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Jakhanke

January 01, 1970

The Jakhanke -- also spelled Jahanka, Jahanke,[1] Jahanque, Jahonque, Diakkanke, Diakhanga, Diakhango, Dyakanke, Diakhanké, Diakanké, or Diakhankesare -- are a Manding-speaking ethnic group in the Senegambia region, often classified as a subgroup of the larger Soninke.[2] The Jakhanke have historically constituted a specialized caste of professional Muslim clerics (ulema) and educators.[3] They are centered on one larger group in Guinea, with smaller populations in the eastern region of The Gambia, Senegal, and in Mali near the Guinean border. Although generally considered a branch of the Soninke (also known as Serahule, Serakhulle or Sarakollé), their language is closer to Western Manding languages such as Mandinka.[4]

Jakhanke
Jahanka
Diakhanke
Regions with significant populations
West Africa
Languages
Jahanka, Mandinka, French
Religion
Islam
Related ethnic groups
Mandé peoples, especially: Soninke people, Mandinka people, Yalunka people, Dyula people, Bambara people, Bozo people

Since the fifteenth century the Jakhanke clerical communities have constituted an integral part of the region and have exercised a high level of economic and religious influence upon Soninke as well as related Manding-speaking communities (such as the Dyula and Mandinka) in what is now Mali, Guinea, Senegal, and The Gambia.[3]

The endogamous Jakhanke clerics were influential in the diffusion of Islam among the Manding people in West Africa.[5][6] While originally a religious caste of the Sarakollé, the Jakhanke later facilitated the trans-Saharan trade routes as merchants, such as in coastal rice and slaves,[7] from the Guinea and Gambian coasts to the interior from at least the 17th century.[8] In this way they are often compared with the Dyula, who formed a trade diaspora from the heartlands of the Mali Empire to the coast of what is today Côte d'Ivoire.[9]

Historical background edit

According to Levtzion, "The Mande-speaking Muslim traders, with whom the Portuguese negotiated on the Gambia were Diakhanke. The Diakhanke clans are of Soninke origin, and their traditions go back to Dinga, ancestor of the ruling dynasty of the ancient kingdom of Wagadu. They remember Dia in Massina as the town of their ancestor, Suware, a great marabout and a saint." They later established Diakka-ba in Bambuk.[10]

The Jakhanke cultural ethos is best characterized by a staunch dedication to Islam, historical accuracy, rejection of jihad, non-involvement in political affairs and the religious instruction of young people. Formation of their regional Islamic identity began shortly after contact with Muslim Almoravid traders from North Africa in 1065, when Soninke nobles in Takrur (along the Senegal River in present-day Senegal) embraced Islam, being among the earliest sub-Saharan ethnic groups to follow the teachings of Muhammad.

In Senegambia, the Jakhanke inhabited scattered towns and villages in Futa Jallon, Futa Bundu, Dentilia, Bambuk, and other places. By 1725, at least fifteen Jakhanke villages were located in what would become Bundu.[11] They claim to originate in Ja on the Niger River and Jahaba on the Bafing River, from which they moved to Bundu, Futa Jallon and Gambia. The Jakhanke were not primarily merchants, but agriculturists supported by slave labor. The various Jakhanke villages were independent of each other and of the local chiefs. The Jakhanke were committed to peaceful coexistence and refused to become engaged in politics or war. When threatened, they simply relocated their villages into safer territory. Often their villages enjoyed the privileges of sanctuary, judicial independence, and freedom from military service.

Islamic practice edit

The Jakhanke were noted Islamic scholars.[6] They trace their spiritual ancestry to the sahabas of the Prophet who came to spread the message of Islam and intermarry with the people of North Africa. Sheikh Al-Hajj Salim Suwari (d. 1525), a Muslim scholar who lived in the late fifteenth century, Karamba Touba Diaby, Karang Foday, Mahmudou Jaylani Jaiteh, and many others. They adhere to Maliki fiqh, although they have been tolerant of customary practices. Primary importance was stressed on obedience to the murshid, or Sufi master, and of stages of initiation into the teachings of the community. Schooled in the bāṭin (secret) sciences, Jakhanke clerics interpreted dreams and gave amulets for protection, which continue to be highly prized items. They celebrate the mawlid an-nabī (birthday of the Prophet) and the ‘īdu l-fiṭr (عيد الفطر) feasts at the end of Ramadan and other Muslim holidays.

