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Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera

December 09, 2023

General Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship over Spain began with a coup on 13 September 1923 and ended with his resignation on 28 January 1930. It took place during the wider reign of King Alfonso XIII. In establishing his dictatorship, Primo de Rivera ousted the liberal government led by Prime Minister Manuel García Prieto and initially gained the support of King Alfonso XIII and the army.[1] During the Military Directory (1923–1925), the dictatorship created the official party of the regime, the Unión Patriótica (UP). It also censored the Spanish press and worked to eliminate separatism in Catalonia.[2] Under Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, Spain won the Rif War, where Spanish forces fought Riffian tribes in Morocco.

(from left) Alfonso XIII and Miguel Primo de Rivera

Primo de Rivera's dictatorship established the Civil Directory in 1925. During the Civil Directory, Primo de Rivera created the National Assembly, where Spanish corporations had their interests represented. The dictatorship formed good relationships with Italy and increased its interactions with countries in Latin America. It invested heavily in Spanish infrastructure, such as roads and railways,[3] and expanded labour laws to assist nursing mothers in the workforce.[4] Throughout the dictatorship, women became an increasing percentage of Spain's skilled labour.[5] In 1929 an economic downturn occurred, and the value of the Spanish peseta fell.[6] The army's grievances with Primo de Rivera grew, and seeing this, the King stopped supporting the dictatorship. Primo de Rivera resigned in 1930, ending his dictatorship, and General Dámaso Berenguer succeeded him before Spain's Second Republic was established in 1931.

Background edit

Main article: Reign of Alfonso XIII of Spain

After the 1898 Spanish defeat to the United States, where Spain lost its remaining colonies in the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, Spain experienced increasing social strife. Along with the defeat of Annual in 1921 against Riffian tribesmen in Spain’s Moroccan Protectorate, Spain was dominated by a desire for regeneration.[7][8] Following the defeat at Annual, the Spanish parliament inquired into assigning responsibility for the loss.[9] Right before Primo de Rivera took over, the results of this inquiry were going to be released to the public, and they implicated many high-ranking military officials.[10] This exacerbated the deteriorating relationship between the politicians and the military,[11] who felt the politicians were to blame.[12] The military at first planned to install a new government led by General Francisco Aguilera, president of the Supreme Council of Military Justice, but they ultimately chose Primo de Rivera to lead this new government.[13]

 
Announcement of the new government of Primo de Rivera in Madrid, 1923

The coup (1923) edit

On 13 September, Primo de Rivera staged a successful coup d’état in Barcelona in the mould of 19th-century pronunciamientos.[14] With the army's support, he ousted the parliamentary government of Marquis Manuel García Prieto.[15] Primo de Rivera stated he would create a temporary government to save Spain from the corrupt politicians that had been mismanaging it since 1898.[16][note 1] Shortly after, on 14 September, King Alfonso XIII declared his support for Primo de Rivera's coup and dismissed the civilian government,[17] suspending the 1876 Spanish constitution.[14] He made Primo de Rivera the head of a new Military Directory, with powers to propose "whatever decrees are convenient" to the king.[18][19]

There was initially a lot of support in Spain for the coup. Not only were conservative newspapers like La Vanguardia supportive,[20][21] liberal media such as El Sol also stated their support for the regime on the understanding that Primo de Rivera would leave power in three months, as he initially declared.[22] In El Sol, Jose Ortega y Gasset wrote: "The alpha and omega of the military directory's task is to do away with the old politics. Their goal is so excellent as to preclude reservations."[13] The Catholic Church and the wider Spanish public also showed their backing of the dictatorship,[23][24] and the stock market rising immediately after the coup is indicative of the confidence Spaniards had in the new regime.[25] Some of the only detractors of the coup were the small Communist party (Partido Comunista de España) and Anarchist trade unions.[25][26]

The Military Directory (1923–1925) edit

Main article: Military directory of Primo de Rivera

Ideology edit

The Military Directory consisted of eight generals and one admiral.[27][28] They were subordinate to Primo de Rivera, who could alone approve Decrees for the Directory and present them to the king to sign.[18][29] Primo de Rivera framed the formation of his dictatorship as a patriotic action against the ineffectiveness of Spain's liberal system.[30][31][32][33] Through this, Primo de Rivera presented himself as Joaquín Costa's 'Iron Surgeon,' who would perform surgery on Spain to cure the political corruption and social chaos that plagued it.[34][31] He stated: "I have no experience in government. Our methods are as simple as they are ingenious. They are methods for which the good of the [homeland] dictates and our resolutions are taken while we are kneeling at the shrine of the national spirit."[35] Primo de Rivera connected many of his speeches with religious themes, and Catholicism was integral to his dictatorship's discourse.[36][37] Primo de Rivera stated how disseminating patriotism was 'preaching',[37] and he collaborated with the Catholic Church throughout his dictatorship to promote patriotism and patriotic ideas on a large scale.[38][39][40][34][37]

 
Emblem of the Unión Patriótica. It displays the date of Primo de Rivera's coup: 13 September 1923.

Policies edit

Primo de Rivera ordered the termination of all local governments as he attempted to remove political corruption in Spain,[41][34] replacing the civil officials with military supervised positions.[41][42][34][43] In April 1924, Primo de Rivera created the Unión Patriótica (UP).[44][45] UP was the official party of the dictatorship, and it united around vague patriotic ideas,[46][47] taking the motto: Nation, Church, and King.[35][48] The party's creation aimed to give the dictatorship credibility and maintain the public's conformity under Primo de Rivera's dictatorship.[49][50] Once in power, Primo de Rivera's dictatorship quickly enforced laws against separatism, which banned teaching the Catalan language,[51] singing the Catalan national anthem, and displaying the Catalan flag.[2][52] After the coup, the dictatorship also imposed rigid censorship on the press.[53][52][54] It censored all publications, telephones, and telegraphs and encouraged them to promote patriotic ideas.[55]

The Rif War edit

Primo de Rivera promised early into the Military Directory that he would find a quick solution to the Rif War,[56][57] where Riffian rebels opposed the Spanish colonial presence in northern Morocco.[58] Primo de Rivera initially aimed to negotiate with Abd-el-Krim, the Riffian leader, to end the conflict. He withdrew 29,000 recruits from Spain's Moroccan Protectorate by the end of 1923 and an additional 26,000 by March 1924.[59][60] In total, Primo de Rivera abandoned 180 military bases by mid-December.[61] In doing so, he also aimed to reduce the costs of the campaign to Spain and the dictatorship.[62][63] This withdrawal displeased many africanistas in the army, who encouraged a more aggressive policy in Morocco.[64] The pressure from the africanistas,[65] along with an escalating Riffian offensive in 1924, persuaded Primo de Rivera that continuing his withdrawal would have severe political consequences and could endanger his regime.[66][67] His dictatorship secured French aid in 1925, and following a successful military operation in Al Hoceima, Spain and France pushed back Abd-el-Krim's forces and regained some control of the Spanish protectorate.[68][69] After the dictatorship's victory, the Military Directory organised celebrations country-wide.[70] It awarded Primo de Rivera a high honour in the Spanish military, the Gran Cruz Laureada de San Fernando.[71][70]

