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Wikipedia

Parliamentary system

A parliamentary system, or parliamentarian democracy, is a system of democratic governance of a state (or subordinate entity) where the executive derives its democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the support ("confidence") of the legislature, typically a parliament, to which it is accountable. In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a person distinct from the head of government. This is in contrast to a presidential system, where the head of state often is also the head of government and, most importantly, where the executive does not derive its democratic legitimacy from the legislature.

World's states colored by form of government1

Countries with parliamentary systems may be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of parliament, or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the head of government is regularly from the legislature. In a few parliamentary republics, among some others, the head of government is also head of state, but is elected by and is answerable to parliament. In bicameral parliaments, the head of government is generally, though not always, a member of the lower house.

Parliamentarianism is the dominant form of government in Europe, with 32 of its 50 sovereign states being parliamentarian. It is also common in the Caribbean, being the form of government of 10 of its 13 island states, and in Oceania. Elsewhere in the world, parliamentary countries are less common, but they are distributed through all continents, most often in former colonies of the British Empire that subscribe to a particular brand of parliamentarianism known as the Westminster system.

History

Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders. Eventually, these councils slowly evolved into the modern parliamentary system.

The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages: specifically in 1188 Alfonso IX, King of Leon (Spain) convened the three states in the Cortes of León.[1][2] An early example of parliamentary government developed in today's Netherlands and Belgium during the Dutch revolt (1581), when the sovereign, legislative and executive powers were taken over by the States General of the Netherlands from the monarch, King Philip II of Spain.[citation needed] The modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain between 1707 and 1800 and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden between 1721 and 1772.

In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for convening two famous parliaments.[3][4][5] The first, in 1258, stripped the king of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns.[6] Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.[7][8]

In the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired the cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George I's inability to speak English led to the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the leading minister, literally the prime or first minister, Robert Walpole. The gradual democratisation of parliament with the broadening of the voting franchise increased parliament's role in controlling government, and in deciding whom the king could ask to form a government. By the 19th century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister and the complexion of the government.[9][10]

Other countries gradually adopted what came to be called the Westminster system of government, with an executive answerable to the lower house of a bicameral parliament, and exercising, in the name of the head of state, powers nominally vested in the head of state – hence the use of phrases such as Her Majesty's government (in constitutional monarchies) or His Excellency's government (in parliamentary republics). Such a system became particularly prevalent in older British dominions, many of which had their constitutions enacted by the British parliament; such as Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the Irish Free State and the Union of South Africa. Some of these parliaments were reformed from, or were initially developed as distinct from their original British model: the Australian Senate, for instance, has since its inception more closely reflected the US Senate than the British House of Lords; whereas since 1950 there is no upper house in New Zealand. Many of these countries such as Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados have severed institutional ties to Great Britain by becoming republics with their own ceremonial Presidents, but retain the Westminster system of government.

Democracy and parliamentarianism became increasingly prevalent in Europe in the years after World War I, partially imposed by the democratic victors,[how?] the United States, Great Britain and France, on the defeated countries and their successors, notably Germany's Weimar Republic and the First Austrian Republic. Nineteenth-century urbanisation, the Industrial Revolution and modernism had already made the parliamentarist demands of the Radicals and the emerging movement of social democrats increasingly impossible to ignore; these forces came to dominate many states that transitioned to parliamentarism, particularly in the French Third Republic where the Radical Party and its centre-left allies dominated the government for several decades. However, the rise of Fascism in the 1930s put an end to parliamentary democracy in Italy and Germany, among others.

After the Second World War, the defeated fascist Axis powers were occupied by the victorious Allies. In those countries occupied by the Allied democracies (the United States, United Kingdom, and France) parliamentary constitutions were implemented, resulting in the parliamentary constitutions of Italy and West Germany (now all of Germany) and the 1947 Constitution of Japan. The experiences of the war in the occupied nations where the legitimate democratic governments were allowed to return strengthened the public commitment to parliamentary principles; in Denmark, a new constitution was written in 1953, while a long and acrimonious debate in Norway resulted in no changes being made to that country's strongly entrenched democratic constitution.

Characteristics

A parliamentary system may be either bicameral, with two chambers of parliament (or houses) or unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber. A bicameral parliament usually consists of a directly elected lower house with the power to determine the executive government, and an upper house which may be appointed or elected through a different mechanism from the lower house.