Commerce and the spread of Islam edit

 
Map of the ethnic groups of Senegal drawn by David Boilat (1853)

Jakhanke people inherited their cleric roles and some pursued Islamic scholarship, as ulema or marabouts. Over time, they expanded into trade wherein their clerical and merchant roles were intertwined. Their trade included rice, salt, cloth, gold and slaves in the later centuries, first across the trans-Saharan caravan routes and later the trans-Atlantic market.[7][12] In some regions, the Jakhanke monopolized their regional trading circuits, just like Zawaya clerics did in other markets.[13]

West Africa's pre-Islamic trading networks with North Africa and the Middle East grew with the arrival of Muslim traders after the 8th century. These traders formed mutually supporting communities as networks that the African historian Philip Curtin dubbed a "trading diaspora." One good example of such a trading diaspora is the Jakhanke tribe from the Upper Guinea. According to Jakhanke historians, these traders began in the city of Jakha (on the Bafing River, a tributary of the Senegal) and, following their businesses, expanded into other locations. New Jakhanke towns were founded, under the auspices of local rulers who often permitted self-governance and autonomy. Sixteenth-century Europeans met Jakhanke traders at coastal points as far afield as Gambia and the Gold Coast; hence, they imagined the city called "Jaga" (Jakha) was a great metropolis controlling trade in all West Africa. Trading groups like the Dyula and Jakhanke did indeed dominate commerce of Upper Guinea, becoming involved not just in moving merchandise, but also in production of goods on plantations worked by their slaves.[14]

Caste and educational system edit

The Jakhanke were the Islamic cleric caste of the Soninke social stratification system.[5] The Soninke social hierarchy organizes individuals into endogamous strata.[15][16][17] The top level is held by fooro (free men), which included tunkalemmu (princes), leaders designated to exercise authority. They are followed by mangu (princely advisors), a group linked to a kuralemme (warrior) class who acted as defenders and mediators. The third in fooro hierarchy is occupied by modinu (priests, Jakanke), representing Islam's influence on Soninke society. Highly respected for their religious knowledge, modinu are responsible for establishing justice, providing Islamic education and protecting the population with prayers. Below the fooro strata, have been the despised castes of nayamala (dependent men). These included tago (blacksmiths), sakko (carpenters), jaroo (praise-singers), garanko (cobblers) and others. The strata below the horoo (free-men) and nayamala (dependent men) have been the endogamous komo (slaves).[18][19][20]

Jakhanke curriculum edit

The Jakhanke clerical tradition is respected throughout the Muslim world for producing erudite and distinguished Islamic scholars. Their curriculum vitae are considered an excellent quality, nurturing the young with Muslim values while simultaneously encouraging intellectual pursuits in their natural environment. The standard Majalis program offered for Islamic sciences begins by incorporating a formal introduction into the rules governing recitation (tajwīd) and memorization of the Qur'an. Recitation should be done according to rules of pronunciation, intonation, and caesuras established by Muhammad, though first recorded in the 8th century. There are seven schools of tajwid, the most popular being the school of Hafs on the authority of ‘asim.

This is followed by an in-depth inquiry into the classical studies of Ulum al-hadith (Science of Hadith), Usul al-fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence), Nahw arabī or Qawāidu 'l-luġati 'l'Arabiyyah (Standard Arabic Grammar): and language acquisition, which studies the learner's processes of acquiring language. The program is concluded following advanced level courses on the science of Qur'anic exegesis (tafsir). A total of 28 books must be mastered before a student is eligible to receive the cijaza or sanad (license to teach) from the University. In order to graduate, students are required to completely copy these 28 individual books by hand. If approved by their sheikh, the student is officially awarded permission to begin Islamic instruction at their own Karanta (school).

