. Many young men went to federal prison as part of this movement.[112][115] According to Cortright, the draft resistance movement was the leading edge of the anti-war movement in 1967 and 1968.[96]

After the war, some of the draft evaders who stayed in the U.S. wrote memoirs. These included David Harris's Dreams Die Hard (1982),[116] David Miller's I Didn't Know God Made Honky Tonk Communists (2001),[117] Jerry Elmer's Felon for Peace (2005),[118] and Bruce Dancis's Resister (2014).[119][120] Harris was an anti-draft organizer who went to jail for his beliefs (and was briefly married to folk singer Joan Baez),[116] Miller was the first Vietnam War refuser to publicly burn his draft card (and later became partner to spiritual teacher Starhawk),[117] Elmer refused to register for the draft and destroyed draft board files in several locations,[118] and Dancis led the largest chapter of Students for a Democratic Society (the one at Cornell University) before being jailed for publicly shredding his draft card and returning it to his draft board.[120] Harris in particular expresses serious second thoughts about aspects of the movement he was part of.[116]

Emigration to Canada and elsewhere edit

Canadian historian Jessica Squires emphasizes that the number of U.S. draft evaders coming to Canada was "only a fraction" of those who resisted the Vietnam War.[121] According to a 1978 book by former members of President Gerald Ford's Clemency Board, 210,000 Americans were accused of draft offenses and 30,000 left the country.[99] More recently, Cortright estimated that 60,000 to 100,000 left the US, mainly for Canada or Sweden.[96] Others scattered elsewhere; for example, historian Frank Kusch mentions Mexico,[122] scholar Anna Wittmann mentions Britain,[3] and journalist Jan Wong describes one draft evader who sympathized with Mao Zedong's China and found refuge there.[123] Draft evader Ken Kiask spent eight years traveling continuously across the Global South before returning to the US[124]

 
Mark Satin (left), director of the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme,[125] counseling American draft evaders, 1967
 
Tattered copy of the Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada (1968)[126] atop Anti-Draft Programme stationery

The number of Vietnam-era draft evaders leaving for Canada is hotly contested; an entire book, by scholar Joseph Jones, has been written on that subject.[127] In 2017, University of Toronto professor Robert McGill cited estimates by four scholars, including Jones, ranging from a floor of 30,000 to a ceiling of 100,000, depending in part on who is being counted as a draft evader.[128]

Though the presence of U.S. draft evaders and deserters in Canada was initially controversial, the Canadian government eventually chose to welcome them.[129] Draft evasion was not a criminal offense under Canadian law.[130] The issue of deserters was more complex. Desertion from the US military was not on the list of crimes for which a person could be extradited under the extradition treaty between Canada and the US;[131] however, desertion was a crime in Canada, and the Canadian military strongly opposed condoning it. In the end, the Canadian government maintained the right to prosecute these deserters, but in practice left them alone and instructed border guards not to ask questions relating to the issue.[132]

In Canada, many American Vietnam War evaders received pre-emigration counseling and post-emigration assistance from locally based groups.[133] Typically these consisted of American emigrants and Canadian supporters. The largest were the Montreal Council to Aid War Resisters, the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme, and the Vancouver Committee to Aid American War Objectors.[134] Journalists often noted their effectiveness.[135] The Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada, published jointly by the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme and the House of Anansi Press, sold nearly 100,000 copies,[136][137] and one sociologist found that the Manual had been read by over 55% of his data sample of US Vietnam War emigrants either before or after they arrived in Canada.[138] In addition to the counseling groups (and at least formally separate from them) was a Toronto-based political organization, the Union of American Exiles, better known as "Amex."[139][140] It sought to speak for American draft evaders and deserters in Canada. For example, it lobbied and campaigned for universal, unconditional amnesty, and hosted an international conference in 1974 opposing anything short of that.[141]

Those who went abroad faced imprisonment or forced military service if they returned home. In September 1974, President Gerald Ford offered an amnesty program for draft dodgers that required them to work in alternative service occupations for periods of six to 24 months.[142] In 1977, one day after his inauguration, President Jimmy Carter fulfilled a campaign promise by offering pardons to anyone who had evaded the draft and requested one. It antagonized critics on both sides, with the right complaining that those pardoned paid no penalty and the left complaining that requesting a pardon required the admission of a crime.[143]

 
Vancouver city councillor Jim Green was one of several draft evaders who became prominent in Canada.
 
Gay rights advocate Michael Hendricks (right) is another draft evader who affected Canadian life.

It remains a matter of debate whether emigration to Canada and elsewhere during the Vietnam War was an effective, or even a genuine, war resistance strategy. Scholar Michael Foley argues that it was not only relatively ineffective, but that it served to siphon off disaffected young Americans from the larger struggle.[28] Activists Rennie Davis and Tom Hayden reportedly held similar views.[144] By contrast, authors John Hagan and Roger N. Williams recognize the American emigrants as "war resisters" in the subtitles of their books about the emigrants,[145][146] and Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada author Mark Satin contended that public awareness of tens of thousands of young Americans leaving for Canada would[147][148] – and eventually did[149][150] – help end the war.

Some draft evaders returned to the U.S. from Canada after the 1977 pardon, but according to sociologist John Hagan, about half of them stayed on.[151] This young and mostly educated population expanded Canada's arts and academic scenes, and helped push Canadian politics further to the left, though some Canadians, including some principled nationalists, found their presence or impact troubling.[152] American draft evaders who left for Canada and became prominent there include author William Gibson, politician Jim Green, gay rights advocate Michael Hendricks, attorney Jeffry House, author Keith Maillard, playwright John Murrell, television personality Eric Nagler, film critic Jay Scott, and musician Jesse Winchester. Other draft evaders from the Vietnam era remain in Sweden and elsewhere.[153][154]

Two academic literary critics have written at length about autobiographical novels by draft evaders who went to Canada – Rachel Adams in the Yale Journal of Criticism[7] and Robert McGill in a book from McGill-Queen's University Press.[155] Both critics discuss Morton Redner's Getting Out (1971) and Mark Satin's Confessions of a Young Exile (1976), and Adams also discusses Allen Morgan's Dropping Out in 3/4 Time (1972) and Daniel Peters's Border Crossing (1978). All these books portray their protagonists' views, motives, activities, and relationships in detail.[7][155] Adams says they contain some surprises:

It is to be expected that the draft dodgers denounce the state as an oppressive bureaucracy, using the vernacular of the time to rail against "the machine" and "the system." What is more surprising is their general resistance to mass movements, a sentiment that contradicts the association of the draft dodger with sixties protest found in more recent work by [Scott] Turow or [Mordecai] Richler. In contrast to stereotypes, the draft dodger in these narratives is neither an unthinking follower of movement ideology nor a radical who attempts to convert others to his cause. ... [Another surprise is that the dodgers] have little interest in romantic love. Their libidinal hyperactivity accords with [Herbert] Marcuse's belief in the liberatory power of eros. They are far less worried about whether particular relationships will survive the flight to Canada than about the gratification of their immediate sexual urges.[156]

Later memoirs by Vietnam-era draft evaders who went to Canada include Donald Simons's I Refuse (1992),[157][158] George Fetherling's Travels by Night (1994),[159][160] and Mark Frutkin's Erratic North (2008).[161][162]

Prominent people arguably manipulating the system edit

For decades after the Vietnam War ended, prominent Americans were being accused of having manipulated the draft system to their advantage.

According to a column by E. J. Dionne in The Washington Post, by 2006 politicians whom opponents had accused of improperly avoiding the draft included George W. Bush, Dick Cheney, and Bill Clinton.[163]

 
Ted Nugent reportedly took extreme measures to avoid the draft.[164]

In a 1970s High Times article, American singer-songwriter Ted Nugent stated that he took crystal meth, and urinated and defecated in his pants before his physical, in order to avoid being drafted into the Vietnam War.[164] In a 1990 interview with a large Detroit newspaper, Nugent made similar statements.[165]

Actor and comedian Chevy Chase also misled his draft board. In 1989, approximately two decades after the fact, Chase revealed on a television talk show that he avoided the Vietnam War by making several false claims to his draft board, including that he harbored homosexual tendencies. He added he was "not very proud" of having done that.[166] Several politically charged books subsequently discussed Chase's behavior.[167][168]

Radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh reportedly[clarify] avoided the Vietnam draft because of anal cysts. In a 2011 book critical of Limbaugh, journalist John K. Wilson accused Limbaugh making "hyperbolic attacks on foreign policy".[169]

Former Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney's deferment has been questioned. During the Vietnam War, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) – Romney's church – became embroiled in controversy for deferring large numbers of its young members."[clarify][170] The LDS Church eventually agreed to cap the number of missionary deferments it sought for members in any one region.[171] After Romney dropped out of Stanford University and was about to lose his student deferment, he decided to become a missionary; and the LDS Church in his home state of Michigan chose to give him one of that state's missionary deferments.[172] In a Salon article from 2007, journalist Joe Conason noted that Romney's father had been governor of Michigan at the time.[172]

Attention has also been paid to independent Senator Bernie Sanders's failure to serve. In an article in The Atlantic, it was reported that, after graduating from the University of Chicago in 1964, and moving back to New York City, the future candidate for the Democratic Presidential nomination applied for conscientious objector status – even though as Sanders acknowledged to the reporter, he was not religious.[173] (Sanders was opposed to the Vietnam War.[174] At the time, however, CO status was granted entirely on the basis of religious opposition to all war.[173]) Sanders's CO status was denied. Nevertheless, a "lengthy series of hearings, an FBI investigation and numerous postponements and delays" took him to age 26 at which point he was no longer eligible for the draft.[173] In a 2015 book critical of Sanders, journalist Harry Jaffe revisited that portion of the Atlantic article, emphasizing that by the time Sanders's "numerous hearings" had run their course he was "too old to be drafted".[175]

Donald Trump, who served as President of the United States from 2017 to 2021, graduated from college in the spring of 1968, and became eligible for military service. Trump however, due to a personal friend of his father's, a medical doctor, was granted a diagnosis of bone spurs in his heels. The diagnosis allowed Trump to receive a medical deferment.[176]

Pardons edit

In 1977, President Jimmy Carter issued a pardon giving unconditional amnesty to Vietnam war draft resisters.[177]

Larger issues edit

"[T]he aggregation of thousands upon thousands of ... 'petty' acts of resistance [can] have dramatic economic and political effects. ... Poaching and squatting on a large scale can restructure the control of property. Peasant tax evasion on a large scale has brought about crises of appropriation that threaten the state. Massive desertion by serf or peasant conscripts has helped bring down more than one ancient regime. Under the appropriate conditions, the accumulation of petty acts can, rather like snowflakes on a steep mountainside, set off an avalanche".

— Political scientist James C. Scott, 1990.[178]

The phenomenon of draft evasion has raised several major issues among scholars and others.

Effectiveness edit

One issue is the effectiveness of the various kinds of draft evasion practices with regard to ending a military draft or stopping a war. Historian Michael S. Foley sees many draft evasion practices as merely personally beneficial.[28] In his view, only public anti-draft activity, consciously and collectively engaged in, is relevant to stopping a draft or a war.[28] By contrast, sociologist Todd Gitlin is more generous in his assessment of the effectiveness of the entire gamut of draft evasion practices.[16] Political scientist James C. Scott, although speaking more theoretically, makes a similar point, arguing that the accumulation of thousands upon thousands of "petty" and obscure acts of private resistance can trigger political change.[178]

Social class edit

 
Harvard graduate James Fallows wrote about the shame he felt as a draft evader.