Types

Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies: the Westminster and Consensus systems.[11]

Westminster system

 
The Palace of Westminster in London, United Kingdom. The Westminster system originates from the British Houses of Parliament.
  • The Westminster system is usually found in the Commonwealth of Nations and countries which were influenced by the British political tradition.[12][13][14] These parliaments tend to have a more adversarial style of debate and the plenary session of parliament is more important than committees. Some parliaments in this model are elected using a plurality voting system (first past the post), such as the United Kingdom, Canada, India and Malaysia, while others use some form of proportional representation, such as Ireland and New Zealand. The Australian House of Representatives is elected using instant-runoff voting, while the Senate is elected using proportional representation through single transferable vote. Regardless of which system is used, the voting systems tend to allow the voter to vote for a named candidate rather than a closed list. Most Westminster systems employ strict monism, where Ministers must be members of Parliament simultaneously; while some Westminster systems, such as Bangladesh,[15] permit the appointment of extra-parliamentary Ministers, and others (such as Jamaica) allow outsiders to be appointed to the Ministry through an appointed Upper House, a majority of Ministers (which, by necessity, includes the Prime Minister) must come from within (the lower house of) Parliament.

Consensus system

 
The Reichstag Building in Berlin, Germany. The Consensus system is used in most Western European countries.
  • The Western European parliamentary model (e.g., Spain, Germany) tends to have a more consensual debating system and usually has semi-circular debating chambers. Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use proportional representation with open party lists than the Westminster Model legislatures. The committees of these Parliaments tend to be more important than the plenary chamber. Most Western European countries do not employ strict monism, and allow extra-parliamentary ministers as a matter of course. The Netherlands, Slovakia and Sweden outright implement the principle of dualism as a form of separation of powers, where Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed (or elected) minister.

Election of the head of government

Implementations of the parliamentary system can also differ as to how the prime minister and government are appointed and whether the government needs the explicit approval of the parliament, rather than just the absence of its disapproval. Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature, though in other countries this only exists as a convention.

  • The head of state appoints a prime minister who will likely have majority support in parliament. While in practice most prime ministers under the Westminster system (including Australia, Canada, Malaysia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom) are the leaders of the largest party in parliament, technically the appointment of the prime minister is a prerogative exercised by the monarch, the governor-general, or the president.
  • The head of state appoints a prime minister who must gain a vote of confidence within a set time. Examples: Italy, Thailand.
  • The head of state appoints the leader of the political party holding a plurality of seats in parliament as prime minister. For example, in Greece, if no party has a majority, the leader of the party with a plurality of seats is given an exploratory mandate to receive the confidence of the parliament within three days. If this is not possible, then the leader of the party with the second-highest seat number is given the exploratory mandate. If this fails, then the leader of the third-largest party is given it, and so on.
  • The head of state nominates a candidate for prime minister who is then submitted to parliament for approval before appointment. Example: Spain, where the King sends a proposal to the Congress of Deputies for approval. Also, Germany where under the German Basic Law (constitution) the Bundestag votes on a candidate nominated by the federal president. In these cases,[citation needed] parliament can choose another candidate who then would be appointed by the head of state.
  • Parliament nominates a candidate whom the head of state is constitutionally obliged to appoint as prime minister. Example: Japan, where the Emperor appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the National Diet. Also Ireland, where the President of Ireland appoints the Taoiseach on the nomination of Dáil Éireann.
  • A public officeholder (other than the head of state or their representative) nominates a candidate, who, if approved by parliament, is appointed as prime minister. Example: Under the Swedish Instrument of Government (1974), the power to appoint someone to form a government has been moved from the monarch to the Speaker of Parliament and the parliament itself. The speaker nominates a candidate, who is then elected to prime minister (statsminister) by the parliament if an absolute majority of the members of parliament does not vote against the candidate (i.e. they can be elected even if more members of parliament vote No than Yes).
  • Direct election by popular vote. Example: Israel, 1996–2001, where the prime minister was elected in a general election, with no regard to political affiliation, and whose procedure can also be described as of a semi-parliamentary system.[16][17]

Power of dissolution and call for election

Furthermore, there are variations as to what conditions exist (if any) for the government to have the right to dissolve the parliament:

  • In some countries, especially those operating under a Westminster system, such as the United Kingdom, Denmark, Malaysia, Australia and New Zealand, the prime minister has the de facto power to call an election, at will. In Spain, the prime minister is the only person with the de jure power to call an election, granted by Article 115 of the Constitution.
  • In Israel, parliament may vote to dissolve itself in order to call an election, or the prime minister may call a snap election with presidential consent if his government is deadlocked. A non-passage of the budget automatically calls a snap election.
  • Other countries only permit an election to be called in the event of a vote of no confidence against the government, a supermajority vote in favour of an early election or a prolonged deadlock in parliament. These requirements can still be circumvented. For example, in Germany in 2005, Gerhard Schröder deliberately allowed his government to lose a confidence motion, in order to call an early election.
  • In Sweden, the government may call a snap election at will, but the newly elected Riksdag is only elected to fill out the previous Riksdag's term. The last time this option was used was in 1958.
  • In Greece, a general election is called if the Parliament fails to elect a new head of state when his or her term ends. In January 2015, this constitutional provision was exploited by Syriza to trigger a snap election, win it and oust rivals New Democracy from power
  • In Italy the government has no power to call a snap election. A snap election can only be called by the head of state, following a consultation with the presidents of both houses of parliament.
  • Norway is unique among parliamentary systems in that the Storting always serves the whole of its four-year term.
  • Australia uniquely under certain conditions allows the prime minister to request of the Governor General a double dissolution, whereby all rather than only half of the Senate, is dissolved – in effect electing all of the Parliament simultaneously.

The parliamentary system can be contrasted with a presidential system which operates under a stricter separation of powers, whereby the executive does not form part of—nor is appointed by—the parliamentary or legislative body. In such a system, parliaments or congresses do not select or dismiss heads of government, and governments cannot request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments (although the parliament may still be able to dissolve itself, as in the case of Cyprus). There also exists the semi-presidential system that draws on both presidential systems and parliamentary systems by combining a powerful president with an executive responsible to parliament: for example, the French Fifth Republic.

Parliamentarianism may also apply to regional and local governments. An example is Oslo which has an executive council (Byråd) as a part of the parliamentary system. The devolved nations of the United Kingdom are also parliamentary and which, as with the UK Parliament, may hold early elections – this has only occurred with regards to the Northern Ireland Assembly in 2017 and 2022.

Anti-defection law

A few parliamentary democratic nations such as India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. have enacted laws that prohibit floor crossing or switching parties after the election. Under these laws, elected representatives will lose their seat in the parliament if they go against their party in votes.[18][19][20]

In the UK parliament, a member is free to cross over to a different party. In Canada and Australia, there are no restraints on legislators switching sides.[21] In New Zealand, waka-jumping legislation provides that MPs who switch parties or are expelled from their party may be expelled from Parliament at the request of their former party's leader.

Parliamentary sovereignty

A few parliamentary democracies such as the United Kingdom and New Zealand have weak or non-existent checks on the legislative power of their Parliaments,[22][23] where any newly approved Act shall take precedence over all prior Acts. All laws are equally unentrenched, wherein judicial review may not outright annul nor amend them, as frequently occurs in other parliamentary systems like Germany. Whilst the head of state for both nations (Monarch, and or Governor General) has the de-jure power to withhold assent to any bill passed by their Parliament, this check has not been exercised in Britain since the 1708 Scottish Militia Bill.

Whilst both the UK and New Zealand have some Acts or parliamentary rules establishing supermajorities or additional legislative procedures for certain legislation, such as previously with the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 (FTPA), these can be bypassed through the enactment of another that amends or ignores these supermajorities away, such as with the Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019 – bypassing the 2/3rd supermajority required for an early dissolution under the FTPA[24] -, which enabled the early dissolution for the 2019 general election.

Metrics

Parliamentarism metrics allow a quantitative comparison of the strength of parliamentary systems for individual countries. One parliamentarism metric is the Parliamentary Powers Index.[25]

Advantages

Adaptability

Parliamentary systems like that found in the United Kingdom are widely considered to be more flexible, allowing a rapid change in legislation and policy as long as there is a stable majority or coalition in parliament, allowing the government to have 'few legal limits on what it can do'[26] Due to the first-past-the-post voting method, this system produces the classic "Westminster Model" with the twin virtues of strong but responsive party government.[27] This electoral system providing a strong majority in the House of Commons, paired with the fused power system results in a particularly powerful Government able to provide change and 'innovate'.[26]

Scrutiny and accountability

The United Kingdom's fused power system is often noted to be advantageous with regard to accountability. The centralised government allows for more transparency as to where decisions originate from, this directly contrasts with the American system with former Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon saying "the president blames Congress, the Congress blames the president, and the public remains confused and disgusted with government in Washington".[28] Furthermore, ministers of the U.K. cabinet are subject to weekly Question Periods in which their actions/policies are scrutinised; no such regular check on the government exists in the U.S. system.