Notable Jakhanke people edit

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Emily Lynn Osborn (2011). Our New Husbands Are Here: Households, Gender, and Politics in a West African State from the Slave Trade to Colonial Rule. Ohio University Press. pp. 206 footnote 56. ISBN 978-0-8214-4397-2.
  2. ^ Muḥammad Zuhdī Yakan. Almanac of African peoples & nations. Transaction Publishers, 1999 ISBN 978-1-56000-433-2 p. 280
  3. ^ a b Lamin O. Sanneh. The Jakhanke: The history of an Islamic clerical people of the Senegambia. London (1979) ISBN 978-0-85302-059-2
  4. ^ Sanneh, Lamin. “Futa Jallon and the Jakhanke Clerical Tradition. Part I: The Historical Setting.” Journal of Religion in Africa, vol. 12, no. 1, 1981, pp. 38–64. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1581013. Accessed 2 Dec. 2020.
  5. ^ a b Sanneh, Lamin (1976). "The Origins of Clericalism in West African Islam". The Journal of African History. 17 (1). Cambridge University Press: 49–72. doi:10.1017/s0021853700014766. S2CID 161649213.
  6. ^ a b John O. Hunwick; R. Rex S. O'Fahey (2003). Arabic Literature of Africa, Volume 4. BRILL Academic. pp. 524–526. ISBN 90-04-12444-6.
  7. ^ a b Richard Roberts (1987). Warriors, Merchants, and Slaves: The State and the Economy in the Middle Niger Valley, 1700-1914. Stanford University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-8047-6613-5., Quote: "From Kita, slaves were directed to Soninke buyers in Kaarta and in the Upper Senegal to Futanke in Bundu and Futa Toro, and to the Moors of the western desert. West of Kita, the Jahanke and Gajaaga Soninke were active traders. Within the commercial zone drained by the Middle Niger, most important slave markets of the Umarian period were at Baraweli, Segu. (...)"
  8. ^ Philip D. Curtin. "Jihad in West Africa: early phases and inter-relations in Mauritania and Senegal". The Journal of African History (1971), 12:11-24
  9. ^ Juliet E.K. Walker. "Trade Markets in Precolonial West and Central Africa..." in Thomas D. Boston(ed.) A Different Vision: Race and public policy. Volume 2 of African American Economic Thought Series: Routledge, 1997 ISBN 978-0-415-09591-4 pp.206-253, p.217
  10. ^ Levtzion, Nehemia (1973). Ancient Ghana and Mali. New York: Methuen & Co Ltd. pp. 168–169. ISBN 0841904316.
  11. ^ Michael A. Gomez, Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad
  12. ^ John S Trimingham (1962), History of Islam in West Africa, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0192850386, pages 31-33
  13. ^ Boubacar Barry (1998). Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–14, 32–33. ISBN 978-0-521-59226-0.
  14. ^ Wilks, Ivor, "The Juula & the Expansion of Islam into the Forest", in N. Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels (eds.), History of Islam in Africa, Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000
  15. ^ Haddy Tunkara-Bah (2016). "Sociocultural factors influencing fertility among the Soninke". African Renaissance. 13 (1–2): 31–44., Quote: "The Soninke society in the Gambia is primarily rural and highly gender-stratified culture. (...) In the Soninke social organization everyone occupies a place."
  16. ^ Tal Tamari (1991). "The Development of Caste Systems in West Africa". The Journal of African History. 32 (2). Cambridge University Press: 221–250. doi:10.1017/s0021853700025718. JSTOR 182616. S2CID 162509491.
  17. ^ Monica Bella (1987), AFRICA STUDIES: THE EXPLORATION OF ALTERNATIVE LAND TENURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE BAKEL SMALL IRRIGATED PERIMETERS, University of Wisconsin-Madison, United States Agency for International Development, Quote:"Soninke society is not egalitarian, but rather is stratified into castes. At the top there is the noble or hore caste. The hore consist of debeaumme, nyinvaaumme, and the marabouts or religious leaders. The power of the marabouts is less than that of other nobles. Next are the artisan castes or nyakhamala. ...";
    Edouard François Manchuelle (1987). Background to Black African Emigration to France: The Labor Migrations of the Soninke, 1848-1987. University of California Press. pp. 50–52.
  18. ^ Michael Gomez (2002). Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad: The Precolonial State of Bundu. Cambridge University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-521-52847-4.
  19. ^ Sean Hanretta (2009). Islam and Social Change in French West Africa: History of an Emancipatory Community. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37 with footnote 23. ISBN 978-0-521-89971-0.
  20. ^ Mamadou Lamine Diawara (1990), La Graine de la Parole: dimension sociale et politique des traditions orales du royaume de Jaara (Mali) du XVème au milieu du XIXème siècle, volume 92, Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GmbH, pages 35-37, 41-45