Another issue is how best to understand young people's responses to a military call-up. According to historian Charles DeBenedetti, some Vietnam War opponents chose to evaluate people's responses to the war largely in terms of their willingness to take personal responsibility to resist evil, a standard prompted by the Nuremberg doctrine.[179] The Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada urged its readers to make their draft decision with Nuremberg in mind.[180] By contrast, prominent journalist James Fallows is convinced that social class (rather than conscience or political conviction) was the dominant factor in determining who would fight in the war and who would evade their obligation to do so.[14] Fallows writes of the shame he felt – and continued to feel – after he realized that his successful attempt at draft evasion (he brought his body weight below the minimum, and lied about his mental health), an attempt he prepared for with the help of sophisticated draft counselors and classmates at Harvard, meant that working-class kids from Boston would be going to Vietnam in his stead.[14] He referred to this outcome as a matter of class discrimination and passionately argued against it.[181] (It should be added that Fallows indicates that he might have felt differently about his behavior had he chosen public draft resistance, jail, or exile.[182])

Historian Stanley Karnow has noted that, during the Vietnam War, student deferments themselves helped preserve class privilege: "[President Lyndon] Johnson generously deferred U.S. college students from the draft to avoid alienating the American middle class".[11]

Democracy edit

Historian Howard Zinn and political activist Tom Hayden saw at least some kinds of draft evasion as a positive expression of democracy.[183][184] By contrast, historian and classical studies scholar Mathew R. Christ says that, in ancient democratic Athens, where draft evasion was ongoing,[4] many of the popular tragic playwrights were deeply concerned about the corrosive effects of draft evasion on democracy and community.[185] According to Christ, while many of these playwrights were sensitive to the moral dilemmas of war and the imperfections of Athenian democracy,[185] most touted "the ethical imperative that a man should support his friends and community. In serving the community, the individual does ... what is right and honorable".[186]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ a b Conscientious objector (CO) status does enable a recipient to avoid military service. However, COs who do not choose to perform non-combatant military service are generally required by their governments to perform civilian alternative service in the public or private sectors – typically conservation, health, or cultural work.[18]

References edit

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  85. ^ Chambers, John Whiteclay II (1987). To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-905820-6.
  86. ^ a b Virden, Jenel (2008). America and the Wars of the Twentieth Century. Palgrave Macmillan, p. 35. ISBN 978-0-333-72661-7.
  87. ^ Author unspecified (10 September 1918). "Take Slackers Into Army; Many at Camp Dix Welcome Induction Into Military Service". The New York Times, p. 6. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
  88. ^ Capozzola, Christopher (2008). Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 43–53. ISBN 978-0-19-533549-1.
  89. ^ a b Keene, Jennifer D. (2006). World War I. Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 37. ISBN 978-0-313-33181-7/
  90. ^ Ross, William G. (2017). World War I and the American Constitution. Cambridge University Press, p. 28. ISBN 978-1-107-09464-2.
  91. ^ Kazin, Michael (2017). War Against War: The American Fight for Peace, 1914–1918. Simon & Schuster, p. 209. ISBN 978-1-4767-0590-3.
  92. ^ a b c Wittmann (2016), cited above, p. 116.
  93. ^ Frazer, Heather T.; O'Sullivan, John (1996). We Have Just Begun to Not Fight: An Oral History of Conscientious Objectors in the Civilian Public Service During World War II. New York: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8057-9134-1.
  94. ^ Rothenberg, Leslie S. (1968). The Draft and You: A Handbook on the Selective Service System. New York: Anchor Books / Doubleday, p. 221. No ISBN.
  95. ^ Maraniss, David (2003). They Marched Into Sunlight: War and Peace, Vietnam and America, October 1967. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-6104-3/
  96. ^ a b c d e f g Cortright, David (2008). Peace: A History of Movements and Ideas. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 164–165. ISBN 978-0-521-67000-5.
  97. ^ Cortright (2005), cited above, p. 164.
  98. ^ Cortright (2005), cited above, p. 165 (quoting task force chair Martin Anderson).
  99. ^ a b Baskir and Strauss (1978), cited above, p. 169.
  100. ^ Baskir and Strauss (1987), cited above.
  101. ^ a b Baskir and Strauss, cited above, p. 54.
  102. ^ Baskir and Strauss, cited above, p. 14.
  103. ^ a b Baskir and Strauss, cited above, p. 51
  104. ^ Ochs, Phil (1965). "Draft Dodger Rag". Lyrics. Genius website. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
  105. ^ Guthrie, Arlo (1967). "Alice's Restaurant Massacre". Lyrics. Genius website. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
  106. ^ Kupferberg, Tuli; Bashlow, Robert (1968). 1001 Ways to Beat the Draft. New York: Oliver Layton Press. Originally New York: Grove Press, 1967. The book focuses on the United States in the 1960s. Neither edition has an ISBN.
  107. ^ Feiffer, Jules (1989). The Collected Works, Volume II: Munro. Seattle: Fantagraphics Books. ISBN 978-1-56097-001-9.
  108. ^ Satin, Mark (2017, orig. 1968). Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada. Toronto: House of Anansi Press "A List" reprint ed., Chap. 24 (listing the names ad addresses of 100 U.S. anti-draft groups from 38 states as of January 1968). ISBN 978-1-4870-0289-3.
  109. ^ Tatum, Arlo, ed. (October 1968, orig. 1952). Handbook for Conscientious Objectors. Philadelphia: Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors, 10th ed., p. 6. Booklet of 100 pages, no ISBN.
  110. ^ Gitlin (1993, orig. 1987), cited above, pp. 247–252.
  111. ^ a b c d Ashbolt, Anthony (2013). A Cultural History of the Radical Sixties in the San Francisco Bay Area. New York: Routledge, pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-1-84893-232-6.
  112. ^ a b c Foley (2003), cited above, Introduction and Chaps. 1–6.
  113. ^ Sale, Kirkpatrick (1973). SDS. New York: Vintage Books / Random House, "Resistance 1965–1968" section, pp. 311–316. ISBN 978-0-394-71965-8.
  114. ^ Carson, Clayborne (1981). In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p. 271. ISBN 978-0-674-44726-4.
  115. ^ a b Ferber, Michael; Lynd, Staughton (1971). The Resistance. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-0542-2.
  116. ^ a b c Klein, Joe (13 June 1982). "A Protégé's Story". The New York Times Book Review, p. 3. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
  117. ^ a b Friedman, Sari (1 February 2002). "Stranger than Fiction". Berkeley Daily Planet, p. 1. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
  118. ^ a b Kehler, Randy (September 2005). "Felon for Peace: The Memoir of a Vietnam-Era Draft Resister". Fellowship, vol. 71, no. 9–10, p. 27. A publication of the Fellowship of Reconciliation.
  119. ^ Joseph, Paul (April 2015). "Resister: A Story of Peace and Prison During the Vietnam War". Peace & Change, vol. 40, issue no. 2, pp. 272–276. A joint publication of the Peace History Society and the Peace and Justice Studies Association.
  120. ^ a b Polner, Murray (18 May 2014). "Review of Bruce Dancis's 'Resister'". History News Network, an electronic platform at George Washington University. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
  121. ^ Squires, Jessica (2013). Building Sanctuary: The Movement to Support Vietnam War Resisters in Canada, 1965–73. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, p. 174. ISBN 978-0-7748-2524-5.
  122. ^ Kusch (2001), cited above, p. 26.
  123. ^ Wong, Jan (1997). Red China Blues: My Long March from Mao to Now. New York: Anchor Books, pp. 154–155. ISBN 978-0-385-48232-5.
  124. ^ Kiask, Ken (2015). Draft-Dodging Odyssey. Seattle, WA: CreateSpace / Amazon. ISBN 978-1-5087-5169-4.
  125. ^ Burns, John (11 October 1967). "Deaf to the Draft". The Globe and Mail (Toronto), pp. 1, 2.
  126. ^ Stewart, Luke (December 2018). "Review Essay: Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada". Études canadiennes / Canadian Studies, issue no. 85, pp. 219–223. Published in French and English by Association Française d'Études Canadiennes, Institut des Amériques, France. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
  127. ^ Jones, Joseph (2005). Contending Statistics: The Numbers for U.S. War Resisters in Canada. Morrisville, NC: Lulu Press. ISBN 978-0-9737641-0-9.
  128. ^ McGill, Robert (2017). War Is Here: The Vietnam War and Canadian Literature. Kingston, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press, p. 272 n.12 (citing scholars John Hagan, David D. Harvey, Joseph Jones, and David S. Surrey). ISBN 978-0-7735-5159-6.
  129. ^ Knowles, Valerie (2016). Strangers at Our Gates: Canadian Immigration and Immigration Policy, 1540–2015. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 4th ed., p. 214 ("Draft-Age Americans in Canada" section). ISBN 978-1-4597-3285-8.
  130. ^ Kasinsky, Renée G. (1976). Refugees from Militarism: Draft-Age Americans in Canada. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, p. 61. ISBN 978-0-87855-113-2.
  131. ^ Satin (2017, orig. 1968), cited above, pp. 120–122.
  132. ^ Keung, Nicholas (20 August 2010). "Iraq War Resisters Meet Cool Reception in Canada." Toronto Star. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  133. ^ Clausen, Oliver (21 May 1967). "Boys Without a Country". The New York Times Magazine, pp. 25 and 94–105.
  134. ^ Williams (1971), cited above, pp. 56–62.
  135. ^ Magazine or newspaper articles that touched on the effectiveness of one or more of Canada's draft counseling groups include:
    • Cowan, Edward (11 February 1968). "Expatriate Draft Evaders Prepare Manual on How to Immigrate to Canada". The New York Times, p. 7.
    • Dunford, Gary (3 February 1968). "Toronto's Anti-Draft Office Jammed". Toronto Star, p. 25.
    • Johnson, Olive Skene (August 1967). "Draft-Age Dilemma". McCall's, pp. 34, 150.
    • Rosenthal, Harry F. (2 June 1968). "Canada Increasingly Draft Dodgers' Haven". Los Angeles Times, p. H9.
    • Schreiber, Jan (January 1968). "Canada's Haven for Draft Dodgers". The Progressive, pp. 34–36.
    • Wakefield, Dan (March 1968). "Supernation at Peace and War". The Atlantic, pp. 42–45.
  136. ^ Adams, James (20 October 2007). "'The Big Guys Keep Being Surprised by Us.'" The Globe and Mail (Toronto), p. R6 (statting that "close to 100,000" had been sold).
  137. ^ MacSkimming, Roy (26 August 2017). "Review: Mark Satin's Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada Is Just as Timely as Ever". The Globe and Mail, p. R12 (stating that 65,000 had been sold by Canadian publishers and another 30,000 had been reproduced in whole or in part by U.S. anti-war entities). Online text dated 25 August 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
  138. ^ Hagan, John (2001). Northern Passage: American Vietnam War Resisters in Canada. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 77–78. ISBN 978-0-674-00471-9.
  139. ^ Hagan (2001), pp. 80–81.
  140. ^ Williams (1971), pp. 79–83.
  141. ^ Hagan (2001), pp. 81 and 161–62.
  142. ^ Author unspecified (14 September 1974). "Flexible Amnesty Plan Is Reported Set by Ford". The New York Times, p. 9. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
  143. ^ Schulzinger, Robert D. (2006). A Time for Peace: The Legacy of the Vietnam War. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507190-0. Retrieved July 30, 2011.
  144. ^ Kasinsky (1976), cited above, p. 98.
  145. ^ Williams (1971), cited above.
  146. ^ Hagan (2001), cited above.
  147. ^ Kasinsky (1976), p. 104.
  148. ^ Satin, Mark (2017). "Afterword: Bringing Draft Dodgers to Canada in the 1960s". In Satin, Mark (2017, orig. 1968). Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada. House of Anansi Press, "A List" reprint ed, p. 129. ISBN 978-1-4870-0289-3.
  149. ^ Satin (2017), p. 135.
  150. ^ Satin, Mark (14 June 2017). "Godfrey and Me". House of Anansi Press website. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
  151. ^ Hagan, John (2001), pp. 3 and 241–42.
  152. ^ These points have been made in a series of academic journal articles by Canadian social historian David Churchill:
    • Churchill, David S. (2004). "An Ambiguous Welcome: Vietnam Draft Resistance, the Canadian State, and Cold War Containment". Histoire Sociale / Social History, vol. 37, no. 73, pp. 1–26.
    • Churchill, David S. (Fall 2010). "American Expatriates and the Building of Alternative Social Space in Toronto, 1965–1977". Urban History Review, vol. XXXVIX, no. 1, pp. 31–44.
    • Churchill, David S. (June 2012). "Draft Resistance, Lefr Nationalism, and the Politics of Anti-Imperialism". Canadian Historical Review, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 227–260.
  153. ^ Baskir and Strauss (1978), p. 201.
  154. ^ Hagan (2001), cited above, p. 186 (quoting Baskir and Strauss).
  155. ^ a b McGill (2017), cited above, pp. 172–181 ("The Alternative America in Draft-Dodger Novels" sub-chapter).
  156. ^ Adams (Fall 2005), p. 419.
  157. ^ Beelaert, Amy M. (November 1993). "Voices of Our Times: I Refuse: Memories of a Vietnam War Objector". The English Journal, vol. 82, no. 7, p. 84.
  158. ^ Peters, Pamela J. (April 1992). "I Refuse: Memories of a Vietnam War Objector", Library Journal, vol. 117, no. 6, p. 129.
  159. ^ Macfarlane, David (30 April 1994). "Fetherling's Talents Take Wing". The Globe and Mail, p. C20.
  160. ^ Ware, Randall (1 May 1994). "A Grey Memoir of a Colorful Time". Ottawa Citizen, p. B3.
  161. ^ Coates, Donna (Winter 2009). "Artful Dodgers". Canadian Literature, issue no. 203, p. 147. A publication of the University of British Columbia.
  162. ^ Grady, Wayne (8 October 2008). "An Artful Dodger". The Globe and Mail, p. D4.
  163. ^ Dionne, E.J. (17 January 2006)."Murtha and the Mudslingers". The Washington Post, p. A17. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  164. ^ a b Sirius, R.U. (2009). Everybody Must Get Stoned: Rock Stars on Drugs. Kensington Publishing Corp., pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-8065-3073-4.
  165. ^ Noriyuki, Duane (15 July 1990). "Ted Nugent Grows Up?". Detroit Free Press, magazine section, pp. 6, 10."The Worst Ted Nugent Interview of All Time". Media Matters for America, online article (see under the sub-head "Nugent Says He Soiled Himself To Avoid Vietnam Among Other Bizarre Anecdotes"). Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  166. ^ O'Connor, John J. (11 January 1989). "Review / Television; Late-Night Chitchat Additions: Pat Sajak and Arsenio Hall". The New York Times, p. C-17. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
  167. ^ Kusch (2001), cited above, p. 71.
  168. ^ Gottlieb, Sherry Gershon (1991). Hell No, We Won't Go: Resisting the Draft During the Vietnam War. New York: Viking Press, p. 96. ISBN 978-0-670-83935-3.
  169. ^ Wilson, John K. (2011). The Most Dangerous Man in America: Rush Limbaugh's Assault on Reason. New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 80 ("Limbaugh at War" section). ISBN 978-0-312-61214-6.
  170. ^ Kranish, Michael; Hellman, Scott (2012). The Real Romney. New York: HarperCollins, pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-0-06-212327-5.
  171. ^ Kranish, Michael (24 June 2007). "Mormon Church Obtained Vietnam Draft Deferrals for Romney, Other Missionaries". The Boston Globe, web exclusive, now at Boston.com regional website. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
  172. ^ a b Conason, Joe (20 July 2007). "Rudy and Romney: Artful Dodgers". Salon online magazine. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
  173. ^ a b c Banks, Russell (5 October 2015). "Bernie Sanders, the Socialist Mayor". The Atlantic, online; third section, 10th paragraph. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  174. ^ Banks (5 October 2015), cited above, third section, 9th paragraph. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  175. ^ Jaffe, Harry (2015). Why Bernie Sanders Matters. Regan Arts / Phaidon Press, p. 54. This book was published in December 2015, two months before the Iowa Democratic caucuses, 2016. ISBN 978-1-68245-017-8.
  176. ^ Eder, Steve; Philipps, Dave (1 August 2016). "Donald Trump's Draft Deferments: Four for College, One for Bad Feet". The New York Times, p. A1. Print edition has a different date and headline. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
  177. ^ "Texts of Documents on the Pardon". The New York Times. January 22, 1977. Retrieved April 17, 2018.
  178. ^ a b Scott, James C. (1990). Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, p. 192. ISBN 978-0-300-05669-3.
  179. ^ DeBenedetti, Charles (1990). An American Ordeal: The Antiwar Movement of the Vietnam Era. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-0-8156-0245-3.
  180. ^ Satin (2117, orig. 1968), cited above, p. 7.
  181. ^ Fallows (1977), cited above, pp. 162, 164, 166.
  182. ^ Fallows (1977), cited above, pp. 159, 162.
  183. ^ Zinn, Howard (2005, orig. 1980). A People's History of the United States. New York: Harper Perennial "classics" ed., pp. 485–486, 605. ISBN 978-0-06-083865-2.
  184. ^ Miller, James (1994, orig. 1987). Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p. 261 (on Hayden). ISBN 978-0-674-19725-1.
  185. ^ a b Christ (2006), cited above, pp. 65–87 ("Conscription and Draft Evasion through a Tragic Lens" section).
  186. ^ Christ (2006), cited above, p. 86.