The Civil Directory (1925–1930) edit

Main article: Civil Directory of Primo de Rivera

The new government edit

In December 1925, Primo de Rivera's dictatorship transitioned from the Military Directory to the Civil Directory.[72][73] During the Civil Directory, Primo de Rivera created the National Assembly, where corporate interests were represented rather than voters' individual interests.[74][75][76] Groups such as the UP, the Church, and the army were represented in the National Assembly, along with local governments and various economic organisations.[74] Primo de Rivera also decreed that the military officials still holding government positions must return to their military duties, and civil governors were appointed to replace them.[77] With the creation of the Civil Directory, Primo de Rivera rejected returning to a parliamentary system, as promised in 1923,[52][78] and oriented towards a long-term rule for his dictatorship.[79][80]

 
Poster for the 1929 Iberian-American Exhibition in Seville.

Foreign policy edit

Primo de Rivera's dictatorship formed good relationships with Fascist Italy.[81] The dictatorship banned the press from attacking Fascist Italy, and Primo de Rivera spoke of his admiration for Italy's Prime Minister, Mussolini.[82] Primo de Rivera also linked his dictatorship to Spain's former colonies in Latin America.[83][84][85] The dictatorship organised many initiatives to further these relations, such as the 1929 Iberian-American Exhibition in Seville, where it invited Latin American countries to attend.[86][87] It signed commercial treaties with Argentina and Cuba,[88] and established radio-telegraph links with Uruguay[89] and Brazil, among other Latin-American countries.[88][90] After the Rif War, Primo de Rivera's dictatorship pushed for Tangier to be included in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco.[91][92] A conference with France in 1927 failed to settle the matter, as did a 1928 conference with France, Italy, and Britain. All the dictatorship gained was the post of the city's chief of police and improvements in the protection of arms trafficking in Tangier's international zone.[93] Primo de Rivera also launched an unsuccessful campaign for Spain to have a permanent seat in the League of Nations in 1926, leaving and re-joining the League of Nations in the process, still as a non-permanent member.[94]

Economic policies edit

Primo de Rivera's dictatorship nationalised Spain's economy throughout the Civil Directory.[95] It suppressed free trade and strictly supervised all economic activity in Spain.[96] In 1927, the dictatorship created CAMPSA, a Spanish oil monopoly, by confiscating the installations and sales outlets of private oil companies in Spain, including large foreign firms like Shell.[97][98][99] Primo de Rivera also raised tariffs on foreign goods, with the League of Nations labelling Spain the most protectionist country in the world in 1927.[100][101] Spanish goods were promoted over foreign goods, and the dictatorship launched campaigns that presented buying Spanish goods as patriotic while it criticised Spaniards who assumed that foreign goods were better quality than Spanish goods.[95]

Primo de Rivera's dictatorship increased spending on public infrastructure and worked to improve roads, railways,[3] irrigation networks,[96] and more.[102] The dictatorship paid for these improvements by taking on large amounts of debt,[103] and this led to a temporary increase in economic growth.[104][105][106][107][108][note 2] Originally, the dictatorship was going to fund these improvements by implementing a progressive tax system, where Spain's wealthiest people would pay more in tax. This plan was dropped after much resistance from the upper classes.[109] In 1929, Spain experienced an economic downturn that coincided with the start of the Great Depression, and Spaniards lost confidence in Primo de Rivera's dictatorship.[110] The dictatorship also struggled to maintain the exchange rate of Spain's currency, the peseta, and no economic policy it tried stopped the peseta from falling in value.[111][112][113]

Social change edit

 
Clara Campoamor – who refused a seat on the National Assembly[114] – in 1930
See also: Women during the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera

In 1924, the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera gave unmarried women the right to vote in local elections if they were older than 23 and not subject to any parental authority.[note 3] Women were also allowed to run for office in town councils,[115] and fourteen women were invited to be on the National Assembly in 1927.[116][114] However, Primo de Rivera made his view on the role of women clear, saying: "Women can do as much good as men, and undertake and accomplish all the tasks performed by men. But there is one that is essential in women: housekeeping, and that is what really underscores their importance."[117] The dictatorship encouraged large families, and in 1926 it started subsidising families with more than eight children.[118][note 4] The dictatorship also protected the rights of individual workers with its 1926 labour code. It introduced maternity benefits and allowed nursing mothers a paid hour each day to feed their babies.[4][119] In November 1926, the dictatorship created the National Corporative Association,[120] where committees representing trade and industry would meet with an equal proportion of employers and employee representatives. They discussed legislation and aimed to solve labour conflicts between the groups.[121][122][123] Women's participation in the workforce as skilled workers also increased rapidly from 1925 to 1930, as did the percentage of women in apprenticeship programs, which rose from 32.6% to 36.4% throughout the late 1920s. James Rial notes that these changes in women's status occurred without any political undertakings from the dictatorship.[5]

The dictatorship's collapse (1930) edit

The economic struggles of 1929 and the dictatorship's failure to stabilise the value of the peseta were large hits to its reputation.[6][124] According to Carr, "it was not, however, the collapse of prosperity 1929 that brought down the regime: the fundamental failure was a political failure."[125] Primo de Rivera failed to establish political legitimacy for his rule. The 1876 constitution was suspended when he came to power, and the new constitution created by the National Assembly was rejected by the monarchists, liberals, and republicans.[126] The army also had grievances with Primo de Rivera and his dictatorship. These complaints mainly came from members of Spain's artillery corps, whom Primo de Rivera suspended in 1926.[127][128] As the king saw Primo de Rivera lose support among the army, he could no longer support Primo de Rivera's dictatorship,[129] and Primo de Rivera resigned on 28 January 1930,[130][131] ending his dictatorship.