Further reading edit

  • PANOS Institute, . Panos Infos. Vol.1 Les réfugiés en Afrique de l'Ouest, 2002
  • Lamin Ousman Sanneh, The History of the Jakhanke People of Senegambia. A Study of a Clerical Tradition in West African Islam, London, SOAS, 1974, 474 p. (Doctoral Thesis)
  • Lamin Ousman Sanneh, "The Jahanke", The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 14, no 4, 1981, p. 738-741
  • Pierre Smith, "Les Diakanké. Histoire d'une dispersion", Cahiers du Centre de recherches anthropologiques, no 4, 1965, p. 231-262
  • Pierre Smith, "Notes sur l'organisation sociale des Diakanké. Aspects particuliers à la région de Kédougou", Cahiers du Centre de recherches anthropologiques, no 4, 1965, p. 263-302
  • Pierre Smith, "Le réseau des villages diakhanké", Objets et mondes, Vol XII, issue 4, Winter 1972, p. 411-414

Abdou Kader Taslimanka Sylla, Bani Israel du Sénégal ou Ahl Diakha, peuple de diaspora, Éditions Publibook, Paris, 448 p. (ISBN 9782748388626)

January 01, 1970
jakhanke, also, spelled, jahanka, jahanke, jahanque, jahonque, diakkanke, diakhanga, diakhango, dyakanke, diakhanké, diakanké, diakhankesare, manding, speaking, ethnic, group, senegambia, region, often, classified, subgroup, larger, soninke, have, historically. The Jakhanke also spelled Jahanka Jahanke 1 Jahanque Jahonque Diakkanke Diakhanga Diakhango Dyakanke Diakhanke Diakanke or Diakhankesare are a Manding speaking ethnic group in the Senegambia region often classified as a subgroup of the larger Soninke 2 The Jakhanke have historically constituted a specialized caste of professional Muslim clerics ulema and educators 3 They are centered on one larger group in Guinea with smaller populations in the eastern region of The Gambia Senegal and in Mali near the Guinean border Although generally considered a branch of the Soninke also known as Serahule Serakhulle or Sarakolle their language is closer to Western Manding languages such as Mandinka 4 Jakhanke JahankaDiakhankeRegions with significant populationsWest AfricaLanguagesJahanka Mandinka FrenchReligionIslamRelated ethnic groupsMande peoples especially Soninke people Mandinka people Yalunka people Dyula people Bambara people Bozo people Since the fifteenth century the Jakhanke clerical communities have constituted an integral part of the region and have exercised a high level of economic and religious influence upon Soninke as well as related Manding speaking communities such as the Dyula and Mandinka in what is now Mali Guinea Senegal and The Gambia 3 The endogamous Jakhanke clerics were influential in the diffusion of Islam among the Manding people in West Africa 5 6 While originally a religious caste of the Sarakolle the Jakhanke later facilitated the trans Saharan trade routes as merchants such as in coastal rice and slaves 7 from the Guinea and Gambian coasts to the interior from at least the 17th century 8 In this way they are often compared with the Dyula who formed a trade diaspora from the heartlands of the Mali Empire to the coast of what is today Cote d Ivoire 9 Contents 1 Historical background 2 Islamic practice 3 Commerce and the spread of Islam 4 Caste and educational system 4 1 Jakhanke curriculum 5 Notable Jakhanke people 6 See also 7 References 8 Further readingHistorical background editAccording to Levtzion The Mande speaking Muslim traders with whom the Portuguese negotiated on the Gambia were Diakhanke The Diakhanke clans are of Soninke origin and their traditions go back to Dinga ancestor of the ruling dynasty of the ancient kingdom of Wagadu They remember Dia in Massina as the town of their ancestor Suware a great marabout and a saint They later established Diakka ba in Bambuk 10 The Jakhanke cultural ethos is best characterized by a staunch dedication to Islam historical accuracy rejection of jihad non involvement in political affairs and the religious instruction of young people Formation of their regional Islamic identity began shortly after contact with Muslim Almoravid traders from