Further reading edit

  • Bernstein, Iver. The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War. Lincoln, NE: Bison Books / University of Nebraska Press. 2010.
  • Colhoun, Jack. "War Resisters in Exile: The Memoirs of Amex-Canada". Amex-Canada magazine, vol. 6, no. 2 (issue no. 47), pp. 11–78. Account of the political organization created by U.S. draft evaders in Canada. Reproduced at Vancouver Community Network website. Retrieved 29 November 2017. Article originally November–December 1977.
  • Conway, Daniel. Masculinisation, Militarisation, and the End Conscription Campaign: War Resistance in Apartheid South Africa. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press. 2012.
  • Foley, Michael S. Confronting the War Machine: Draft Resistance during the Vietnam War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 2003.
  • Gottlieb, Sherry Gershon. Hell No, We Won't Go: Resisting the Draft During the Vietnam War. New York: Viking Press. 1991.
  • Hagan, John. Northern Passage: American Vietnam War Resisters in Canada. Boston: Harvard University Press. 2001.
  • Kasinsky, Renee. Refugees from Militarism: Draft-Age Americans in Canada. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books. 1976.
  • Kohn, Stephen M. Jailed for Peace: The History of American Draft Law Violators, 1658–1985. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1987.
  • Peterson, Carl L. Avoidance and Evasion of Military Service: An American History 1626-1973. San Francisco: International Scholars Publications. 1998.
  • Satin, Mark. Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada. Toronto: House of Anansi Press, "A List" reprint edition. New introduction by Canadian historian James Laxer, new afterword by Satin ("Bringing Draft Dodgers to Canada in the 1960s: The Reality Behind the Romance"). 2017.
  • Williams, Roger Neville. The New Exiles: American War Resisters in Canada. New York: Liveright. 1970.

External links edit

  • How To Beat the Draft Board – a "tutorial" published in 2017 on Wikibooks, a project of the Wikimedia Foundation
  • Hyper Texts – provides information on the Israeli anti-draft group Shministim, mentioned above
  • National Resistance Committee – provides information to U.S. citizens who do not wish to register or otherwise cooperate with the draft. Sponsored by War Resisters League, mentioned above.
  • New Profile 2018-02-23 at the Wayback Machine – English-language website of New Profile, Israeli anti-draft group mentioned above
  • Selective Service System – official site of the government agency that registers young male U.S. citizens for the military draft
  • Vietnam War: Draft Resistance – historical site for Draft Resistance Seattle, example of the locally based U.S. anti-draft groups mentioned above
  • Vietnam War Resisters in Canada – annotated guide to texts and websites from the 1960s to the present. Compiled by scholar Joseph Jones, mentioned above.
  • War Resisters International – based in Britain. Monitors conscription and conscientious objection in nations around the world.