 
Winners (by majority of seats) in Spain's judicial district capitals for the 1931 local elections.
  Republicans
  Monarchists
  No data

Legacy edit

See also: Dictablanda of Dámaso Berenguer and Provisional Government of the Second Spanish Republic

Following Primo de Rivera's resignation, the king appointed General Damaso Berenguer as the new Prime Minister of Spain.[132] Berenguer prepared to return to the parliamentary monarchy that existed before Primo de Rivera's dictatorship. This plan was opposed by republicans, socialists, and people like Niceto Alcalá‐Zamora, who no longer supported Alfonso XIII or the monarchy.[133][134][135] In Spain's next elections in 1931, republicans and their coalition (including the communists and socialists) won a majority of city council seats over monarchists in urban centres and provincial capitals.[136][137] These results demonstrated how the public no longer favoured King Alfonso XIII.[138][139] He resigned after the election,[140] and Spain's Second Republic was established on the 14[136][141][142] or 15[143][144] of April 1931.

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ For a translated version of Primo de Rivera's manifesto to Spain after his coup, see Cowans 2003, pp. 126–128
  2. ^ The sources disagree on the extent of the economic growth and how much of it was caused by the dictatorship's spending on public works.
  3. ^ Ruiz & Rubio-Marín 2012, pp. 292–293 see this as an attempt by Primo de Rivera to gain women's support.
  4. ^ According to Rial 1978, p. 215, this policy had little effect on Spain's falling birth rate.

References edit

  1. ^ Martin 2019, pp. 263–264.
  2. ^ a b Quiroga 2007, pp. 49–50.
  3. ^ a b Carr 1966, pp. 579–581.
  4. ^ a b Martin 2019, p. 270.
  5. ^ a b Rial 1978, p. 216.
  6. ^ a b Martin 2019, pp. 278–279.
  7. ^ San Narciso, Barral-Martínez & Armenteros 2020, p. 94.
  8. ^ Smith 2007, p. 7.
  9. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, p. 20.
  10. ^ Martin 2019, p. 263.
  11. ^ James & Tanner 2017, p. 46.
  12. ^ Carr 1966, p. 522.
  13. ^ a b Martin 2019, p. 264.
  14. ^ a b Ben-Ami 1977, p. 65.
  15. ^ Martin 2019, pp. 263–64.
  16. ^ Cowans 2003, pp. 126–27.
  17. ^ Quiroga 2007, p. 2.
  18. ^ a b Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 75–76.
  19. ^ San Narciso, Barral-Martínez & Armenteros 2020, p. 8.
  20. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, p. 61.
  21. ^ Dalmau 2017, p. xii.
  22. ^ Quiroga 2007, p. 33.
  23. ^ Salvadó 1999, pp. 48–49.
  24. ^ James & Tanner 2017, p. 51.
  25. ^ a b Quiroga 2007, pp. 33–34.
  26. ^ Martin 2019, pp. 281–82.
  27. ^ Casanova & Gil Andrés 2014, p. 88.
  28. ^ Rial 1978, pp. 56–57.
  29. ^ Desmond 1924, p. 466.
  30. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, p. 1983.
  31. ^ a b Quiroga 2007, pp. 35–36.
  32. ^ Ben-Ami 1979, p. 50.
  33. ^ Spencer 1927, pp. 542–543.
  34. ^ a b c d Radcliff 2017, p. 148.
  35. ^ a b Carr 1966, p. 566.
  36. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 102–7.
  37. ^ a b c Quiroga 2007, pp. 42–43.
  38. ^ Quiroga 2020, pp. 277–279.
  39. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 102–103.
  40. ^ Callahan 2000, pp. 151–153.
  41. ^ a b Rial 1978, pp. 54–59.
  42. ^ Tortella & Ruiz 2013, p. 102.
  43. ^ Salvadó 1999, p. 52.
  44. ^ Payne 1999, pp. 28–29.
  45. ^ Quiroga 2007, pp. 166–167.
  46. ^ Salvadó 1999, pp. 56–57.
  47. ^ Quiroga 2007, p. 167.
  48. ^ Rico-Gómez 2021, p. 385.
  49. ^ Salvadó 1999, p. 56.
  50. ^ Watson 1992, p. 45.
  51. ^ Martin 2019, pp. 265–266.
  52. ^ a b c Radcliff 2017, p. 149.
  53. ^ Martin 2019, p. 265.
  54. ^ Rial 1986, p. 60.
  55. ^ Quiroga 2007, p. 34.
  56. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 108–109.
  57. ^ Payne 1967, pp. 208, 210.
  58. ^ Pennell 1982, p. 20.
  59. ^ Fleming & Fleming 1977, p. 87.
  60. ^ Payne 1967, pp. 208–209.
  61. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, p. 113.
  62. ^ Fleming & Fleming 1977, pp. 86–87.
  63. ^ Seoane 1998, p. 53.
  64. ^ Fleming & Fleming 1977, pp. 87–88.
  65. ^ Payne 1967, pp. 210–213.
  66. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, p. 112.
  67. ^ Quiroga 2007, p. 39.
  68. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 114–116.
  69. ^ Fleming & Fleming 1977, pp. 90–94.
  70. ^ a b Quiroga 2007, pp. 41–42.
  71. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, p. 116.
  72. ^ Watson 1992, p. 47.
  73. ^ Desmond 1927, p. 283.
  74. ^ a b Radcliff 2017, pp. 149–150.
  75. ^ Payne 1999, p. 34.
  76. ^ Quiroga 2007, p. 65.
  77. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, p. 208.
  78. ^ Rial 1978, p. 65.
  79. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 206–207.
  80. ^ Salvadó 1999, pp. 55–56.
  81. ^ Saz 1999, p. 55.
  82. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 190–191.
  83. ^ Desmond 1924, pp. 471–472.
  84. ^ Saz 1999, p. 54.
  85. ^ San Narciso, Barral-Martínez & Armenteros 2020, pp. 106–107.
  86. ^ Martínez del Campo 2021, p. 209.
  87. ^ Souto 2017, pp. 82–83.
  88. ^ a b Ben-Ami 1983, p. 204.
  89. ^ Gray & Fairbank 1930, p. 208.
  90. ^ Lopez 2010, pp. 1–2.
  91. ^ Pack 2019, p. 199.
  92. ^ The New York Times 1926, p. 8.
  93. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 119–20.
  94. ^ Saz 1999, pp. 58–64.
  95. ^ a b Quiroga 2007, pp. 171–172.
  96. ^ a b Radcliff 2017, p. 153.
  97. ^ Carr 1966, p. 579.
  98. ^ Whealey 1988, p. 133.
  99. ^ Carreras, Tafunell & Torres 2000, p. 230.
  100. ^ Martin 2019, p. 277.
  101. ^ Sharman 2021, p. 200.
  102. ^ Salvadó 1999, p. 54.
  103. ^ Payne 1999, p. 32.
  104. ^ Radcliff 2017, pp. 153–154.
  105. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 274–281.
  106. ^ Rial 1978, p. 265.
  107. ^ Martin 2019, pp. 277–278.
  108. ^ Carr 1966, pp. 580–581.
  109. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 268–270.
  110. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 334–338.
  111. ^ Jorge-Sotelo 2019, pp. 49–50.
  112. ^ Rial 1978, pp. 157–166.
  113. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, p. 338-349.
  114. ^ a b Ruiz & Rubio-Marín 2012, p. 293.
  115. ^ Ruiz & Rubio-Marín 2012, p. 292.
  116. ^ Rial 1978, p. 212.
  117. ^ Aresti 2020, p. 259.
  118. ^ Rial 1978, p. 215.
  119. ^ Rial 1978, pp. 210–215.
  120. ^ Martin 2019, pp. 270–272.
  121. ^ Quiroga 2007, pp. 68–69.
  122. ^ Salvadó 1999, pp. 53–54.
  123. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 290–291.
  124. ^ Ben-Ami 1983, pp. 346–348.
  125. ^ Carr 1966, p. 581.
  126. ^ Ben-Ami 1977, pp. 65, 71.
  127. ^ Payne 1967, pp. 243–247.
  128. ^ Carr 1966, pp. 584–585.
  129. ^ Carr 1966, pp. 583–590.
  130. ^ Puzzo 1962, p. 24.
  131. ^ Berman 2019, p. 267.
  132. ^ Quiroga 2007, p. 101.
  133. ^ Radcliff 2017, pp. 155–156.
  134. ^ Salvadó 1999, p. 61-64.
  135. ^ Martin 2019, pp. 288–292.
  136. ^ a b La Parra-Pérez 2020, pp. 569–570.
  137. ^ Greene 1976, p. 71.
  138. ^ Hogan 1937, pp. 28–31.
  139. ^ Carr 1966, pp. 591–602.
  140. ^ Riley 2010, p. 93.
  141. ^ Marichal 1981, p. 257.
  142. ^ Hogan 1937, p. 31.
  143. ^ Boyd 1984, pp. 158–159.
  144. ^ Radcliff 2017, p. 156.