Distribution of power

A 2001 World Bank study found that parliamentary systems are associated with less corruption.[29]

Calling of elections

In his 1867 book The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot praised parliamentary governments for producing serious debates, for allowing for a change in power without an election, and for allowing elections at any time. Bagehot considered the four-year election rule of the United States to be unnatural, as it can potentially allow a president who has disappointed the public with a dismal performance in the second year of his term to continue on until the end of his four-year term. Under a parliamentary system, a prime minister that has lost support in the middle of his term can be easily replaced by his own peers with a more popular alternative, as the Conservative Party in the UK did with successive prime ministers David Cameron, Theresa May, Boris Johnson, and Liz Truss.

Although Bagehot praised parliamentary governments for allowing an election to take place at any time, the lack of a definite election calendar can be abused. Under some systems, such as the British, a ruling party can schedule elections when it believes that it is likely to retain power, and so avoid elections at times of unpopularity. (from 2011, election timing in the UK was partially fixed under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, which was repealed by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022.) Thus, by a shrewd timing of elections, in a parliamentary system, a party can extend its rule for longer than is feasible in a presidential system. This problem can be alleviated somewhat by setting fixed dates for parliamentary elections, as is the case in several of Australia's state parliaments. In other systems, such as the Dutch and the Belgian, the ruling party or coalition has some flexibility in determining the election date. Conversely, flexibility in the timing of parliamentary elections can avoid periods of legislative gridlock that can occur in a fixed period presidential system. In any case, voters ultimately have the power to choose whether to vote for the ruling party or someone else.

Disadvantages

Incomplete separation of power

According to Arturo Fontaine parliamentary systems in Europe have yielded very powerful heads of government which is rather what is often criticized about presidential systems. Fontaine compares United Kingdom's Margaret Thatcher to the United States' Ronald Reagan noting the former head of government was much more powerful despite governing under a parliamentary system.[30] The rise to power of Viktor Orbán in Hungary has been claimed to show how parliamentary systems can be subverted.[30] The situation in Hungary was according to Fontaine allowed by the deficient separation of powers that characterises parliamentary and semi-presidential systems.[30] Once Orbán's party got two-thirds of the seats in Parliament in a single election, a supermajority large enough to amend the Hungarian constitution, there was no institution that was able to balance the concentration of power.[30] In a presidential system it would require at least two separate elections to create the same effect; the presidential election, and the legislative election, and that the president's party has the legislative supermajority required for constitutional amendments. Safeguards against this situation implementable in both systems include the establishment of an upper house or a requirement for external ratification of constitutional amendments such as a referendum. Fontaine also notes as a warning example of the flaws of parliamentary systems that if the United States would have had a parliamentary system Donald Trump could, as head of government, have dissolved the United States Congress.[30]

Legislative flip-flopping

The ability for strong parliamentary governments to push legislation through with the ease of fused power systems such as in the United Kingdom, whilst positive in allowing rapid adaptation when necessary e.g. the nationalisation of services during the world wars, in the opinion of some commentators does have its drawbacks. The flip-flopping of legislation back and forth as the majority in parliament changed between the Conservatives and Labour over the period 1940–1980, contesting over the nationalisation and privatisation of the British Steel Industry resulted in major instability for the British steel sector.[26]

Political fragmentation

In R. Kent Weaver's book Are Parliamentary Systems Better?, he writes that an advantage of presidential systems is their ability to allow and accommodate more diverse viewpoints. He states that because "legislators are not compelled to vote against their constituents on matters of local concern, parties can serve as organizational and roll-call cuing vehicles without forcing out dissidents."[26]

Democratic unaccountability

All current parliamentary democracies see the indirect election or appointment of their head of government. As a result, the electorate has limited power to remove or install the person or party wielding the most power. Although strategic voting may enable the party of the prime minister to be removed or empowered, this can be at the expense of voters first preferences in the many parliamentary systems utilising first past the post, or having no effect in dislodging those parties who consistently form part of a coalition government, as with the current Dutch prime minister Mark Rutte and his party the VVD's 4 terms in office, despite their peak support reaching only 26.6% in 2012, earning him the epithet 'Teflon Rutte' for his ability to survive elections.[31]