February 16, 2024
draft, evasion, conscription, evasion, draft, evasion, american, english, successful, attempt, elude, government, imposed, obligation, serve, military, forces, nation, sometimes, draft, evasion, involves, refusing, comply, with, military, draft, laws, nation, . Conscription evasion or draft evasion American English 1 is any successful attempt to elude a government imposed obligation to serve in the military forces of one s nation Sometimes draft evasion involves refusing to comply with the military draft laws of one s nation 2 Illegal draft evasion is said to have characterized every military conflict of the 20th and 21st centuries in which at least one party of such conflict has enforced conscription 3 Such evasion is generally considered to be a criminal offense 2 and laws against it go back thousands of years 4 There are many draft evasion practices Those that manage to adhere to or circumvent the law and those that do not involve taking a public stand are sometimes referred to as draft avoidance Draft evaders are sometimes pejoratively referred to as draft dodgers 5 although in certain contexts that term has also been used non judgmentally 6 7 or as an honorific 8 Practices that involve lawbreaking or taking a public stand are sometimes referred to as draft resistance Although draft resistance is discussed below as a form of draft evasion draft resisters and scholars of draft resistance reject the categorization of resistance as a form of evasion or avoidance Draft resisters argue that they seek to confront not evade or avoid the draft 9 Draft evasion has been a significant phenomenon in nations as different as Colombia Eritrea Canada France Russia South Korea Syria Ukraine and the United States Accounts by scholars and journalists along with memoiristic writings by draft evaders indicate that the motives and beliefs of the evaders cannot be usefully stereotyped Contents 1 Draft evasion practices 1 1 Draft avoidance 1 1 1 By adhering to the law 1 1 2 By circumventing the law 1 2 Draft resistance 1 2 1 Actions by resisters 1 2 2 Actions by supporters or resisters 2 By country 2 1 Belgium 2 2 Britain 2 3 Canada 2 3 1 World War I 2 3 2 World War II 2 4 Colombia 2 5 Eritrea 2 6 Finland 2 7 France 2 8 Israel 2 9 Russia Soviet Union 2 9 1 Invasion of Ukraine 2 10 South Korea 2 11 Syria 2 12 Tunisia 2 13 Ukraine 2 14 United States 2 14 1 Civil War 2 14 2 World War I 2 14 3 World War II 2 14 4 Korean War 2 14 5 Vietnam War 2 14 5 1 Avoidance and resistance at home 2 14 5 2 Emigration to Canada and elsewhere 2 14 5 3 Prominent people arguably manipulating the system 2 14 5 4 Pardons 3 Larger issues 3 1 Effectiveness 3 2 Social class 3 3 Democracy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External linksDraft evasion practices edit nbsp Anti draft meeting held by women in New York City 1917Young people have engaged in a wide variety of draft evasion practices around the world some of which date back thousands of years 10 4 This section aims to delineate a representative sampling of draft evasion practices and support activities as identified by scholars and journalists Examples of many of these practices and activities can be found in the section on draft evasion in the nations of the world further down this page Draft avoidance edit One type of draft avoidance consists of attempts to follow the letter and spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a legally valid draft deferment or exemption 4 3 Sometimes these deferments and exemptions are prompted by political considerations 11 Another type consists of attempts to circumvent manipulate or surreptitiously violate the substance or spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a deferment or exemption 12 13 Nearly all attempts at draft avoidance are private and unpublicized 14 15 Examples include By adhering to the law edit nbsp US Secretary of War Newton Baker drawing the first number in the World War I draft lottery 1917Claiming conscientious objector status on the basis of sincerely held religious or ethical beliefs 16 17 nb 1 Claiming a student deferment when one is in school primarily in order to study and learn 3 19 11 12 Claiming a medical or psychological problem if the purported health issue is genuine and serious 4 3 Claiming to be homosexual when one is truly so and the military excludes homosexuals 20 Claiming economic hardship if the hardship is genuine and the law recognizes such a claim 21 Holding a job in what the government considers to be an essential civilian occupation 4 3 Purchasing exemptions from military service in nations where such payments are permitted 22 Not being chosen in a draft lottery where lotteries determine the order of call to military service 14 or not being in a certain age group where age determines the order of call 4 Not being able to afford armor or other equipment in polities where conscripts were required to provide their own 4 By circumventing the law edit nbsp Tribunal for conscientious objectors in Britain during World War IIObtaining conscientious objector status by professing insincere religious or ethical beliefs 12 nb 1 Obtaining a student deferment if the student wishes to attend or remain in school largely to avoid the draft 23 Claiming a medical or psychological problem if the purported problem is feigned overstated or self inflicted 4 3 12 14 Finding a doctor who would certify a healthy draft age person as medically unfit either willingly or for pay 24 Falsely claiming to be homosexual where the military excludes homosexuals 12 Claiming economic hardship if the purported hardship is overstated 25 Deliberately failing one s military related intelligence tests 12 Becoming pregnant primarily in order to evade the draft in nations where women who are not mothers are drafted 26 Having someone exert personal influence on an officer in charge of the conscription process 4 Successfully bribing an officer in charge of the conscription process 23 24 Draft resistance edit nbsp Muhammad Ali refused induction in 1967 27 Draft evasion that involves overt lawbreaking or that communicates conscious or organized resistance to government policy is sometimes referred to as draft resistance 15 28 29 Examples include Actions by resisters edit Declining to register for the draft in nations where that is required by law 16 23 Declining to report for one s draft related physical examination or for military induction or call up in nations where these are required by law 30 6 Participating in draft card burnings or turn ins 16 31 Living underground e g living with false identification papers and working at an unreported job after being indicted for draft evasion 16 Traveling or emigrating to another country rather than submitting to induction or to trial 4 32 Going to jail rather than submitting to induction or to alternative government service 33 34 Shooting and or killing draft officers and civil authorities 35 Actions by supporters or resisters edit nbsp In 1863 anti draft riots broke out in New York City 36 Organizing or participating in a peaceful street assembly or demonstration against the draft 16 Publicly encouraging aiding or abetting draft evaders 16 Deliberately disrupting a military draft agency s processes or procedures 12 37 Destroying a military draft agency s records 16 38 39 Organizing or participating in a riot against the draft 36 40 Building an anti war movement that treats draft resistance as a vital and integral part of it 15 28 By country editDraft evasion is said to have characterized every military conflict of the 20th and 21st centuries 3 Laws against certain draft evasion practices go back at least as far as the ancient Greeks 41 Examples of draft evasion can be found in many nations over many time periods Belgium edit Nineteenth century Belgium was one of the few places where most citizens accepted the practice of legally buying one s way out of the military draft sometimes referred to as the practice of purchasable military commutation 22 Even so some Belgian politicians denounced it as a system that appeared to trade the money of the rich for the lives of the poor 22 Britain edit In January 1916 during World War I the British government passed a military conscription bill By July of that year 30 of draftees had failed to report for service 3 Canada edit Canada employed a military draft during World Wars I and II and some Canadians chose to evade it According to Canadian historian Jack Granatstein no single issue has divided Canadians so sharply as the military draft 42 During both World Wars political parties collapsed or were torn apart over the draft issue and ethnicity seeped into the equation with most French Canadians opposing conscription and a majority of English Canadians accepting it 42 During both wars riots and draft evasion followed the passage of the draft laws 42 World War I edit nbsp Anti conscription march in Montreal Quebec Canada May 1917Conscription had been a dividing force in Canadian politics during World War I and those divisions led to the Conscription Crisis of 1917 Canadians objected to conscription for diverse reasons some thought it unnecessary some did not identify with the British and some felt it imposed unfair burdens on economically struggling segments of society 43 When the first draft class single men between 20 and 34 years of age was called up in 1917 nearly 281 000 of the approximately 404 000 men filed for exemptions 44 Throughout the war some Canadians who feared conscription left for the United States or elsewhere 45 World War II edit Canada introduced an innovative kind of draft law in 1940 with the National Resources Mobilization Act 46 While the move was not unpopular outside French Canada controversy arose because under the new law conscripts were not compelled to serve outside Canada They could choose simply to defend the country against invasion 46 By the middle of the war many Canadians not least of all conscripts committed to overseas service were referring to NRMA men pejoratively as Zombies that is as dead to life or utterly useless 47 Following costly fighting in Italy Normandy and the Scheldt overseas Canadian troops were depleted and during the Conscription Crisis of 1944 a one time levy of approximately 17 000 NRMA men was sent to fight abroad 48 Many NRMA men deserted after the levy rather than fight abroad 48 One brigade of NRMA men declared itself on strike after the levy 48 The number of men who actively sought to evade the World War II draft in Canada is not known Granatstein says the evasion was widespread 42 In addition in 1944 alone approximately 60 000 draftees were serving only as NRMA men committed to border defense but not to fighting abroad 48 Colombia edit Colombia maintains a large and well funded military often focused on counter insurgency 49 There is an obligatory military draft for all young men 50 Nevertheless according to Public Radio International two types of draft evasion are widespread in Colombia one is prevalent among the relatively well off and another is found among the poor 50 Young men from the middle to upper classes usually evade the Colombian draft 50 They do so by obtaining college or medical deferments or by paying bribes for a military ID card certifying they have served a card that is often requested by potential employers 50 Young men from poorer circumstances sometimes simply avoid showing up for the draft and attempt to function without a military ID card Besides facing limited employment prospects these men are vulnerable to being forced into service through periodic army sweeps of poor neighborhoods 50 Eritrea edit Eritrea instituted a military draft in 1995 Three years later it became open ended everyone under 50 sic can be enlisted for an indefinite period of time 26 According to The Economist release can depend on the arbitrary whim of a commander and usually takes years 26 It is illegal for Eritreans to leave the country without government permission 26 Nevertheless in the mid 2010s around 2 000 Eritreans were leaving every month primarily to avoid the draft according to The Economist 26 Human rights groups and the United Nations have also claimed that Eritrea s draft policies are fueling the migration 51 Most leave for Europe or neighboring countries in 2015 Eritreans were the fourth largest group illicitly crossing the Mediterranean for Europe 51 Mothers are usually excused from the Eritrean draft The Economist says that as a result pregnancies among single women once a taboo in Eritrea have increased 26 A 2018 article in Bloomberg News reported that Eritrea was considering altering some of its military draft policies 51 Finland edit During World War II there was no legal way to avoid the draft and failure to obey was treated as insubordination or desertion punished by execution or jail Draft evaders were forced to escape to the forests and live there as outlaws in a practice that was facetiously called serving in the kapykaarti Pine Cone Guard or metsakaarti Forest Guard 52 Approximately 1 500 men failed to show up for the draft at the start of the Continuation War 1941 1944 pitting Finland against the Soviet Union and 32 186 cases of desertion were handled by the courts 53 There were numerous reasons for draft evasion and desertion during this period fear or war weariness 54 objection to the war as an offensive war 52 ideological objections or outright support for Communism 54 Finnish Communists were considered dangerous and could not serve and were subject to protective custody in practice detention in a prison for the course of the war because earlier attempts to conscript them had ended in disaster one battalion called Parmin pataljoona assembled from detained Communists suffered a large scale defection to the Soviet side The kapykaarti forest dwelling Pine Cone Guard mentioned above was a diverse group including draft evaders deserters Communists and Soviet desants military skydivers 55 They lived in small groups sometimes even in military style dugouts constructed from logs 52 55 and often maintained a rotation to guard their camps They received support from sympathizers who could buy from the black market failing that they stole provisions to feed themselves 56 The Finnish Army and police actively searched for them and if discovered a firefight often ensued 57 The Finnish Communist Party was able to operate among draft evaders 55 58 Sixty three death sentences were handed out to deserters however many of them were killed in military or police raids on their camps Deserters captured near front lines would often be simply returned to the lines but as the military situation deteriorated towards the end of the war punishments were harsher 61 of the death sentences given were in 1944 mostly in June and July during the Vyborg Petrozavodsk Offensive where Finnish forces were forced to retreat 59 At the conclusion of the war the Allied Control Commission immediately demanded an amnesty for draft evaders and they were not further punished 56 As of 2020 deliberate draft evasion is a rare phenomenon since absence from a drafting event in most cases leads to an immediate search warrant Evaders are taken by police officers to the draft board or to the regional military office 60 France edit In France the right of all draftees to purchase military exemption introduced after the French Revolution was abolished in 1870 22 One scholar refers to the permissible buy out as a bastard form of equality that bore traces of the Ancien Regime 61 Israel edit Main article Refusal to serve in the IDF nbsp Rock star Aviv Geffen is one of several Israeli entertainers who have encouraged draft evasion 62 There has always been a military draft in Israel 63 64 It is universal for all non Arab Israeli citizens men and women alike and can legally be evaded only on physical or psychological grounds or by strictly Orthodox Jews 63 64 The