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  • Lopez, Jose M. Romeo (2010). The First Spanish Short Wave Stations. Development of Radio & Tv Technology. Second IEEE Region 8 Conference on the History of Telecommunications Conference, HISTELCON 2010. Madrid. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1109/HISTELCON.2010.5735273. ISBN 978-1-4244-7450-9.
  • Whealey, Robert H. (1988). "Anglo-American Oil Confronts Spanish Nationalism, 1927–31: A Study of Economic Imperialism". Diplomatic History. 12 (2): 111–126. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.1988.tb00467.x.
  • Carreras, Albert; Tafunell, Xavier; Torres, Eugenio (2000). "The Rise and Decline of Spanish State-Owned Firms". The Rise and Fall of State-Owned Enterprise in the Western World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521780810.
  • Sharman, Nick (2021). "Economic Nationalism to Autarky". Britain's Informal Empire in Spain, 1830-1950: Free Trade, Protectionism and Military Power. Cham: Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-030-77949-8.
  • Jorge-Sotelo, Enrique (2019). 'Escaping' the Great Depression: Monetary Policy, Financial Crises and Banking in Spain, 1921-1935 (PhD thesis). London School of Economics and Political Science.
  • Puzzo, Dante A. (1962). .Spain and the Great Powers 1936–1941. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231891097.
  • La Parra-Pérez, Álvaro (2020). "For a Fistful of Pesetas? The Political Economy of the Army in a Nonconsolidated Democracy: The Second Spanish Republic and Civil War (1931–9)". The Economic History Review. 73 (2): 565–594. doi:10.1111/ehr.12881. S2CID 201334205.
  • Greene, Thomas R. (1976). "The English Catholic Press and the Second Spanish Republic, 1931–1936". Church History. 45 (1): 70–84. doi:10.2307/3164566. JSTOR 3164566. S2CID 159929227.
  • Hogan, Agnes M. (1937). The Establishment of the Second Spanish Republic (M.A. thesis). Fordham University.
  • Riley, Dylan J. (2010). The Civic Foundations of Fascism in Europe: Italy, Spain, and Romania, 1870–1945. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781786635259.
  • Marichal, Juan (1981). "The Transitional Significance of the Second Spanish Republic and the Civil War (1931-1939)". Harvard Library Bulletin. XXIX (3): 255–260.
  • Boyd, Carolyn P. (1984). "'Responsibilities' and the Second Spanish Republic 1931-6". European History Quarterly. 14 (2): 151–182. doi:10.1177/026569148401400202. S2CID 144985089.*
  • Ruiz, Blanca Rodriguez; Rubio-Marín, Ruth (2012). The Struggle for Female Suffrage in Europe: Voting to Become Citizens. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-22991-4.
  • Pack, Sasha D. (2019). "The Blighted Republic". The Deepest Border. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9781503607538.
  • The New York Times (20 August 1926). "SPAIN AND ITALY JOUST ON TANGIER; Premier de Rivera Repeats Demand That Zone Be Included in Spanish Protectorate". The New York Times. p. 8.