North Africa in 1065 when Soninke nobles in Takrur along the Senegal River in present day Senegal embraced Islam being among the earliest sub Saharan ethnic groups to follow the teachings of Muhammad In Senegambia the Jakhanke inhabited scattered towns and villages in Futa Jallon Futa Bundu Dentilia Bambuk and other places By 1725 at least fifteen Jakhanke villages were located in what would become Bundu 11 They claim to originate in Ja on the Niger River and Jahaba on the Bafing River from which they moved to Bundu Futa Jallon and Gambia The Jakhanke were not primarily merchants but agriculturists supported by slave labor The various Jakhanke villages were independent of each other and of the local chiefs The Jakhanke were committed to peaceful coexistence and refused to become engaged in politics or war When threatened they simply relocated their villages into safer territory Often their villages enjoyed the privileges of sanctuary judicial independence and freedom from military service Islamic practice editThe Jakhanke were noted Islamic scholars 6 They trace their spiritual ancestry to the sahabas of the Prophet who came to spread the message of Islam and intermarry with the people of North Africa Sheikh Al Hajj Salim Suwari d 1525 a Muslim scholar who lived in the late fifteenth century Karamba Touba Diaby Karang Foday Mahmudou Jaylani Jaiteh and many others They adhere to Maliki fiqh although they have been tolerant of customary practices Primary importance was stressed on obedience to the murshid or Sufi master and of stages of initiation into the teachings of the community Schooled in the baṭin secret sciences Jakhanke clerics interpreted dreams and gave amulets for protection which continue to be highly prized items They celebrate the mawlid an nabi birthday of the Prophet and the idu l fiṭr عيد الفطر feasts at the end of Ramadan and other Muslim holidays Commerce and the spread of Islam edit nbsp Map of the ethnic groups of Senegal drawn by David Boilat 1853 Jakhanke people inherited their cleric roles and some pursued Islamic scholarship as ulema or marabouts Over time they expanded into trade wherein their clerical and merchant roles were intertwined Their trade included rice salt cloth gold and slaves in the later centuries first across the trans Saharan caravan routes and later the trans Atlantic market 7 12 In some regions the Jakhanke monopolized their regional trading circuits just like Zawaya clerics did in other markets 13 West Africa s pre Islamic trading networks with North Africa and the Middle East grew with the arrival of Muslim traders after the 8th century These traders formed mutually supporting communities as networks that the African historian Philip Curtin dubbed a trading diaspora One good example of such a trading diaspora is the Jakhanke tribe from the Upper Guinea According to Jakhanke historians these traders began in the city of Jakha on the Bafing River a tributary of the Senegal and following their businesses expanded into other locations New Jakhanke towns were founded under the auspices of local rulers who often permitted self governance and autonomy Sixteenth century Europeans met Jakhanke traders at coastal points as far afield as Gambia and the Gold Coast hence they imagined the city called Jaga Jakha was a great metropolis controlling trade in all West Africa Trading groups like the Dyula and Jakhanke did indeed dominate commerce of Upper Guinea becoming involved not just in moving merchandise but also in production of goods on plantations worked by their slaves 14 Caste and educational system editThe Jakhanke were the Islamic cleric caste of the Soninke social stratification system 5 The Soninke social hierarchy organizes individuals into endogamous strata 15 16 17 The top level is held by fooro free men which included tunkalemmu princes leaders designated to exercise authority They are followed by mangu princely advisors a group linked to a kuralemme warrior class who acted as defenders and mediators