draft has become part of the fabric of Israeli society according to Le Monde senior editor Sylvain Cypel Israel is a place where military service is seen not just as a duty but a certificate of entry into active life 65 Yet by the middle of the decade of the 2000s draft evasion including outright draft refusal and desertion had reached all time highs 62 Fully 5 of young men and 3 of young women were supposedly failing their pre military psychological tests both all time highs 62 Some popular entertainers including rock star Aviv Geffen grand nephew of military hero Moshe Dayan have been encouraging draft evasion Geffen publicly said he would commit suicide if he were taken by the military 62 In 2007 the Israeli government initiated what some called a shaming campaign banning young entertainers from holding concerts and making television appearances if they failed to fulfill their military requirement 62 By 2008 over 3 000 high school students belonged to Shministim Hebrew for twelfth graders a group of young people claiming to be conscientiously opposed to military service 62 American actor Ed Asner wrote a column supporting the group 66 Another group New Profile was started by Israeli peace activists to encourage draft refusal 62 University of Manchester sociologist Yulia Zemilinskaya has interviewed members of New Profile and Shministim along with members of two groups of Israeli soldiers and reservists who have expressed an unwillingness to engage in missions they disapprove of Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse 67 Despite commonalities she found a difference between the draft refusers and the military selective refusers The analysis of these interviews demonstrated that in their appeal to the Israeli public members of Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse utilized symbolic meanings and codes derived from dominant militarist and nationalist discourses In contrast draft resisters members of New Profile and Shministim refusing to manipulate nationalistic and militaristic codes voice a much more radical and comprehensive critique of the state s war making plans Invoking feminist anti militarist and pacifist ideologies they openly challenge and criticize dominant militarist and Zionist discourses While the majority of members of Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse choose selective refusal negotiating conditions of their reserve duty the anti militarist pacifist and feminist ideological stance of members of New Profile and Shministim leads them to absolutist refusal 68 Russia Soviet Union edit nbsp Draft registration office near Moscow In the mid 2010s half of all eligible Russians called up were reported to be evading service 23 According to London based journalist Elisabeth Braw writing in Foreign Affairs draft evasion was endemic in the Soviet Union during the Soviet Afghan War which ended with Soviet defeat in 1989 23 A declassified Central Intelligence Agency report revealed that the Soviet elite routinely bribed its sons way out of deployment to Afghanistan or out of military service altogether 23 In Russia all men aged 18 through 27 are subject to the military draft continuing the Soviet practice 23 According to a report from the European Parliamentary Research Service an organ of the Secretariat of the European Parliament in the mid 2010s fully half of the 150 000 young men called up each year were thought to be evading the draft 23 During Dmitry Medvedev s presidency the service duration was reduced from two years to one 69 Invasion of Ukraine edit In September 2022 during the Russo Ukrainian War over 600 000 mobilization eligible citizens left the country to avoid the draft 70 71 Reportedly Georgia Kazakhstan and Mongolia became primary visa free destinations for Russians seeking to avoid President Vladimir Putin s mobilization order 72 73 South Korea edit South Korea maintains mandatory military service 74 75 According to the Korea JoongAng Daily since the early 2000s the country has been rocked by scandals involving celebrities who try to use their fame to evade the draft or receive special treatment from the military 74 South Koreans are reportedly so hostile to draft evasion that one South Korean commentator said that it is almost like suicide for celebrities to engage in it 76 Yoo Seung jun was one of the biggest stars on the South Korean rock scene until 2002 when he chose to evade the draft and become a U S citizen South Korea subsequently deported him and banned him for life 74 Some South Korean draft evaders have been sentenced to prison In 2014 The Christian Science Monitor ran a headline claiming that South Korea had the most draft dodgers in prison 77 The article by veteran correspondent Donald Kirk explained that South Korea s government did not allow for conscientious objection to war as a result 669 mostly religiously motivated South Koreans were said to be in jail for draft evasion in 2013 Only 723 draft evaders were said to be in jail worldwide at that time 78 According to the South China Morning Post Hong Kong in June 2013 Lee Yeda became the first South Korean to be granted asylum specifically because he evaded the South Korean draft His asylum claim was granted by France In South Korea it is difficult to find a job for anyone who has not completed their national service Lee was reported to have said Refusing to serve means that in society your life is terminated 75 Syria edit nbsp Aleppo during the Syrian Civil War By 2016 70 000 draft evaders had fled Syria 79 while others remained undetected inside it 80 Syria requires men over 18 to serve in the army for two years except for college graduates who need serve only 18 months Draft evasion carries stiff punishments including fines and years of imprisonment 80 After the Syrian Civil War broke out in 2011 many draft age men began fleeing the country sometimes paying thousands of dollars to be smuggled out Others paid to have their names expunged from the draft rolls 80 Meanwhile the government erected billboards exhorting young people to join the army and set up road checkpoints to capture draft evaders 80 By 2016 an estimated 70 000 draft evaders had left Syria 79 and others remained undetected within its borders 80 Observers have identified several motives among the Syrian draft evaders One is fear of dying in that country s civil war 80 79 Others include obeying parental wishes and disgust with the government of Bashar al Assad 79 Thomas Spijkerboer Wikidata a professor of migration law at VU University Amsterdam has argued that Syrian draft evaders motivated by a refusal to participate in violations of international law should be given refugee status by other nations 79 In October 2018 the Syrian government announced an amnesty for draft evaders However an officer with Syria s Reconciliation Ministry told the Los Angeles Times that while punishment would be canceled military service would still be required Now the war is practically at its end which means enlisting is no longer such a fearful situation he said We expect we ll have very large numbers taking advantage of the amnesty 80 Tunisia edit Tunisia has had a draft since gaining its independence in 1956 Most males are required to submit documents to local officials at age 18 and to begin service two years later 81 However according to the Lebanon based Carnegie Middle East Center the Tunisian draft has long been poorly enforced and draft evasion has long been rampant 81 In order to minimize draft evasion Tunisia began allowing young men to substitute civilian service such as working on rural development projects or national service such as working as civil servants for military service 81 But that has not helped the defense minister reported that in 2017 only 506 young men turned up out of an eligibility pool of more than 31 000 81 Ukraine edit In 2015 responding to perceived threats from pro Russian rebels in eastern Ukraine the Ukrainian military instituted a compulsory draft for males between 20 and 27 years of age However according to independent journalist Alec Luhn writing in Foreign Policy magazine a huge number of Ukrainians refused to serve Luhn gives three reasons for this One was fear of death Another was that some young Ukrainians were opposed to war in general A third was that some were unwilling to take up arms against those whom they perceived to be their countrymen 6 The Ukrainian military itself has stated that during a partial call up in 2014 over 85 000 men failed to report to their draft offices and nearly 10 000 of those were eventually declared to be illegal draft evaders 6 United States edit The United States has employed a draft several times usually during war but also during the Cold War Each time the draft has been met with at least some resistance In Sketches of America 1818 British author Henry Bradshaw Fearon who visited the young United States on a fact finding mission to inform Britons considering emigration described the New York Guard although he did not name it as he found it in New York City in August 1817 Every male inhabitant can be called out from the age of 18 to 45 on actual military duty During a state of peace there are seven musters annually the fine for non attendance is each time five dollars Commanding officers have discretionary power to receive substitutes An instance of their easiness to be pleased was related to me by Mr a tradesman of this city He never attends the muster but to avoid the fine sends some of his men who answer to his name the same man is not invariably his deputy on parade in this Mr suits his own convenience sometimes the collecting clerk sometimes one of the brewers at others a drayman and to finish this military pantomime a firelock is often dispensed with for the more convenient wartime weapon a cudgel Courts martial have the power of mitigating the fine on the assignment of a satisfactory cause of absence and in cases of poverty Upon legal exemptions I cannot convey certain information During a period of three months in the late war martial law existed and no substitutes were received Aliens were not called out 82 Civil War edit See also Confederate Conscription Acts 1862 1864 nbsp Parody of Confederate troops forcing a pro Union Southerner left foreground and other reluctant Southerners to comply with the Confederate draft c 1862 83 Both the Union the North and the Confederacy the South instituted drafts during the American Civil War and both drafts were often evaded 5 In the North evaders were most numerous among poor Irish immigrants In the South evaders were most numerous in hill country and in certain other parts of Texas Louisiana and Georgia 5 Resistance to the draft was sometimes violent In the North nearly 100 draft enrollment officers were injured in attacks 5 Anti draft riots in New York City in 1863 lasted several days and resulted in up to 120 deaths and 2 000 injuries 5 According to historian David Williams by 1864 the Southern draft had become virtually unenforceable 84 Some believe that draft evasion in the South where manpower was scarcer than in the North contributed to the Confederate defeat 5 World War I edit The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system by allowing exemptions for dependency essential occupations and religious scruples and by prohibiting all forms of bounties substitutions or purchase of exemptions In 1917 and 1918 some 24 million men were registered and nearly 3 million inducted into the military services with little of the overt resistance that characterized the Civil War 85 nbsp Eugene V Debs spoke out against the draft during World War I 86 In the United States during World War I the word slacker was commonly used to describe someone who was not participating in the war effort especially someone who avoided military service an equivalent of the later term draft dodger Attempts to track down such evaders were called slacker raids 87 88 Under the Espionage Act of 1917 activists including Eugene V Debs and Emma Goldman were arrested for speaking out against the draft 86 Despite such circumstances draft evasion was substantial According to one scholar nearly 11 percent of the draft eligible population refused to register or to report for induction 89 according to another 12 percent of draftees either failed to report to their training camps or deserted from them 3 A significant amount of draft evasion took place in the South in part because many impoverished Southerners lacked documentation 89 and in part because many Southerners recalled the horrible carnage of the Civil War 90 In 2017 historian Michael Kazin concluded that a greater percentage of American men evaded the draft during World War I than during the Vietnam War 91 World War II edit According to scholar Anna Wittmann about 72 000 young Americans applied for conscientious objector CO status during World War II and many of their applications were rejected 92 Some COs chose to serve as noncombatants in the military others chose jail and a third group taking a position in between chose to enter a specially organized domestic Civilian Public Service 92 93 Korean War edit The Korean War which lasted from 1950 to 1953 generated 80 000 cases of alleged draft evasion 92 Vietnam War edit Main article Draft evasion in the Vietnam War nbsp A Vietnam War era draft card Retention of the card was legally required 94 nbsp Draft card burning in New York City 1967The Vietnam War 1955 1975 was controversial in the US 95 and was accompanied by a significant amount of draft evasion among young Americans with many managing to remain in the U S by various means and some eventually leaving for Canada or elsewhere Avoidance and resistance at home edit Significant draft avoidance was taking place even before the US became heavily involved in the Vietnam War The large cohort of Baby Boomers allowed for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments especially for college and graduate students 96 According to peace studies scholar David Cortright more than half of the 27 million men eligible for the draft during the Vietnam War were deferred exempted or disqualified 96 The number of draft resisters was also significant According to Cortright Distinct from the millions who avoided the draft were the many thousands who resisted the conscription system and actively opposed the war 97 The head of US President Richard Nixon s task force on the all volunteer military reported in 1970 that the number of resisters was expanding at an alarming rate and that the government was almost powerless to apprehend and prosecute them 98 It is now known that during the Vietnam era approximately 570 000 young men were classified as draft offenders 96 and approximately 210 000 were formally accused of draft violations 99 96 however only 8 750 were convicted and only 3 250 were jailed 96 Some draft eligible men publicly burned their draft cards but the Justice Department brought charges against only 50 of whom 40 were convicted 100 As US troop strength in Vietnam increased some young men sought to evade the draft by pro actively enlisting in military forces that were unlikely to see combat in Vietnam For example conscription scholars Lawrence Baskir and William Strauss say that the Coast Guard may have served that purpose for some 101 though they also point out that Coast Guardsmen had to maintain readiness for combat in Vietnam 102 and that some Coast Guardsmen eventually served and were killed there 101 Similarly the Vietnam era National Guard was seen by some as an avenue for avoiding combat in Vietnam 103 although that too was less than foolproof about 15 000 National Guardsmen were sent to Vietnam before the war began winding down 103 nbsp Phil Ochs 1940 1976 was one of several countercultural figures to encourage draft evasion Other young men sought to evade the draft by avoiding or resisting any military commitment In