External links edit

December 09, 2023
dictatorship, primo, rivera, general, miguel, primo, rivera, dictatorship, over, spain, began, with, coup, september, 1923, ended, with, resignation, january, 1930, took, place, during, wider, reign, king, alfonso, xiii, establishing, dictatorship, primo, rive. General Miguel Primo de Rivera s dictatorship over Spain began with a coup on 13 September 1923 and ended with his resignation on 28 January 1930 It took place during the wider reign of King Alfonso XIII In establishing his dictatorship Primo de Rivera ousted the liberal government led by Prime Minister Manuel Garcia Prieto and initially gained the support of King Alfonso XIII and the army 1 During the Military Directory 1923 1925 the dictatorship created the official party of the regime the Union Patriotica UP It also censored the Spanish press and worked to eliminate separatism in Catalonia 2 Under Primo de Rivera s dictatorship Spain won the Rif War where Spanish forces fought Riffian tribes in Morocco from left Alfonso XIII and Miguel Primo de RiveraPrimo de Rivera s dictatorship established the Civil Directory in 1925 During the Civil Directory Primo de Rivera created the National Assembly where Spanish corporations had their interests represented The dictatorship formed good relationships with Italy and increased its interactions with countries in Latin America It invested heavily in Spanish infrastructure such as roads and railways 3 and expanded labour laws to assist nursing mothers in the workforce 4 Throughout the dictatorship women became an increasing percentage of Spain s skilled labour 5 In 1929 an economic downturn occurred and the value of the Spanish peseta fell 6 The army s grievances with Primo de Rivera grew and seeing this the King stopped supporting the dictatorship Primo de Rivera resigned in 1930 ending his dictatorship and General Damaso Berenguer succeeded him before Spain s Second Republic was established in 1931 Contents 1 Background 2 The coup 1923 3 The Military Directory 1923 1925 3 1 Ideology 3 2 Policies 3 3 The Rif War 4 The Civil Directory 1925 1930 4 1 The new government 4 2 Foreign policy 4 3 Economic policies 4 4 Social change 5 The dictatorship s collapse 1930 5 1 Legacy 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External linksBackground editMain article Reign of Alfonso XIII of Spain After the 1898 Spanish defeat to the United States where Spain lost its remaining colonies in the Philippines Cuba and Puerto Rico Spain experienced increasing social strife Along with the defeat of Annual in 1921 against Riffian tribesmen in Spain s Moroccan Protectorate Spain was dominated by a desire for regeneration 7 8 Following the defeat at Annual the Spanish parliament inquired into assigning responsibility for the loss 9 Right before Primo de Rivera took over the results of this inquiry were going to be released to the public and they implicated many high ranking military officials 10 This exacerbated the deteriorating relationship between the politicians and the military 11 who felt the politicians were to blame 12 The military at first planned to install a new government led by General Francisco Aguilera president of the Supreme Council of Military Justice but they ultimately chose Primo de Rivera to lead this new government 13 nbsp Announcement of the new government of Primo de Rivera in Madrid 1923The coup 1923 editOn 13 September Primo de Rivera staged a successful coup d etat in Barcelona in the mould of 19th century pronunciamientos 14 With the army s support he ousted the parliamentary government of Marquis Manuel Garcia Prieto 15 Primo de Rivera stated he would create a temporary government to save Spain from the corrupt politicians that had been mismanaging it since 1898 16 note 1 Shortly after on 14 September King Alfonso XIII declared his support for Primo de Rivera s coup and dismissed the civilian government 17 suspending the 1876 Spanish constitution 14 He made Primo de Rivera the head of a new Military Directory with powers to propose whatever decrees are convenient to the king 18 19 There was initially a lot of support in Spain for the coup Not only were conservative newspapers like La Vanguardia supportive 20 21 liberal media such as El Sol also stated their support for the regime on the understanding that Primo de Rivera would leave power in three months as he initially declared 22 In El Sol Jose Ortega y Gasset wrote The alpha and omega of the military directory s task is to do away with the old politics Their goal is so excellent as to preclude reservations 13 The Catholic Church and the wider Spanish public also showed their backing of the dictatorship 23 24 and the stock market rising immediately after the coup is indicative of the confidence Spaniards had in the new regime 25 Some of the only detractors of the coup were the small Communist party Partido Comunista de Espana and Anarchist trade unions 25 26 The Military Directory 1923 1925 editMain article Military directory of Primo de Rivera Ideology edit The Military Directory consisted of eight generals and one admiral 27 28 They were subordinate to Primo de Rivera who could alone approve Decrees for the Directory and present them to the king to sign 18 29 Primo de Rivera framed the formation of his dictatorship as a patriotic action against the ineffectiveness of Spain s liberal system 30 31 32 33 Through this Primo de Rivera presented himself as Joaquin Costa s Iron Surgeon who would perform surgery on Spain to cure the political corruption and social chaos that plagued it 34 31 He stated I have no experience in government Our methods are as simple as they are ingenious They are methods for which the good of the homeland dictates and our resolutions are taken while we are kneeling at the shrine of the national spirit 35 Primo de Rivera connected many of his speeches with religious themes and Catholicism was integral to his dictatorship s discourse 36 37 Primo de Rivera stated how disseminating patriotism was preaching 37 and he collaborated with the Catholic Church throughout his dictatorship to promote patriotism and patriotic ideas on a large scale 38 39 40 34 37 nbsp Emblem of the Union Patriotica It displays the date of Primo de Rivera s coup 13 September 1923 Policies edit Primo de Rivera ordered the termination of all local governments as he attempted to remove political corruption in Spain 41 34 replacing the civil officials with military supervised positions 41 42 34 43 In April 1924 Primo de Rivera created the Union Patriotica UP 44 45 UP was the official party of the dictatorship and it united around vague patriotic ideas 46 47 taking the motto Nation Church and King 35 48 The party s creation aimed to give the dictatorship credibility and maintain the public s conformity under Primo de Rivera s dictatorship 49 50 Once in power Primo de Rivera s dictatorship quickly enforced laws against separatism which banned teaching the Catalan language 51 singing the Catalan national anthem and displaying the Catalan flag 2 52 After the coup the dictatorship also imposed rigid censorship on the press 53 52 54 It censored all