The third in fooro hierarchy is occupied by modinu priests Jakanke representing Islam s influence on Soninke society Highly respected for their religious knowledge modinu are responsible for establishing justice providing Islamic education and protecting the population with prayers Below the fooro strata have been the despised castes of nayamala dependent men These included tago blacksmiths sakko carpenters jaroo praise singers garanko cobblers and others The strata below the horoo free men and nayamala dependent men have been the endogamous komo slaves 18 19 20 Jakhanke curriculum edit The Jakhanke clerical tradition is respected throughout the Muslim world for producing erudite and distinguished Islamic scholars Their curriculum vitae are considered an excellent quality nurturing the young with Muslim values while simultaneously encouraging intellectual pursuits in their natural environment The standard Majalis program offered for Islamic sciences begins by incorporating a formal introduction into the rules governing recitation tajwid and memorization of the Qur an Recitation should be done according to rules of pronunciation intonation and caesuras established by Muhammad though first recorded in the 8th century There are seven schools of tajwid the most popular being the school of Hafs on the authority of asim This is followed by an in depth inquiry into the classical studies of Ulum al hadith Science of Hadith Usul al fiqh Islamic Jurisprudence Nahw arabi or Qawaidu l luġati l Arabiyyah Standard Arabic Grammar and language acquisition which studies the learner s processes of acquiring language The program is concluded following advanced level courses on the science of Qur anic exegesis tafsir A total of 28 books must be mastered before a student is eligible to receive the cijaza or sanad license to teach from the University In order to graduate students are required to completely copy these 28 individual books by hand If approved by their sheikh the student is officially awarded permission to begin Islamic instruction at their own Karanta school Notable Jakhanke people editFode Kaba Doumbouya was a 19th century marabout Kani Dambakate Guinean musician Pape Diakhate Senegalese footballer Serhou Guirassy French footballer Ahmed Tidiane Souare Guinean politician Mohamed Sylla French rapper Ibrahima Sylla Senegalese record producer Binetou Sylla director of Syllart Records Mamadou Sylla Guinean politician Sidya Toure Guinean politician Ibrahim Diakite Guinean footballer Mamadou Sakho French footballerSee also editMandinka people Soninke people Dyula peopleReferences edit Emily Lynn Osborn 2011 Our New Husbands Are Here Households Gender and Politics in a West African State from the Slave Trade to Colonial Rule Ohio University Press pp 206 footnote 56 ISBN 978 0 8214 4397 2 Muḥammad Zuhdi Yakan Almanac of African peoples amp nations Transaction Publishers 1999 ISBN 978 1 56000 433 2 p 280 a b Lamin O Sanneh The Jakhanke The history of an Islamic clerical people of the Senegambia London 1979 ISBN 978 0 85302 059 2 Sanneh Lamin Futa Jallon and the Jakhanke Clerical Tradition Part I The Historical Setting Journal of Religion in Africa vol 12 no 1 1981 pp 38 64 JSTOR www jstor org stable 1581013 Accessed 2 Dec 2020 a b Sanneh Lamin 1976 The Origins of Clericalism in West African Islam The Journal of African History 17 1 Cambridge University Press 49 72 doi 10 1017 s0021853700014766 S2CID 161649213 a b John O Hunwick R Rex S O Fahey 2003 Arabic Literature of Africa Volume 4 BRILL Academic pp 524 526 ISBN 90 04 12444 6 a b Richard Roberts 1987 Warriors Merchants and Slaves The State and the Economy in the Middle Niger Valley 1700 1914 Stanford University Press p 115 ISBN 978 0 8047 6613 5 Quote From Kita slaves were directed to Soninke buyers in Kaarta and in the Upper Senegal to Futanke in Bundu and Futa Toro and to the Moors of the western desert West of Kita the Jahanke and Gajaaga Soninke were active traders Within the commercial zone