this they were bolstered by certain countercultural figures Draft Dodger Rag a 1965 song by Phil Ochs employed satire to provide a how to list of available deferments ruptured spleen poor eyesight flat feet asthma and many more 104 Folksinger Arlo Guthrie lampooned the paradox of seeking a deferment by acting crazy in his song Alice s Restaurant I said I wanna kill Kill Eat dead burnt bodies and the Sergeant said You re our boy 105 The book 1001 Ways to Beat the Draft was co authored by Tuli Kupferberg a member of the band The Fugs It espoused such methods as arriving at the draft board in diapers 106 Another text pertinent to draft age men was Jules Feiffer s cartoon novella from the 1950s Munro later a short film in which a four year old boy is drafted by mistake 107 Draft counseling groups were another source of support for potential draft evaders Many such groups were active during the war Some were connected to national groups such as the American Friends Service Committee and Students for a Democratic Society others were ad hoc campus or community groups 108 Many specially trained individuals worked as counselors for such groups 109 nbsp David Harris and The Resistance helped organize Stop the Draft Week in Oakland California October 1967 110 111 Alongside the draft counseling groups a substantial draft resistance movement emerged 112 Students for a Democratic Society sought to play a major role in it 113 as did the War Resisters League 111 the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee s National Black Anti War Anti Draft Union 114 and other groups 111 Many say that the draft resistance movement was spearheaded by an organization called The Resistance 112 115 It was founded by David Harris and others in the San Francisco Bay Area in March 1967 and quickly spread nationally 111 The insignia of the organization was the Greek letter omega W the symbol for ohms the unit of electrical resistance Members of The Resistance publicly burned their draft cards or refused to register for the draft Other members deposited their cards into boxes on selected dates and then mailed them to the government They were then drafted refused to be inducted and fought their cases in the federal courts These draft resisters hoped that their public civil disobedience would help to bring the war and the draft to an end Many young men went to federal prison as part of this movement 112 115 According to Cortright the draft resistance movement was the leading edge of the anti war movement in 1967 and 1968 96 After the war some of the draft evaders who stayed in the U S wrote memoirs These included David Harris s Dreams Die Hard 1982 116 David Miller s I Didn t Know God Made Honky Tonk Communists 2001 117 Jerry Elmer s Felon for Peace 2005 118 and Bruce Dancis s Resister 2014 119 120 Harris was an anti draft organizer who went to jail for his beliefs and was briefly married to folk singer Joan Baez 116 Miller was the first Vietnam War refuser to publicly burn his draft card and later became partner to spiritual teacher Starhawk 117 Elmer refused to register for the draft and destroyed draft board files in several locations 118 and Dancis led the largest chapter of Students for a Democratic Society the one at Cornell University before being jailed for publicly shredding his draft card and returning it to his draft board 120 Harris in particular expresses serious second thoughts about aspects of the movement he was part of 116 Emigration to Canada and elsewhere edit Canadian historian Jessica Squires emphasizes that the number of U S draft evaders coming to Canada was only a fraction of those who resisted the Vietnam War 121 According to a 1978 book by former members of President Gerald Ford s Clemency Board 210 000 Americans were accused of draft offenses and 30 000 left the country 99 More recently Cortright estimated that 60 000 to 100 000 left the US mainly for Canada or Sweden 96 Others scattered elsewhere for example historian Frank Kusch mentions Mexico 122 scholar Anna Wittmann mentions Britain 3 and journalist Jan Wong describes one draft evader who sympathized with Mao Zedong s China and found refuge there 123 Draft evader Ken Kiask spent eight years traveling continuously across the Global South before returning to the US 124 nbsp Mark Satin left director of the Toronto Anti Draft Programme 125 counseling American draft evaders 1967 nbsp Tattered copy of the Manual for Draft Age Immigrants to Canada 1968 126 atop Anti Draft Programme stationeryThe number of Vietnam era draft evaders leaving for Canada is hotly contested an entire book by scholar Joseph Jones has been written on that subject 127 In 2017 University of Toronto professor Robert McGill cited estimates by four scholars including Jones ranging from a floor of 30 000 to a ceiling of 100 000 depending in part on who is being counted as a draft evader 128 Though the presence of U S draft evaders and deserters in Canada was initially controversial the Canadian government eventually chose to welcome them 129 Draft evasion was not a criminal offense under Canadian law 130 The issue of deserters was more complex Desertion from the US military was not on the list of crimes for which a person could be extradited under the extradition treaty between Canada and the US 131 however desertion was a crime in Canada and the Canadian military strongly opposed condoning it In the end the Canadian government maintained the right to prosecute these deserters but in practice left them alone and instructed border guards not to ask questions relating to the issue 132 In Canada many American Vietnam War evaders received pre emigration counseling and post emigration assistance from locally based groups 133 Typically these consisted of American emigrants and Canadian supporters The largest were the Montreal Council to Aid War Resisters the Toronto Anti Draft Programme and the Vancouver Committee to Aid American War Objectors 134 Journalists often noted their effectiveness 135 The Manual for Draft Age Immigrants to Canada published jointly by the Toronto Anti Draft Programme and the House of Anansi Press sold nearly 100 000 copies 136 137 and one sociologist found that the Manual had been read by over 55 of his data sample of US Vietnam War emigrants either before or after they arrived in Canada 138 In addition to the counseling groups and at least formally separate from them was a Toronto based political organization the Union of American Exiles better known as Amex 139 140 It sought to speak for American draft evaders and deserters in Canada For example it lobbied and campaigned for universal unconditional amnesty and hosted an international conference in 1974 opposing anything short of that 141 Those who went abroad faced imprisonment or forced military service if they returned home In September 1974 President Gerald Ford offered an amnesty program for draft dodgers that required them to work in alternative service occupations for periods of six to 24 months 142 In 1977 one day after his inauguration President Jimmy Carter fulfilled a campaign promise by offering pardons to anyone who had evaded the draft and requested one It antagonized critics on both sides with the right complaining that those pardoned paid no penalty and the left complaining that requesting a pardon required the admission of a crime 143 nbsp Vancouver city councillor Jim Green was one of several draft evaders who became prominent in Canada nbsp Gay rights advocate Michael Hendricks right is another draft evader who affected Canadian life It remains a matter of debate whether emigration to Canada and elsewhere during the Vietnam War was an effective or even a genuine war resistance strategy Scholar Michael Foley argues that it was not only relatively ineffective but that it served to siphon off disaffected young Americans from the larger struggle 28 Activists Rennie Davis and Tom Hayden reportedly held similar views 144 By contrast authors John Hagan and Roger N Williams recognize the American emigrants as war resisters in the subtitles of their books about the emigrants 145 146 and Manual for Draft Age Immigrants to Canada author Mark Satin contended that public awareness of tens of thousands of young Americans leaving for Canada would 147 148 and eventually did 149 150 help end the war Some draft evaders returned to the U S from Canada after the 1977 pardon but according to sociologist John Hagan about half of them stayed on 151 This young and mostly educated population expanded Canada s arts and academic scenes and helped push Canadian politics further to the left though some Canadians including some principled nationalists found their presence or impact troubling 152 American draft evaders who left for Canada and became prominent there include author William Gibson politician Jim Green gay rights advocate Michael Hendricks attorney Jeffry House author Keith Maillard playwright John Murrell television personality Eric Nagler film critic Jay Scott and musician Jesse Winchester Other draft evaders from the Vietnam era remain in Sweden and elsewhere 153 154 Two academic literary critics have written at length about autobiographical novels by draft evaders who went to Canada Rachel Adams in the Yale Journal of Criticism 7 and Robert McGill in a book from McGill Queen s University Press 155 Both critics discuss Morton Redner s Getting Out 1971 and Mark Satin s Confessions of a Young Exile 1976 and Adams also discusses Allen Morgan s Dropping Out in 3 4 Time 1972 and Daniel Peters s Border Crossing 1978 All these books portray their protagonists views motives activities and relationships in detail 7 155 Adams says they contain some surprises It is to be expected that the draft dodgers denounce the state as an oppressive bureaucracy using the vernacular of the time to rail against the machine and the system What is more surprising is their general resistance to mass movements a sentiment that contradicts the association of the draft dodger with sixties protest found in more recent work by Scott Turow or Mordecai Richler In contrast to stereotypes the draft dodger in these narratives is neither an unthinking follower of movement ideology nor a radical who attempts to convert others to his cause Another surprise is that the dodgers have little interest in romantic love Their libidinal hyperactivity accords with Herbert Marcuse s belief in the liberatory power of eros They are far less worried about whether particular relationships will survive the flight to Canada than about the gratification of their immediate sexual urges 156 Later memoirs by Vietnam era draft evaders who went to Canada include Donald Simons s I Refuse 1992 157 158 George Fetherling s Travels by Night 1994 159 160 and Mark Frutkin s Erratic North 2008 161 162 Prominent people arguably manipulating the system edit For decades after the Vietnam War ended prominent Americans were being accused of having manipulated the draft system to their advantage According to a column by E J Dionne in The Washington Post by 2006 politicians whom opponents had accused of improperly avoiding the draft included George W Bush Dick Cheney and Bill Clinton 163 nbsp Ted Nugent reportedly took extreme measures to avoid the draft 164 In a 1970s High Times article American singer songwriter Ted Nugent stated that he took crystal meth and urinated and defecated in his pants before his physical in order to avoid being drafted into the Vietnam War 164 In a 1990 interview with a large Detroit newspaper Nugent made similar statements 165 Actor and comedian Chevy Chase also misled his draft board In 1989 approximately two decades after the fact Chase revealed on a television talk show that he avoided the Vietnam War by making several false claims to his draft board including that he harbored homosexual tendencies He added he was not very proud of having done that 166 Several politically charged books subsequently discussed Chase s behavior 167 168 Radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh reportedly clarify avoided the Vietnam draft because of anal cysts In a 2011 book critical of Limbaugh journalist John K Wilson accused Limbaugh making hyperbolic attacks on foreign policy 169 Former Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney s deferment has been questioned During the Vietnam War The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints LDS Church Romney s church became embroiled in controversy for deferring large numbers of its young members clarify 170 The LDS Church eventually agreed to cap the number of missionary deferments it sought for members in any one region 171 After Romney dropped out of Stanford University and was about to lose his student deferment he decided to become a missionary and the LDS Church in his home state of Michigan chose to give him one of that state s missionary deferments 172 In a Salon article from 2007 journalist Joe Conason noted that Romney s father had been governor of Michigan at the time 172 Attention has also been paid to independent Senator Bernie Sanders s failure to serve In an article in The Atlantic it was reported that after graduating from the University of Chicago in 1964 and moving back to New York City the future candidate for the Democratic Presidential nomination applied for conscientious objector status even though as Sanders acknowledged to the reporter he was not religious 173 Sanders was opposed to the Vietnam War 174 At the time however CO status was granted entirely on the basis of religious opposition to all war 173 Sanders s CO status was denied Nevertheless a lengthy series of hearings an FBI investigation and numerous postponements and delays took him to age 26 at which point he was no longer eligible for the draft 173 In a 2015 book critical of Sanders journalist Harry Jaffe revisited that portion of the Atlantic article emphasizing that by the time Sanders s numerous hearings had run their course he was too old to be drafted 175 Donald Trump who served as President of the United States from 2017 to 2021 graduated from college in the spring of 1968 and became eligible for military service Trump however due to a personal friend of his father s a medical doctor was granted a diagnosis of bone spurs in his heels The diagnosis allowed Trump to receive a medical deferment 176 Pardons edit In 1977 President Jimmy Carter issued a pardon giving unconditional amnesty to Vietnam war draft resisters 177 Larger issues edit T he aggregation of thousands upon thousands of petty acts of resistance can have dramatic economic and political effects Poaching and squatting on a large scale can restructure the control of property Peasant tax evasion on a large scale has brought about crises of appropriation that threaten the state Massive desertion by serf or peasant conscripts has helped bring down more than one ancient regime Under the appropriate conditions the accumulation of petty acts can rather like snowflakes on a steep mountainside set off an avalanche Political scientist James C Scott 1990 178 The phenomenon of draft evasion has raised several major issues among scholars and others Effectiveness edit One issue is the effectiveness of the various kinds of draft evasion practices with regard to ending a military draft or stopping a war Historian Michael S Foley sees many draft evasion practices as merely personally beneficial 28 In his view only public anti draft activity consciously and collectively engaged in is relevant to stopping a draft or a war 28 By contrast sociologist Todd Gitlin is more generous in his assessment of the effectiveness of the entire gamut of draft evasion practices 16 Political scientist James C Scott although speaking more theoretically makes a similar point arguing that the accumulation of thousands upon thousands of petty and obscure acts of private resistance can trigger political change 178 Social class edit nbsp Harvard