publications telephones and telegraphs and encouraged them to promote patriotic ideas 55 The Rif War edit Primo de Rivera promised early into the Military Directory that he would find a quick solution to the Rif War 56 57 where Riffian rebels opposed the Spanish colonial presence in northern Morocco 58 Primo de Rivera initially aimed to negotiate with Abd el Krim the Riffian leader to end the conflict He withdrew 29 000 recruits from Spain s Moroccan Protectorate by the end of 1923 and an additional 26 000 by March 1924 59 60 In total Primo de Rivera abandoned 180 military bases by mid December 61 In doing so he also aimed to reduce the costs of the campaign to Spain and the dictatorship 62 63 This withdrawal displeased many africanistas in the army who encouraged a more aggressive policy in Morocco 64 The pressure from the africanistas 65 along with an escalating Riffian offensive in 1924 persuaded Primo de Rivera that continuing his withdrawal would have severe political consequences and could endanger his regime 66 67 His dictatorship secured French aid in 1925 and following a successful military operation in Al Hoceima Spain and France pushed back Abd el Krim s forces and regained some control of the Spanish protectorate 68 69 After the dictatorship s victory the Military Directory organised celebrations country wide 70 It awarded Primo de Rivera a high honour in the Spanish military the Gran Cruz Laureada de San Fernando 71 70 The Civil Directory 1925 1930 editMain article Civil Directory of Primo de Rivera The new government edit In December 1925 Primo de Rivera s dictatorship transitioned from the Military Directory to the Civil Directory 72 73 During the Civil Directory Primo de Rivera created the National Assembly where corporate interests were represented rather than voters individual interests 74 75 76 Groups such as the UP the Church and the army were represented in the National Assembly along with local governments and various economic organisations 74 Primo de Rivera also decreed that the military officials still holding government positions must return to their military duties and civil governors were appointed to replace them 77 With the creation of the Civil Directory Primo de Rivera rejected returning to a parliamentary system as promised in 1923 52 78 and oriented towards a long term rule for his dictatorship 79 80 nbsp Poster for the 1929 Iberian American Exhibition in Seville Foreign policy edit Primo de Rivera s dictatorship formed good relationships with Fascist Italy 81 The dictatorship banned the press from attacking Fascist Italy and Primo de Rivera spoke of his admiration for Italy s Prime Minister Mussolini 82 Primo de Rivera also linked his dictatorship to Spain s former colonies in Latin America 83 84 85 The dictatorship organised many initiatives to further these relations such as the 1929 Iberian American Exhibition in Seville where it invited Latin American countries to attend 86 87 It signed commercial treaties with Argentina and Cuba 88 and established radio telegraph links with Uruguay 89 and Brazil among other Latin American countries 88 90 After the Rif War Primo de Rivera s dictatorship pushed for Tangier to be included in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco 91 92 A conference with France in 1927 failed to settle the matter as did a 1928 conference with France Italy and Britain All the dictatorship gained was the post of the city s chief of police and improvements in the protection of arms trafficking in Tangier s international zone 93 Primo de Rivera also launched an unsuccessful campaign for Spain to have a permanent seat in the League of Nations in 1926 leaving and re joining the League of Nations in the process still as a non permanent member 94 Economic policies edit Primo de Rivera s dictatorship nationalised Spain s economy throughout the Civil Directory 95 It suppressed free trade and strictly supervised all economic activity in Spain 96 In 1927 the dictatorship created CAMPSA a Spanish oil monopoly by confiscating the installations and sales outlets of private oil companies in Spain including large foreign firms like Shell 97 98 99 Primo de Rivera also raised tariffs on foreign goods with the League of Nations labelling Spain the most protectionist country in the world in 1927 100 101 Spanish goods were promoted over foreign goods and the dictatorship launched campaigns that presented buying Spanish goods as patriotic while it criticised Spaniards who assumed that foreign goods were better quality than Spanish goods 95 Primo de Rivera s dictatorship increased spending on public infrastructure and worked to improve roads railways 3 irrigation networks 96 and more 102 The dictatorship paid for these improvements by taking on large amounts of debt 103 and this led to a temporary increase in economic growth 104 105 106 107 108 note 2 Originally the dictatorship was going to fund these improvements by implementing a progressive tax system where Spain s wealthiest people would pay more in tax This plan was dropped after much resistance from the upper classes 109 In 1929 Spain experienced an economic downturn that coincided with the start of the Great Depression and Spaniards lost confidence in Primo de Rivera s dictatorship 110 The dictatorship also struggled to maintain the exchange rate of Spain s currency the peseta and no economic policy it tried stopped the peseta from falling in value 111 112 113 Social change edit nbsp Clara Campoamor who refused a seat on the National Assembly 114 in 1930See also Women during the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera In 1924 the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera gave unmarried women the right to vote in local elections if they were older than 23 and not subject to any parental authority note 3 Women were also allowed to run for office in town councils 115 and fourteen women were invited to be on the National Assembly in 1927 116 114 However Primo de Rivera made his view on the role of women clear saying Women can do as much good as men and undertake and accomplish all the tasks performed by men But there is one that is essential in women housekeeping and that is what really underscores their importance 117 The dictatorship encouraged large families and in 1926 it started subsidising families with more than eight children 118 note 4 The dictatorship also protected the rights of individual workers with its 1926 labour code It introduced maternity benefits and allowed nursing mothers a paid hour each day to feed their babies 4 119 In November 1926 the dictatorship created the National Corporative Association 120 where committees representing trade and industry would meet with an equal proportion of employers and employee representatives They discussed legislation and aimed to solve labour conflicts between the groups 121 122 123 Women s participation in the workforce as skilled workers also increased rapidly from 1925 to 1930 as did the percentage of women in apprenticeship programs which rose from 32 6 to 36 4 throughout the late 1920s James Rial notes that these changes in women s status occurred