drained by the Middle Niger most important slave markets of the Umarian period were at Baraweli Segu Philip D Curtin Jihad in West Africa early phases and inter relations in Mauritania and Senegal The Journal of African History 1971 12 11 24 Juliet E K Walker Trade Markets in Precolonial West and Central Africa in Thomas D Boston ed A Different Vision Race and public policy Volume 2 of African American Economic Thought Series Routledge 1997 ISBN 978 0 415 09591 4 pp 206 253 p 217 Levtzion Nehemia 1973 Ancient Ghana and Mali New York Methuen amp Co Ltd pp 168 169 ISBN 0841904316 Michael A Gomez Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad John S Trimingham 1962 History of Islam in West Africa Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0192850386 pages 31 33 Boubacar Barry 1998 Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade Cambridge University Press pp 13 14 32 33 ISBN 978 0 521 59226 0 Wilks Ivor The Juula amp the Expansion of Islam into the Forest in N Levtzion and Randall L Pouwels eds History of Islam in Africa Athens Ohio University Press 2000 Haddy Tunkara Bah 2016 Sociocultural factors influencing fertility among the Soninke African Renaissance 13 1 2 31 44 Quote The Soninke society in the Gambia is primarily rural and highly gender stratified culture In the Soninke social organization everyone occupies a place Tal Tamari 1991 The Development of Caste Systems in West Africa The Journal of African History 32 2 Cambridge University Press 221 250 doi 10 1017 s0021853700025718 JSTOR 182616 S2CID 162509491 Monica Bella 1987 AFRICA STUDIES THE EXPLORATION OF ALTERNATIVE LAND TENURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE BAKEL SMALL IRRIGATED PERIMETERS University of Wisconsin Madison United States Agency for International Development Quote Soninke society is not egalitarian but rather is stratified into castes At the top there is the noble or hore caste The hore consist of debeaumme nyinvaaumme and the marabouts or religious leaders The power of the marabouts is less than that of other nobles Next are the artisan castes or nyakhamala Edouard Francois Manchuelle 1987 Background to Black African Emigration to France The Labor Migrations of the Soninke 1848 1987 University of California Press pp 50 52 Michael Gomez 2002 Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad The Precolonial State of Bundu Cambridge University Press p 24 ISBN 978 0 521 52847 4 Sean Hanretta 2009 Islam and Social Change in French West Africa History of an Emancipatory Community Cambridge University Press pp 37 with footnote 23 ISBN 978 0 521 89971 0 Mamadou Lamine Diawara 1990 La Graine de la Parole dimension sociale et politique des traditions orales du royaume de Jaara Mali du XVeme au milieu du XIXeme siecle volume 92 Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GmbH pages 35 37 41 45Further reading editPANOS Institute Guinee Symbiose ethnique les Diakhankes ces cousins des Peuls Panos Infos Vol 1 Les refugies en Afrique de l Ouest 2002 Lamin Ousman Sanneh The History of the Jakhanke People of Senegambia A Study of a Clerical Tradition in West African Islam London SOAS 1974 474 p Doctoral Thesis Lamin Ousman Sanneh The Jahanke The International Journal of African Historical Studies vol 14 no 4 1981 p 738 741 Pierre Smith Les Diakanke Histoire d une dispersion Cahiers du Centre de recherches anthropologiques no 4 1965 p 231 262 Pierre Smith Notes sur l organisation sociale des Diakanke Aspects particuliers a la region de Kedougou Cahiers du Centre de recherches anthropologiques no 4 1965 p 263 302 Pierre Smith Le reseau des villages diakhanke Objets et mondes Vol XII issue 4 Winter 1972 p 411 414 Abdou Kader Taslimanka Sylla Bani Israel du Senegal ou Ahl Diakha peuple de diaspora Editions Publibook Paris 448 p ISBN 9782748388626 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Jakhanke amp oldid 1199046485, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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