Countries

Africa

Country Connection between the legislature and the executive
  Botswana Parliament of Botswana elects the President who appoints the Cabinet
  Ethiopia Federal Parliamentary Assembly appoints the Council of Ministers
  Lesotho National Assembly of Lesotho determines the Prime Minister of Lesotho
  Mauritius National Assembly appoints the Cabinet of Mauritius
  Somalia Federal Parliament of Somalia elects the President who appoints the Prime Minister
  South Africa Parliament of South Africa elects the President who appoints the Cabinet

Americas

 
Parliament of Canada
Country Connection between the legislature and the executive
  Antigua and Barbuda Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Antigua and Barbuda is appointed Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda by the Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda, who then appoints the Cabinet of Antigua and Barbuda on the advice of the Prime Minister
  The Bahamas Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of the Bahamas is appointed Prime Minister of the Bahamas by the Governor-General of the Bahamas, who then appoints the Cabinet of the Bahamas on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Barbados Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of Barbados is appointed Prime Minister of Barbados by the President of Barbados, who then appoints the Cabinet of Barbados on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Belize Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Belize is appointed Prime Minister of Belize by the Governor-General of Belize, who then appoints the Cabinet of Belize on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Canada Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Commons of Canada is appointed Prime Minister of Canada by the Governor General of Canada, who then appoints the Cabinet of Canada on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Dominica Parliament approves the Cabinet of Dominica
  Grenada Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Grenada is appointed Prime Minister of Grenada by the Governor-General of Grenada, who then appoints the Cabinet of Grenada on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Jamaica Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Jamaica is appointed Prime Minister of Jamaica by the Governor-General of Jamaica, who then appoints the Cabinet of Jamaica on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Saint Kitts and Nevis Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the National Assembly of Saint Kitts and Nevis is appointed Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis by the Governor-General of Saint Kitts and Nevis, who then appoints the Cabinet of Saint Kitts and Nevis on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Saint Lucia Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of Saint Lucia is appointed Prime Minister of Saint Lucia by the Governor-General of Saint Lucia, who then appoints the Cabinet of Saint Lucia on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is appointed Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines by the Governor-General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, who then appoints the Cabinet of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Suriname National Assembly elects the President, who appoints the Cabinet of Suriname
  Trinidad and Tobago Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Trinidad and Tobago is appointed Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago by the President of Trinidad and Tobago, who then appoints the Cabinet of Trinidad and Tobago on the advice of the Prime Minister

Asia

 
Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban, parliament building of Bangladesh
 
Sansad Bhavan, parliament building of India
 
Knesset of Israel in Jerusalem
Country Connection between the legislature and the executive
  Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad approves the Cabinet of Bangladesh
  Bhutan Parliament of Bhutan approves the Lhengye Zhungtshog
  Cambodia Parliament of Cambodia approves the Council of Ministers
  China (Republic of)
  • 1947 Constitution: The Legislative Yuan approves the Executive Yuan in which the premier is nominated and appointed by the president, with the consent of the Legislative Yuan.
  • 2005 Amendments: The Legislative Yuan approves the Executive Yuan in which the premier is appointed by the president. The Legislative Yuan may vote for motion of no confidence.
  India President of India appoints the leader of the political party or alliance that has the support of a majority in the House of the People as Prime Minister of India, who then forms the Union Council of Ministers
  Iraq Council of Representatives approves the Cabinet of Iraq
  Israel A member of the Knesset that has the best chance of forming a coalition is given a mandate to do so by the President of Israel. On success, they are appointed as the Prime Minister of Israel. The Prime Minister then appoints the Cabinet of Israel.
  Japan National Diet nominates the Prime Minister who appoints the Cabinet of Japan
  Kuwait National Assembly approves the Crown Prince who appoints the Prime Minister who appoints the Cabinet of Kuwait
  Laos National Assembly elects the President who nominates the Prime Minister
  Lebanon Maronite Christian president is elected by the Parliament of Lebanon. He appoints the Prime Minister (a Sunni Muslim) and the cabinet. The Parliament thereafter approves the Cabinet of Lebanon through a vote of confidence (a simple majority).
  Malaysia Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Dewan Rakyat is appointed Prime Minister of Malaysia by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who then appoints the Cabinet of Malaysia on the advice of the Prime Minister.
  Myanmar Assembly of the Union, by an electoral college, elects the President who forms the Cabinet of Myanmar
    Nepal Parliament of Nepal elects the Prime Minister who, by turn, appoints the Cabinet of Nepal
  Pakistan Parliament of Pakistan appoints the Cabinet of Pakistan
  Singapore Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Parliament of Singapore is appointed Prime Minister of Singapore by the President of Singapore, who then appoints the Cabinet of Singapore on the advice of the Prime Minister.
  Thailand The Monarch appoints the MP or individual nominated by in the House of Representatives (usually the leader of the largest party or coalition) as Prime Minister, who forms the Cabinet of Thailand.
  Vietnam National Assembly elects the President and Prime Minister who forms the Cabinet.