without any political undertakings from the dictatorship 5 The dictatorship s collapse 1930 editThe economic struggles of 1929 and the dictatorship s failure to stabilise the value of the peseta were large hits to its reputation 6 124 According to Carr it was not however the collapse of prosperity 1929 that brought down the regime the fundamental failure was a political failure 125 Primo de Rivera failed to establish political legitimacy for his rule The 1876 constitution was suspended when he came to power and the new constitution created by the National Assembly was rejected by the monarchists liberals and republicans 126 The army also had grievances with Primo de Rivera and his dictatorship These complaints mainly came from members of Spain s artillery corps whom Primo de Rivera suspended in 1926 127 128 As the king saw Primo de Rivera lose support among the army he could no longer support Primo de Rivera s dictatorship 129 and Primo de Rivera resigned on 28 January 1930 130 131 ending his dictatorship nbsp Winners by majority of seats in Spain s judicial district capitals for the 1931 local elections Republicans Monarchists No dataLegacy edit See also Dictablanda of Damaso Berenguer and Provisional Government of the Second Spanish Republic Following Primo de Rivera s resignation the king appointed General Damaso Berenguer as the new Prime Minister of Spain 132 Berenguer prepared to return to the parliamentary monarchy that existed before Primo de Rivera s dictatorship This plan was opposed by republicans socialists and people like Niceto Alcala Zamora who no longer supported Alfonso XIII or the monarchy 133 134 135 In Spain s next elections in 1931 republicans and their coalition including the communists and socialists won a majority of city council seats over monarchists in urban centres and provincial capitals 136 137 These results demonstrated how the public no longer favoured King Alfonso XIII 138 139 He resigned after the election 140 and Spain s Second Republic was established on the 14 136 141 142 or 15 143 144 of April 1931 See also editEuropean interwar dictatorships Restoration Spain Militar Directory of Primo de Rivera Civil Directory of Primo de RiveraNotes edit For a translated version of Primo de Rivera s manifesto to Spain after his coup see Cowans 2003 pp 126 128 The sources disagree on the extent of the economic growth and how much of it was caused by the dictatorship s spending on public works Ruiz amp Rubio Marin 2012 pp 292 293 see this as an attempt by Primo de Rivera to gain women s support According to Rial 1978 p 215 this policy had little effect on Spain s falling birth rate References edit Martin 2019 pp 263 264 a b Quiroga 2007 pp 49 50 a b Carr 1966 pp 579 581 a b Martin 2019 p 270 a b Rial 1978 p 216 a b Martin 2019 pp 278 279 San Narciso Barral Martinez amp Armenteros 2020 p 94 Smith 2007 p 7 Ben Ami 1983 p 20 Martin 2019 p 263 James amp Tanner 2017 p 46 Carr 1966 p 522 a b Martin 2019 p 264 a b Ben Ami 1977 p 65 Martin 2019 pp 263 64 Cowans 2003 pp 126 27 Quiroga 2007 p 2 a b Ben Ami 1983 pp 75 76 San Narciso Barral Martinez amp Armenteros 2020 p 8 Ben Ami 1983 p 61 Dalmau 2017 p xii Quiroga 2007 p 33 Salvado 1999 pp 48 49 James amp Tanner 2017 p 51 a b Quiroga 2007 pp 33 34 Martin 2019 pp 281 82 Casanova amp Gil Andres 2014 p 88 Rial 1978 pp 56 57 Desmond 1924 p 466 Ben Ami 1983 p 1983 a b Quiroga 2007 pp 35 36 Ben Ami 1979 p 50 Spencer 1927 pp 542 543 a b c d Radcliff 2017 p 148 a b Carr 1966 p 566 Ben Ami 1983 pp 102 7 a b c Quiroga 2007 pp 42 43 Quiroga 2020 pp 277 279 Ben Ami 1983 pp 102 103 Callahan 2000 pp 151 153 a b Rial 1978 pp 54 59 Tortella amp Ruiz 2013 p 102 Salvado 1999 p 52 Payne 1999 pp 28 29 Quiroga 2007 pp 166 167 Salvado 1999 pp 56 57 Quiroga 2007 p 167 Rico Gomez 2021 p 385 Salvado 1999 p 56 Watson 1992 p 45 Martin 2019 pp 265 266 a b c Radcliff 2017 p 149 Martin 2019 p 265 Rial 1986 p 60 Quiroga 2007 p 34 Ben Ami 1983 pp 108 109 Payne 1967 pp 208 210 Pennell 1982 p 20 Fleming amp Fleming 1977 p 87 Payne 1967 pp 208 209 Ben Ami 1983 p 113 Fleming amp Fleming 1977 pp 86 87 Seoane 1998 p 53 Fleming amp Fleming 1977 pp 87 88 Payne 1967 pp 210 213 Ben Ami 1983 p 112 Quiroga 2007 p 39 Ben Ami 1983 pp 114 116 Fleming amp Fleming 1977 pp 90 94 a b Quiroga 2007 pp 41 42 Ben Ami 1983 p 116 Watson 1992 p 47 Desmond 1927 p 283 a b Radcliff 2017 pp 149 150 Payne 1999 p 34 Quiroga 2007 p 65 Ben Ami 1983 p 208 Rial 1978 p 65 Ben Ami 1983 pp 206 207 Salvado 1999 pp 55 56 Saz 1999 p 55 Ben Ami 1983 pp 190 191 Desmond 1924 pp 471 472 Saz 1999 p 54 San Narciso Barral Martinez amp Armenteros 2020 pp 106 107 Martinez del Campo 2021 p 209 Souto 2017 pp 82 83 a b Ben Ami 1983 p 204 Gray amp Fairbank 1930 p 208 Lopez 2010 pp 1 2 Pack 2019 p 199 The New York Times 1926 p 8 Ben Ami 1983 pp 119 20 Saz 1999 pp 58 64 a b Quiroga 2007 pp 171 172 a b Radcliff 2017 p 153 Carr 1966 p 579 Whealey 1988 p 133 Carreras Tafunell amp Torres 2000 p 230 Martin 2019 p 277 Sharman 2021 p 200 Salvado 1999 p 54 Payne 1999 p 32 Radcliff 2017 pp 153 154 Ben Ami 1983 pp 274 281 Rial 1978 p 265 Martin 2019 pp 277 278 Carr 1966 pp 580 581 Ben Ami 1983 pp 268 270 Ben Ami 1983 pp 334 338 Jorge Sotelo 2019 pp 49 50 Rial 1978 pp 157 166 Ben Ami 1983 p 338 349 a b Ruiz amp Rubio Marin 2012 p 293 Ruiz amp Rubio Marin 2012 p 292 Rial 1978 p 212 Aresti 2020 p 259 Rial 1978 p 215 Rial 1978 pp 210 215 Martin 2019 pp 270 272 Quiroga 2007 pp 68 69 Salvado 1999 pp 53 54 Ben Ami 1983 pp 290 291 Ben Ami 1983 pp 346 348 Carr 1966 p 581 Ben Ami 1977 pp 65 71 Payne 1967 pp 243 247 Carr 1966 pp 584 585 Carr 1966 pp 583 590 Puzzo 1962 p 24 Berman 2019 p 267 Quiroga 2007 p 101 Radcliff 2017 pp 155 156 Salvado 1999 p 61 64 Martin 2019 pp 288 292 a b La Parra Perez 2020 pp 569 570 Greene 1976 p 71 Hogan 1937 pp 28 31 Carr 1966 pp 591 602 Riley 2010 p 93 Marichal 1981 p 257 Hogan 1937 p 31 Boyd 1984 pp 158 159 Radcliff 2017 p 156 Bibliography editBen Ami Shlomo 1977 The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera A Political Reassessment Journal of Contemporary History 12 1 65 84 doi 10 1177 002200947701200103 ISSN 0022 0094 JSTOR 260237 S2CID 155074826 Berman Sheri 2019 Democracy and Dictatorship in Europe From the Ancien Regime to the Present Day Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199373208 Casanova Julian Gil Andres Carlos 2014 Twentieth Century Spain A History Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 01696 5 Radcliff Pamela Beth 2017 Modern Spain 1808 to the Present Chicester United Kingdom John Wiley amp Sons Incorporated p 155 ISBN 978 1 405 18679 7 San Narciso David Barral Martinez Margarita Armenteros Carolina eds 2020 Monarchy and Liberalism in Spain The Building of the Nation State 1780 1931 London Routledge ISBN 9780367633820 Smith Angel 1 January 2007 The Catalan Counter Revolutionary Coalition and the Primo de Rivera Coup 1917 23 European History Quarterly 37 1 7 34 doi 10 1177 0265691407071800 S2CID 144883544 Aresti Nerea 1 April 2020 A Fight for Real Men Gender and Nation Building during the Primo de Rivera Dictatorship 1923 1930 European History Quarterly 50 2 248 265 doi 10 1177 0265691420910947 