graduate James Fallows wrote about the shame he felt as a draft evader Another issue is how best to understand young people s responses to a military call up According to historian Charles DeBenedetti some Vietnam War opponents chose to evaluate people s responses to the war largely in terms of their willingness to take personal responsibility to resist evil a standard prompted by the Nuremberg doctrine 179 The Manual for Draft Age Immigrants to Canada urged its readers to make their draft decision with Nuremberg in mind 180 By contrast prominent journalist James Fallows is convinced that social class rather than conscience or political conviction was the dominant factor in determining who would fight in the war and who would evade their obligation to do so 14 Fallows writes of the shame he felt and continued to feel after he realized that his successful attempt at draft evasion he brought his body weight below the minimum and lied about his mental health an attempt he prepared for with the help of sophisticated draft counselors and classmates at Harvard meant that working class kids from Boston would be going to Vietnam in his stead 14 He referred to this outcome as a matter of class discrimination and passionately argued against it 181 It should be added that Fallows indicates that he might have felt differently about his behavior had he chosen public draft resistance jail or exile 182 Historian Stanley Karnow has noted that during the Vietnam War student deferments themselves helped preserve class privilege President Lyndon Johnson generously deferred U S college students from the draft to avoid alienating the American middle class 11 Democracy edit Historian Howard Zinn and political activist Tom Hayden saw at least some kinds of draft evasion as a positive expression of democracy 183 184 By contrast historian and classical studies scholar Mathew R Christ says that in ancient democratic Athens where draft evasion was ongoing 4 many of the popular tragic playwrights were deeply concerned about the corrosive effects of draft evasion on democracy and community 185 According to Christ while many of these playwrights were sensitive to the moral dilemmas of war and the imperfections of Athenian democracy 185 most touted the ethical imperative that a man should support his friends and community In serving the community the individual does what is right and honorable 186 See also editAustralian Freedom League opposed conscription in Australia during World War I Canada and the Vietnam War includes discussion of U S draft evaders Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors provided information and counseling to U S war resisters and draft evaders from 1948 to 2011 Desertion discusses military desertion generally and in several individual nations End Conscription Campaign opposed conscription of white South Africans in Apartheid era South Africa No Conscription Fellowship opposed British conscription during World War I No Conscription League co founded by Emma Goldman in response to the U S draft during World War I Pardon legal relief sometimes offered to draft evaders Peace churches A number of Christian denominations historically and presently opposed to war and the draft Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces IDF Overview of resistance by Israelis to participate in mandatory military service for the IDF War resister discusses variety of types of war refusers including draft refusersNotes edit a b Conscientious objector CO status does enable a recipient to avoid military service However COs who do not choose to perform non combatant military service are generally required by their governments to perform civilian alternative service in the public or private sectors typically conservation health or cultural work 18 References edit draft meaning Google Search www google com Retrieved 2023 11 03 a b Beare Margaret E ed 2012 Encyclopedia of Transnational Crime and Justice Sage Publications p 110 Draft Dodging entry ISBN 978 1 4129 9077 6 a b c d e f g h i j Wittmann Anna M 2016 Talking Conflict The Loaded Language of Genocide Political Violence Terrorism and Warfatre Santa Barbara CA ABC CLIO pp 115 116 Draft Dodgers entry ISBN 978 1 4408 3424 0 a b c d e f g h i j k Christ Matthew R 2006 The Bad Citizen in Classical Athens Cambridge UK University of Cambridge Press pp 52 57 from the Draft Evasion and Compulsory Military Service section ISBN 978 0 521 73034 1 a b c d e f Bell Walter F Draft Dodgers In Tucker Spencer C 2013 American Civil War The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection Santa Barbara CA ABC CLIO pp 545 546 ISBN 978 1 85109 677 0 a b c d Luhn Alec 18 February 2015 The Draft Dodgers of Ukraine Foreign Policy Web based content Retrieved 26 November 2017 a b c Adams Rachel Fall 2005 Going to Canada The Politics and Poetics of Northern Exodus Yale Journal of Criticism vol 18 no 2 pp 417 425 The Things They Wrote section Reproduced at the Project MUSE database Retrieved 24 November 2017 Kasinsky Renee G 2006 Fugitives from Injustice Vietnam War Draft Dodgers and Deserters in British Columbia In Evans Sterling ed 2006 The Borderlands of the American and Canadian West Essays on Regional History of the Forty ninth Parallel Lincoln NE University of Nebraska Press p 270 ISBN 978 0 8032 1826 0 Foley Michael S 2003 Confronting the War Machine Draft Resistance During the Vietnam War Chapel Hill NC University of North Carolina Press p 6 ISBN 0 8078 2767 3 The blurring of this distinction annoys former draft resisters who today find themselves stressing the difference whenever they talk about it Prasad Devi Smythe Tony eds 1968 Conscription A World Survey Compulsory Military Service and Resistance To It London War Resisters International ISBN 978 0 9500203 1 0 a b c Karnow Stanley 1997 orig 1983 Vietnam A History New York Penguin Books 2nd ed p 358 ISBN 978 0 14 026547 7 a b c d e f g Kusch Frank 2001 All American Boys Draft Dodgers in Canada from the Vietnam War Westport CT Praeger Publishers pp 70 74 ISBN 978 0 470 85104 3 Dominguez Jorge I The Cuban Armed Forces the Party and Society in Wsartime and During Rectification In Gillespie Rihard ed 1990 Cuba After Thirty Years Rectification and the Revolution London Frank Cass amp Co p 47 51 ISBN 978 0 7146 3390 9 a b c d e Fallows James 1977 What Did You Do in the Class War Daddy In Robbins Mary Susannah ed 2007 orig 1999 Against the Vietnam War Writings by Activists London and Lanham MD Rowman amp Littlefield pp 159 164 ISBN 978 0 7425 5914 1 a b c Ferber Michael 1998 Why I Joined the Resistance In Robbins Mary Susannah ed 2007 orig 1999 Against the Vietnam War Writings by Activists London and Lanham MD Rowman amp Littlefield pp 111 119 ISBN 978 0 7425 5914 1 a b c d e f g h Gitlin Todd 1993 orig 1987 The Sixties Years of Hope Days of Rage New York Bantam rev ed pp 291 292 beginning of Varieties of Antiwar Experience section ISBN 978 0 553 37212 0 Lynd Staughton Lynd Alice eds 1995 Nonviolence in America A Documentary History rev ed Maryknoll NY Orbis Books Parts V and VII ISBN 978 1 57075 010 6 Moskos Charles C Chambers John Whiteclay II The Secularization of Conscience In Moskos and Chanbers II eds The New Conscientious Objection From Sacred to Secular Resistance New York Oxford University Press 1993 p 5 ISBN 978 0 19 507955 5 Dominguez in Gillespie ed 1990 p 51 Baskir Lawrence M Strauss William A 1987 Chance and Circumstance The Draft the War and the Vietnam Generation New York Alfred A Knopf p 45 ISBN 978 0 394 41275 7 Palmer Brandon 2013 Fighting for the Enemy Koreans in Japan s War 1937 1945 Seattle University of Washington Press p 113 ISBN 978 0 295 99258 7 a b c d Duxbury Neil 2002 Random Justice On Lotteries and Legal Decision Making Oxford Oxford University Press pp 154 155 citing 19th century Belgium and France as well as America during the Civil War ISBN 978 0 19 925353 1 a b c d e f g h Braw Elisabeth 9 November 2015 Russians Dodge a Bullet How Young Russian Men Avoid the Draft Foreign Affairs Web based content Retrieved 28 November 2017 a b Baskir and Strauss 1987 p 12 Dunn Clive Dunn Gillian 2014 Sunderland in the Great War Barnsley UK Pen and Sword Books p 49 reporting on a British grocer who was refused a financial exemption and was given a two month extension instead ISBN 978 1 78346 286 5 a b c d e f C L 10 March 2014 Miserable and Useless The Economist Retrieved 13 January 2019 ISBN 978 0 671 77971 9 a b c d e Foley Michael S 2003 Confronting the War Machine Draft Resistance During the Vietnam War Chapel Hill NC University of North Carolina Press pp 6 7 39 49 78 ISBN 978 0 8078 5436 5 Sauers Richard A Tomasak Peter 2012 The Fishing Creek Confederacy A Story of Civil War Draft Resistance Columbia MO University of Missouri Press ISBN 978 0 8262 1988 6 Christ 2006 pp 59 62 Ferber Michael 1967 A Time to Say No In Robbins Mary Susannah ed 2007 orig 1999 Against the Vietnam War Writings by Activists London and Lanham MD Rowman amp Littlefield p 120 ISBN 978 0 7425 5914 1 Williams Roger N 1971 The New Exiles American War Resisters in Canada New York Liveright Publishers ISBN 978 0 87140 533 3 Kohn Stephen M 1987 Jailed for Peace The History of American Draft Law Violators 1658 1985 Westport CT Praeger Publishers ISBN 978 0 275 92776 9 Harris David 1976 I Shoulda Been Home Yesterday 20 Months in Jail for Not Killing Anybody New York Delacorte Dell ISBN 978 0 440 04156 6 Ladden Hall Dan 2022 09 26 Desperate Russian Shoots Recruitment Officer Instead of Signing up to Fight in Ukraine The Daily Beast Retrieved 2023 07 30 a b Cook Adrian 2014 orig 1982 The Armies of the Streets The New York City Draft Riots of 1863 Lexington KY University Press of Kentucky ISBN 978 0 8131 5182 3 Dowell LeiLani et al 2006 We Won t Go The Truth on Military Recruiters and the Draft a Guide to Resistance New York International Action Center ISBN 978 0 9747521 1 2 Lynd and Lynd eds 1995 Chap 35 Ultra Resistance Peters Shawn Francis 2012 The Catonsville Nine A Story of Faith and Resistance in the Vietnam Era Oxford UK and New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 982785 5 Dennis Patrick M 2017 Reluctant Warriors Canadian Conscripts and the Great War Vancouver University of British Columbia Press pp 56 57 Insurrection section ISBN 978 0 7748 3597 8 Arnaoutoglou Ilias 1998 Ancient Greek Laws A Sourcebook New York Routledge p 75 citing Demosthenes ISBN 978 0 415 14985 3 a b c d Granatstein J L Hitsman J M 2017 orig 1977 Broken Promises A History of Conscription in Canada Oakville Ontario Rock s Mills Press orig Toronto Oxford University Press p v ISBN 978 1 77244 013 3 Tough David A Better Truth The Democratic Legacy of Resistance to Conscription 1917 1921 In Campbell Lara Dawson Michael Gidney Catherine eds 2015 Worth Fighting For Canada s Tradition of War Resistance from 1812 to the War on Terror Toronto Between the Lines Books Chap 5 ISBN 978 1 77113 179 7 Morton Desmond 1999 A Military History of Canada Toronto McClelland amp Stewart 4th ed p 156 ISBN 978 0 7710 6514 9 Dennis 2017 cited in Draft evasion practices section above pp 31 46 47 a b Byers David 2017 Zombie Army The Canadian Army and Conscription in the Second World War Vancouver University of British Columbia Press Part 2 ISBN 978 0 7748 3052 2 Byers 2017 pp 6 160 234 a b c d Granatstein J L Morton Desmond 2003 Canada and the Two World Wars Toronto Key Porter Books pp 309 311 ISBN 978 1 55263 509 4 Jaskoski Maiah 2013 Military Politics and Democracy in the Andes Johns Hopkins University Press pp 186 188 ISBN 978 1 4214 0907 8 a b c d e Otis John 13 June 2014 Draft Evasion Is Alive and Well in Colombia Public Radio International website article Retrieved 28 December 2018 a b c Manek Nizar 3 September 2018 Eritrea May Alter Army Draft That Forced Thousands to Europe Bloomberg News Retrieved 13 January 2019 a b c Tasala Markku 2000 Metsakaarti Kolarin metsakaartin jatkosota ja rauha Oulu Finland Pohjoinen ISBN 978 951 749 341 3 Kulomaa Jukka 1995 Kapykaartiin 1941 1944 sotilaskarkuruus Suomen armeijassa jatkosodan aikana Helsinki Painatuskeskus ISBN 978 951 37 1754 4 a b Kulomaa Jukka Nieminen Jarmo toim 2008 Teloitettu totuus kesa 1944 Helsinki Ajatus kirjat ISBN 978 951 20 7772 4 a b c Rislakki Jukka 1986 Maan alla Vakoilua vastarintaa ja urkintaa Suomessa 1941 1944 Helsinki Love Kirjat ISBN 978 951 835 099 9 a b Muisti Metsakaartilaiset TV1 torstaina 20 4 2017 11 October 2015 Finnish language website Retrieved 10 February 2018 Hitleria vastaan sodittiin Suomessa hajanaisesti Ajankohtainen Kakkonen 13 February 2013 Finnish language website Retrieved 10 February 2018 Selin Sakari 2011 Kun valtiopetos oli isanmaallinen teko Archived 2007 12 20 at the Wayback Machine Tyovaen historian ja perinteen tutkimuksen seura Helsinki 2011 357 s Finnish language website Retrieved 10 February 2018 Julkunen Martti Taistelutahto ristipaineissa In Vehvilainen Olli ed 1982 Jatkosodan kujanjuoksu Porvoo Finland WSOY ISBN 978 951 0 11164 2 Kutsunnat alkavat tanaan nain kay jos ei ilmesty paikalle Duxbury 1999 p 154 discussing scholar Nuria Sales de Bohigas a b c d e f g Hilliard Constance 2009 Does Israel Have a Future The Case for a Post Zionist State Dulles VA Potomac Books an imprint of University of Nebraska Press pp 68 69 ISBN 978 1 59797 234 5 a b Neack Laura 2014 The New Foreign Policy Complex Interventions Competing Interests 3rd ed Lanham MD Rowman amp Littlefield p 101 ISBN 978 1 4422 2007 2 a b Simon Rita J Abdel Moneim Mohamed Alaa 2011 A Handbook of Military Conscription and Composition the World Over Lanham MD Lexington Books an imprint of Rowman amp Littlefield pp 133 135 ISBN 978 0 7391 6751 9 Cypel Sylvain 2007 Walled Israeli Society at an Impasse New York Other Press p 405 ISBN 978 1 59051 210 4 Asner Ed no date given The Shministim HuffPost formerly Huffington Post website Retrieved 17 February 2018 Zemilinskaya Yulia December 2010 Between Militarism and Pacifism Conscientious Objection and Draft Resistance in Israel Archived 2017 12 02 at the Wayback Machine Central European Journal of International and Security Studies issue 2 1 pp 9 35 Retrieved 17 February 2018 Zemilinskaya December 2010 p 9 Gosduma sokratila srok sluzhby v armii i otmenila otsrochki 21 April 2006 Higgins Andrew 2022 10 05 Russians Fleeing the Draft Find an Unlikely Haven The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2022 10 09 The Russians fleeing Putin s military draft www aljazeera com Retrieved 2022 10 09 Ray Siladitya Hopeless Situation Thousands Of Russians Flee To Neighboring Countries To Avoid Putin s Military Draft Forbes Retrieved 2022 10 09 Hagstrom Anders 2022 09 27 Russia s neighbors see surge of migrants as men flee Putin s draft Fox News Retrieved 2022 10 09 a b c Eun jee Park 16 January 2013 Military Service Mischief a Losing Battle Korea JoongAng Daily English language version of Seoul based South Korean newspaper Retrieved 29 June 2019 a b Ryall Julian 7 December 2013 Flight or Fight Conscription Misery in South Korea South China Morning Post Hong Kong magazine section Retrieved 30 June 2019 Eun jee 16 January 2013 cited above quoting South Korean columnist Jeong Deok hyun Kirk Donald 8 April 2014 Another South Korean Superlative Most Draft Dodgers in Prison The Christian Science Monitor p 8 Retrieved 27 November 2017 Kirk 8 April 2014 p 8 citing figures from the United Nations Commission on Human Rights a b c d e Khan Adnan R 4 April 2016 Not Quite Tragic Enough Maclean s pp 27 28 Retrieved 19 October 2018 a b c d e f g Bulos Nabih 9 October 2018 Syria s Assad Grants Amnesty to Army Deserters and Draft Dodgers Los Angeles Times online Retrieved 18 October 2018 Identical article appeared in the print edition as Syria Offers Amnesty to Army Deserters 10 October 2018 p A4 a b c d El Shimy Nasser 27 June 2018 Draft Dodging Nation Diwan online publication of the Carnegie Middle East Center Lebanon Retrieved 13 November 2018 