S2CID 216334936 James Harold Tanner Jakob eds 2017 Enterprise in the Period of Fascism in Europe London Routledge ISBN 9781315256375 Martin Benjamin 2019 The Agony of Modernization Labor and Industrialization in Spain Cornell University Press ISBN 9781501737121 Cowans Jon 2003 Modern Spain A Documentary History University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 9780812218466 Quiroga Alejandro 2007 Making Spaniards London Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 01968 3 Ben Ami Shlomo 1983 Fascism from above The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain 1923 1930 Oxford Clarendon Press ISBN 0198225962 Dalmau Pol 2017 Press Politics and National Identity in Catalonia The Transformation of La Vanguardia 1881 1931 Brighton Sussex Academic Press ISBN 978 1 84519 815 2 Salvado Francisco J Romero 1999 Twentieth Century Spain London Macmillan Press ISBN 978 1 349 27523 6 Rial James H 1978 The Reforms of the Dictatorship of Miguel Primo De Rivera PhD thesis Northwestern University Desmond R T 1924 The New Regime in Spain Foreign Affairs 2 3 457 473 doi 10 2307 20028314 JSTOR 20028314 Ben Ami Shlomo 1979 The Forerunners of Spanish Fascism Union Patriotica and Union Monarquica European Studies Review 9 1 49 79 doi 10 1177 026569147900900104 S2CID 143102141 Spencer Henry R 1927 European Dictatorships American Political Science Review 21 3 537 551 doi 10 2307 1945508 JSTOR 1945508 S2CID 251092711 Carr Raymond 1966 Spain 1808 1939 Oxford Clarendon Press ISBN 9780198221029 Quiroga Alejandro 2020 Home Patriots Spanish Nation Building at a Local Level in the Primo de Rivera Dictatorship 1923 1930 European History Quarterly 50 2 266 289 doi 10 1177 0265691420910927 S2CID 216369958 Callahan William James 2000 The Catholic Church in Spain 1875 1998 Washington D C Catholic University of America Press ISBN 9780813209616 Tortella Gabriel Ruiz Jose Luis Garcia 2013 Spanish Money and Banking A History London Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 349 34491 8 Payne Stanley G 1999 Fascism in Spain 1923 1977 University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 978 0 299 16564 2 Rico Gomez Maria Luisa 2021 The Work School in Spain Training Citizens and Industrial Technicians 1923 1930 History of Education 50 3 378 394 doi 10 1080 0046760X 2020 1856945 S2CID 233922747 Watson Cameron J 1992 Basque Nationalism during the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera 1923 1930 M A thesis University of Nevada Reno ProQuest 230585752 Rial James H 1986 Revolution from Above The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship in Spain 1923 1930 Illinois Associated University Presses ISBN 9780913969014 Payne Stanley G 1967 Politics and the Military in Modern Spain Stanford Stanford University Press ISBN 9780804701280 Pennell C R 1982 Ideology and Practical Politics A Case Study of the Rif War in Morocco 1921 1926 International Journal of Middle East Studies 14 1 19 33 doi 10 1017 S0020743800026568 S2CID 153433961 Fleming Shannon E Fleming Ann K 1977 Primo de Rivera and Spain s Moroccan Problem 1923 27 Journal of Contemporary History 12 1 85 99 doi 10 1177 002200947701200104 S2CID 154744703 Seoane Susana Sueiro 1998 Spanish Colonialism during Primo de Rivera s Dictatorship Mediterranean Historical Review 13 1 2 48 64 doi 10 1080 09518969808569735 Desmond R T 1927 Dictatorship in Spain Foreign Affairs 5 2 276 292 doi 10 2307 20028527 JSTOR 20028527 Saz Ismael 1999 Foreign Policy under the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera Spain and the Great Powers in the Twentieth Century Routledge ISBN 9780203049099 Martinez del Campo Luis G 2021 Weak State Powerful Culture The Emergence of Spanish Cultural Diplomacy 1914 1936 Contemporary European History 30 2 198 213 doi 10 1017 S0960777320000636 S2CID 233773778 Souto Ana 2017 Post Colonial Legacies in Seville Traces of the Iberoamerican Exhibition 1929 Entremons UPF Journal of World History 74 104 Gray G H Fairbank N K 1930 Madrid Buenos Aires Radio Link and Its Wire Connections Electrical Communication 8 208 212 Lopez Jose M Romeo 2010 The First Spanish Short Wave Stations Development of Radio amp Tv Technology Second IEEE Region 8 Conference on the History of Telecommunications Conference HISTELCON 2010 Madrid pp 1 5 doi 10 1109 HISTELCON 2010 5735273 ISBN 978 1 4244 7450 9 Whealey Robert H 1988 Anglo American Oil Confronts Spanish Nationalism 1927 31 A Study of Economic Imperialism Diplomatic History 12 2 111 126 doi 10 1111 j 1467 7709 1988 tb00467 x Carreras Albert Tafunell Xavier Torres Eugenio 2000 The Rise and Decline of Spanish State Owned Firms The Rise and Fall of State Owned Enterprise in the Western World Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521780810 Sharman Nick 2021 Economic Nationalism to Autarky Britain s Informal Empire in Spain 1830 1950 Free Trade Protectionism and Military Power Cham Springer International Publishing ISBN 978 3 030 77949 8 Jorge Sotelo Enrique 2019 Escaping the Great Depression Monetary Policy Financial Crises and Banking in Spain 1921 1935 PhD thesis London School of Economics and Political Science Puzzo Dante A 1962 Spain and the Great Powers 1936 1941 Columbia University Press ISBN 9780231891097 La Parra Perez Alvaro 2020 For a Fistful of Pesetas The Political Economy of the Army in a Nonconsolidated Democracy The Second Spanish Republic and Civil War 1931 9 The Economic History Review 73 2 565 594 doi 10 1111 ehr 12881 S2CID 201334205 Greene Thomas R 1976 The English Catholic Press and the Second Spanish Republic 1931 1936 Church History 45 1 70 84 doi 10 2307 3164566 JSTOR 3164566 S2CID 159929227 Hogan Agnes M 1937 The Establishment of the Second Spanish Republic M A thesis Fordham University Riley Dylan J 2010 The Civic Foundations of Fascism in Europe Italy Spain and Romania 1870 1945 Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 9781786635259 Marichal Juan 1981 The Transitional Significance of the Second Spanish Republic and the Civil War 1931 1939 Harvard Library Bulletin XXIX 3 255 260 Boyd Carolyn P 1984 Responsibilities and the Second Spanish Republic 1931 6 European History Quarterly 14 2 151 182 doi 10 1177 026569148401400202 S2CID 144985089 Ruiz Blanca Rodriguez Rubio Marin Ruth 2012 The Struggle for Female Suffrage in Europe Voting to Become Citizens Brill Publishers ISBN 978 90 04 22991 4 Pack Sasha D 2019 The Blighted Republic The Deepest Border Stanford University Press ISBN 9781503607538 The New York Times 20 August 1926 SPAIN AND ITALY JOUST ON TANGIER Premier de Rivera Repeats Demand That Zone Be Included in Spanish Protectorate The New York Times p 8 External links editDictatorship of Primo de Rivera at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Media from Commons nbsp Texts from Wikisource nbsp Textbooks from Wikibooks nbsp Data from Wikidata Primo de Rivera 1923 30 and the Second Republic 1931 36 at Encyclopaedia Britannica Portal nbsp Politics Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera amp oldid 1167722662 The coup 1923, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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