Fearon Henry Bradshaw 1818 Sketches of America A Narrative of a Journey of Five Thousand Miles Through the Eastern and Western States of America London Longman Hurst Rees Orme and Brown pp 48 49 Southern Volunteers Prints amp Photographs Online Catalog Library of Congress 1862 Retrieved July 8 2018 Williams David 2008 Bitterly Divided The South s Inner Civil War New York The New Press p 2 ISBN 978 1 59558 108 2 Chambers John Whiteclay II 1987 To Raise an Army The Draft Comes to Modern America New York Free Press ISBN 978 0 02 905820 6 a b Virden Jenel 2008 America and the Wars of the Twentieth Century Palgrave Macmillan p 35 ISBN 978 0 333 72661 7 Author unspecified 10 September 1918 Take Slackers Into Army Many at Camp Dix Welcome Induction Into Military Service The New York Times p 6 Retrieved 17 January 2018 Capozzola Christopher 2008 Uncle Sam Wants You World War I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen New York Oxford University Press pp 43 53 ISBN 978 0 19 533549 1 a b Keene Jennifer D 2006 World War I Greenwood Publishing Group p 37 ISBN 978 0 313 33181 7 Ross William G 2017 World War I and the American Constitution Cambridge University Press p 28 ISBN 978 1 107 09464 2 Kazin Michael 2017 War Against War The American Fight for Peace 1914 1918 Simon amp Schuster p 209 ISBN 978 1 4767 0590 3 a b c Wittmann 2016 cited above p 116 Frazer Heather T O Sullivan John 1996 We Have Just Begun to Not Fight An Oral History of Conscientious Objectors in the Civilian Public Service During World War II New York Twayne Publishers ISBN 978 0 8057 9134 1 Rothenberg Leslie S 1968 The Draft and You A Handbook on the Selective Service System New York Anchor Books Doubleday p 221 No ISBN Maraniss David 2003 They Marched Into Sunlight War and Peace Vietnam and America October 1967 New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 6104 3 a b c d e f g Cortright David 2008 Peace A History of Movements and Ideas Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press pp 164 165 ISBN 978 0 521 67000 5 Cortright 2005 cited above p 164 Cortright 2005 cited above p 165 quoting task force chair Martin Anderson a b Baskir and Strauss 1978 cited above p 169 Baskir and Strauss 1987 cited above a b Baskir and Strauss cited above p 54 Baskir and Strauss cited above p 14 a b Baskir and Strauss cited above p 51 Ochs Phil 1965 Draft Dodger Rag Lyrics Genius website Retrieved 12 October 2018 Guthrie Arlo 1967 Alice s Restaurant Massacre Lyrics Genius website Retrieved 17 January 2018 Kupferberg Tuli Bashlow Robert 1968 1001 Ways to Beat the Draft New York Oliver Layton Press Originally New York Grove Press 1967 The book focuses on the United States in the 1960s Neither edition has an ISBN Feiffer Jules 1989 The Collected Works Volume II Munro Seattle Fantagraphics Books ISBN 978 1 56097 001 9 Satin Mark 2017 orig 1968 Manual for Draft Age Immigrants to Canada Toronto House of Anansi Press A List reprint ed Chap 24 listing the names ad addresses of 100 U S anti draft groups from 38 states as of January 1968 ISBN 978 1 4870 0289 3 Tatum Arlo ed October 1968 orig 1952 Handbook for Conscientious Objectors Philadelphia Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors 10th ed p 6 Booklet of 100 pages no ISBN Gitlin 1993 orig 1987 cited above pp 247 252 a b c d Ashbolt Anthony 2013 A Cultural History of the Radical Sixties in the San Francisco Bay Area New York Routledge pp 127 128 ISBN 978 1 84893 232 6 a b c Foley 2003 cited above Introduction and Chaps 1 6 Sale Kirkpatrick 1973 SDS New York Vintage Books Random House Resistance 1965 1968 section pp 311 316 ISBN 978 0 394 71965 8 Carson Clayborne 1981 In Struggle SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s Cambridge MA Harvard University Press p 271 ISBN 978 0 674 44726 4 a b Ferber Michael Lynd Staughton 1971 The Resistance Boston Beacon Press ISBN 978 0 8070 0542 2 a b c Klein Joe 13 June 1982 A Protege s Story The New York Times Book Review p 3 Retrieved 2 February 2018 a b Friedman Sari 1 February 2002 Stranger than Fiction Berkeley Daily Planet p 1 Retrieved 2 February 2018 a b Kehler Randy September 2005 Felon for Peace The Memoir of a Vietnam Era Draft Resister Fellowship vol 71 no 9 10 p 27 A publication of the Fellowship of Reconciliation Joseph Paul April 2015 Resister A Story of Peace and Prison During the Vietnam War Peace amp Change vol 40 issue no 2 pp 272 276 A joint publication of the Peace History Society and the Peace and Justice Studies Association a b Polner Murray 18 May 2014 Review of Bruce Dancis s Resister History News Network an electronic platform at George Washington University Retrieved 2 February 2018 Squires Jessica 2013 Building Sanctuary The Movement to Support Vietnam War Resisters in Canada 1965 73 Vancouver University of British Columbia Press p 174 ISBN 978 0 7748 2524 5 Kusch 2001 cited above p 26 Wong Jan 1997 Red China Blues My Long March from Mao to Now New York Anchor Books pp 154 155 ISBN 978 0 385 48232 5 Kiask Ken 2015 Draft Dodging Odyssey Seattle WA CreateSpace Amazon ISBN 978 1 5087 5169 4 Burns John 11 October 1967 Deaf to the Draft The Globe and Mail Toronto pp 1 2 Stewart Luke December 2018 Review Essay Manual for Draft Age Immigrants to Canada Etudes canadiennes Canadian Studies issue no 85 pp 219 223 Published in French and English by Association Francaise d Etudes Canadiennes Institut des Ameriques France Retrieved 23 May 2019 Jones Joseph 2005 Contending Statistics The Numbers for U S War Resisters in Canada Morrisville NC Lulu Press ISBN 978 0 9737641 0 9 McGill Robert 2017 War Is Here The Vietnam War and Canadian Literature Kingston Canada McGill Queen s University Press p 272 n 12 citing scholars John Hagan David D Harvey Joseph Jones and David S Surrey ISBN 978 0 7735 5159 6 Knowles Valerie 2016 Strangers at Our Gates Canadian Immigration and Immigration Policy 1540 2015 Toronto Dundurn Press 4th ed p 214 Draft Age Americans in Canada section ISBN 978 1 4597 3285 8 Kasinsky Renee G 1976 Refugees from Militarism Draft Age Americans in Canada New Brunswick NJ Transaction Books p 61 ISBN 978 0 87855 113 2 Satin 2017 orig 1968 cited above pp 120 122 Keung Nicholas 20 August 2010 Iraq War Resisters Meet Cool Reception in Canada Toronto Star Retrieved 14 August 2012 Clausen Oliver 21 May 1967 Boys Without a Country The New York Times Magazine pp 25 and 94 105 Williams 1971 cited above pp 56 62 Magazine or newspaper articles that touched on the effectiveness of one or more of Canada s draft counseling groups include Cowan Edward 11 February 1968 Expatriate Draft Evaders Prepare Manual on How to Immigrate to Canada The New York Times p 7 Dunford Gary 3 February 1968 Toronto s Anti Draft Office Jammed Toronto Star p 25 Johnson Olive Skene August 1967 Draft Age Dilemma McCall s pp 34 150 Rosenthal Harry F 2 June 1968 Canada Increasingly Draft Dodgers Haven Los Angeles Times p H9 Schreiber Jan January 1968 Canada s Haven for Draft Dodgers The Progressive pp 34 36 Wakefield Dan March 1968 Supernation at Peace and War The Atlantic pp 42 45 Adams James 20 October 2007 The Big Guys Keep Being Surprised by Us The Globe and Mail Toronto p R6 statting that close to 100 000 had been sold MacSkimming Roy 26 August 2017 Review Mark Satin s Manual for Draft Age Immigrants to Canada Is Just as Timely as Ever The Globe and Mail p R12 stating that 65 000 had been sold by Canadian publishers and another 30 000 had been reproduced in whole or in part by U S anti war entities Online text dated 25 August 2017 Retrieved 26 November 2017 Hagan John 2001 Northern Passage American Vietnam War Resisters in Canada Cambridge MA Harvard University Press pp 77 78 ISBN 978 0 674 00471 9 Hagan 2001 pp 80 81 Williams 1971 pp 79 83 Hagan 2001 pp 81 and 161 62 Author unspecified 14 September 1974 Flexible Amnesty Plan Is Reported Set by Ford The New York Times p 9 Retrieved 28 July 2018 Schulzinger Robert D 2006 A Time for Peace The Legacy of the Vietnam War New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 507190 0 Retrieved July 30 2011 Kasinsky 1976 cited above p 98 Williams 1971 cited above Hagan 2001 cited above Kasinsky 1976 p 104 Satin Mark 2017 Afterword Bringing Draft Dodgers to Canada in the 1960s In Satin Mark 2017 orig 1968 Manual for Draft Age Immigrants to Canada House of Anansi Press A List reprint ed p 129 ISBN 978 1 4870 0289 3 Satin 2017 p 135 Satin Mark 14 June 2017 Godfrey and Me House of Anansi Press website Retrieved 4 April 2019 Hagan John 2001 pp 3 and 241 42 These points have been made in a series of academic journal articles by Canadian social historian David Churchill Churchill David S 2004 An Ambiguous Welcome Vietnam Draft Resistance the Canadian State and Cold War Containment Histoire Sociale Social History vol 37 no 73 pp 1 26 Churchill David S Fall 2010 American Expatriates and the Building of Alternative Social Space in Toronto 1965 1977 Urban History Review vol XXXVIX no 1 pp 31 44 Churchill David S June 2012 Draft Resistance Lefr Nationalism and the Politics of Anti Imperialism Canadian Historical Review vol 93 no 2 pp 227 260 Baskir and Strauss 1978 p 201 Hagan 2001 cited above p 186 quoting Baskir and Strauss a b McGill 2017 cited above pp 172 181 The Alternative America in Draft Dodger Novels sub chapter Adams Fall 2005 p 419 Beelaert Amy M November 1993 Voices of Our Times I Refuse Memories of a Vietnam War Objector The English Journal vol 82 no 7 p 84 Peters Pamela J April 1992 I Refuse Memories of a Vietnam War Objector Library Journal vol 117 no 6 p 129 Macfarlane David 30 April 1994 Fetherling s Talents Take Wing The Globe and Mail p C20 Ware Randall 1 May 1994 A Grey Memoir of a Colorful Time Ottawa Citizen p B3 Coates Donna Winter 2009 Artful Dodgers Canadian Literature issue no 203 p 147 A publication of the University of British Columbia Grady Wayne 8 October 2008 An Artful Dodger The Globe and Mail p D4 Dionne E J 17 January 2006 Murtha and the Mudslingers The Washington Post p A17 Retrieved 14 August 2012 a b Sirius R U 2009 Everybody Must Get Stoned Rock Stars on Drugs Kensington Publishing Corp pp 47 48 ISBN 978 0 8065 3073 4 Noriyuki Duane 15 July 1990 Ted Nugent Grows Up Detroit Free Press magazine section pp 6 10 The Worst Ted Nugent Interview of All Time Media Matters for America online article see under the sub head Nugent Says He Soiled Himself To Avoid Vietnam Among Other Bizarre Anecdotes Retrieved 27 July 2018 O Connor John J 11 January 1989 Review Television Late Night Chitchat Additions Pat Sajak and Arsenio Hall The New York Times p C 17 Retrieved 1 November 2019 Kusch 2001 cited above p 71 Gottlieb Sherry Gershon 1991 Hell No We Won t Go Resisting the Draft During the Vietnam War New York Viking Press p 96 ISBN 978 0 670 83935 3 Wilson John K 2011 The Most Dangerous Man in America Rush Limbaugh s Assault on Reason New York St Martin s Press p 80 Limbaugh at War section ISBN 978 0 312 61214 6 Kranish Michael Hellman Scott 2012 The Real Romney New York HarperCollins pp 61 62 ISBN 978 0 06 212327 5 Kranish Michael 24 June 2007 Mormon Church Obtained Vietnam Draft Deferrals for Romney Other Missionaries The Boston Globe web exclusive now at Boston com regional website Retrieved 17 January 2018 a b Conason Joe 20 July 2007 Rudy and Romney Artful Dodgers Salon online magazine Retrieved 17 January 2018 a b c Banks Russell 5 October 2015 Bernie Sanders the Socialist Mayor The Atlantic online third section 10th paragraph Retrieved 27 July 2018 Banks 5 October 2015 cited above third section 9th paragraph Retrieved 27 July 2018 Jaffe Harry 2015 Why Bernie Sanders Matters Regan Arts Phaidon Press p 54 This book was published in December 2015 two months before the Iowa Democratic caucuses 2016 ISBN 978 1 68245 017 8 Eder Steve Philipps Dave 1 August 2016 Donald Trump s Draft Deferments Four for College One for Bad Feet The New York Times p A1 Print edition has a different date and headline Retrieved 17 January 2018 Texts of Documents on the Pardon The New York Times January 22 1977 Retrieved April 17 2018 a b Scott James C 1990 Domination and the Arts of Resistance Hidden Transcripts New Haven CT Yale University Press p 192 ISBN 978 0 300 05669 3 DeBenedetti Charles 1990 An American Ordeal The Antiwar Movement of the Vietnam Era Syracuse NY Syracuse University Press pp 127 128 ISBN 978 0 8156 0245 3 Satin 2117 orig 1968 cited above p 7 Fallows 1977 cited above pp 162 164 166 Fallows 1977 cited above pp 159 162 Zinn Howard 2005 orig 1980 A People s History of the United States New York Harper Perennial classics ed pp 485 486 605 ISBN 978 0 06 083865 2 Miller James 1994 orig 1987 Democracy Is in the Streets From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago Cambridge MA Harvard University Press p 261 on Hayden ISBN 978 0 674 19725 1 a b Christ 2006 cited above pp 65 87 Conscription and Draft Evasion through a Tragic Lens section Christ 2006 cited above p 86 Further reading editBernstein Iver The New York City Draft Riots Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War Lincoln NE Bison Books University of Nebraska Press 2010 Colhoun Jack War Resisters in Exile The Memoirs of Amex Canada Amex Canada magazine vol 6 no 2 issue no 47 pp 11 78 Account of the political organization created by U S draft evaders in Canada Reproduced at Vancouver Community Network website Retrieved 29 November 2017 Article originally November December 1977 Conway Daniel Masculinisation Militarisation and the End Conscription Campaign War Resistance in Apartheid South Africa Manchester England Manchester University Press 2012 Foley Michael S Confronting the War Machine Draft Resistance during the Vietnam War Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press 2003 Gottlieb Sherry Gershon Hell No We Won t Go Resisting the Draft During the Vietnam War New York Viking Press 1991 Hagan John Northern Passage American Vietnam War Resisters in Canada Boston Harvard University Press 2001 Kasinsky Renee Refugees from Militarism Draft Age Americans in Canada New Brunswick NJ Transaction Books 1976 Kohn Stephen M Jailed for Peace The History of American Draft Law Violators 1658 1985 Westport CT Praeger Publishers 1987 Peterson Carl L Avoidance and Evasion of Military Service An American History 1626 1973 San Francisco International Scholars Publications 1998 Satin Mark Manual for Draft Age Immigrants to Canada Toronto House of Anansi Press A List reprint edition New introduction by Canadian historian James Laxer new afterword by Satin Bringing Draft Dodgers to Canada in the 1960s The Reality Behind the Romance 2017 Williams Roger Neville The New Exiles American War Resisters in Canada New York Liveright 1970 External links editHow To Beat the Draft Board a tutorial published in 2017 on Wikibooks a project of the Wikimedia Foundation Hyper Texts provides information on the Israeli anti draft group Shministim mentioned above National Resistance Committee provides information to U S citizens who do not wish to register or otherwise cooperate with the draft Sponsored by War Resisters League mentioned above New Profile Archived 2018 02 23 at the Wayback Machine English language website of New Profile Israeli anti draft group mentioned above Selective Service System official site of the government agency that registers young male U S citizens for the military draft Vietnam War Draft Resistance historical site for Draft Resistance Seattle example of the locally based U S anti draft groups mentioned above Vietnam War Resisters in Canada annotated guide to texts and websites from the 1960s to the present Compiled by scholar Joseph Jones mentioned above War Resisters International based in Britain Monitors conscription and conscientious objection in nations around the world Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Draft evasion amp oldid 1206836865, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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