Europe

 
The administrative building of the Albanian Parliament
 
The Congress of Deputies, the lower chamber of Spanish Parliament
Country Connection between the legislature and the executive
  Albania Parliament of Albania approves the Cabinet of Albania
  Andorra
  Armenia National Assembly appoints and (no sooner than one year) can dismiss through the constructive vote of no confidence the Government of Armenia
  Austria In theory, chancellor and ministers are appointed by the President. As a practical matter, they are unable to govern without the support (or at least toleration) of a majority in the National Council. The cabinet is politically answerable to the National Council and can be dismissed by the National Council through a motion of no confidence.
  Belgium Federal Parliament approves the Cabinet of Belgium
  Bulgaria National Assembly appoints the Council of Ministers of Bulgaria
  Croatia Croatian Parliament approves President of Government and the Cabinet nominated by him/her.
  Czech Republic President of the Czech Republic appoints usually the leader of the largest party or coalition in the Chamber of Deputies of the Parliament as Prime Minister, who forms the Cabinet. The Prime Minister must gain a vote of confidence by the Chamber of Deputies.
  Denmark The Monarch appoints, based on recommendations from the leaders of the parties in Folketinget, the cabinet leader who is most likely to successfully assemble a Cabinet which will not be disapproved by a majority in Folketinget.
  Estonia Riigikogu elects the Prime Minister candidate nominated by the President of the Republic (normally this candidate is the leader of the parliamentary coalition of parties). The Government of the Republic of Estonia is later appointed by the President of the Republic under proposal of the approved Prime Minister candidate. The Riigikogu may remove the Prime Minister and any other member of the government through a motion of no confidence.
  Finland Parliament of Finland appoints the Cabinet of Finland
  Georgia The prime minister is nominated by a political party that has secured the best results in the parliamentary election. The nominee must win the confidence vote of the Parliament and then be appointed by the President of Georgia.
  Germany Bundestag elects the Federal Chancellor (after nomination from the President of Germany), who forms the Cabinet
  Greece Hellenic Parliament approves the Cabinet of Greece
  Hungary National Assembly approves the Cabinet of Hungary
  Iceland The President of Iceland appoints and discharges the Cabinet of Iceland. Ministers can not even resign without being discharged by presidential decree.
  Ireland Dáil Éireann nominates the Taoiseach, who is then appointed by the President of Ireland
  Italy Italian Parliament grants and revokes its confidence in the Cabinet of Italy, appointed by the President of Italy
  Kosovo Assembly of Kosovo appoints the Government of Kosovo
  Latvia Saeima appoints the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia
  Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies appoints the Cabinet of Luxembourg
  Malta House of Representatives appoints the Cabinet of Malta
  Moldova Parliament of Moldova appoints the Cabinet of Moldova
  Montenegro Parliament of Montenegro appoints the Government of Montenegro
  Netherlands Second Chamber of the States-General can dismiss the Cabinet of the Netherlands through a motion of no confidence
  North Macedonia Assembly approves the Government of North Macedonia
  Norway The Monarch appoints the MP leading the largest party or coalition in Stortinget as Prime Minister, who forms the Cabinet
  Poland The President of Poland and the governing party in the Sejm are elected by popular vote. The President appoints the Prime Minister from the largest party or coalition as the head of government. However, the Polish system is often regarded as de facto semi-presidential – the President of Poland has the power to veto legislation passed by parliament and can dissolve the parliament under certain conditions.[32][33][34] The Constitution of Poland defines the country's system as de jure parliamentary republic.
  Portugal After the elections for the Assembly of the Republic or the resignation of the previous government, the president listens to the parties in the Assembly of the Republic and invites someone to form a government, usually the leader of the biggest party. Then the president swears in the prime minister and the Government.
  San Marino
  Serbia National Assembly appoints the Government of Serbia
  Slovakia National Council approves the Government of Slovakia
  Slovenia National Assembly appoints the Government of Slovenia
  Spain The Congress of Deputies elects the President of the Government, who forms the Cabinet
  Sweden The Riksdag elects the Prime Minister, who in turn appoints the other members of the Government
  Switzerland A United Federal Assembly elects the members of the Swiss Federal Council
  United Kingdom The Leader, almost invariably a Member of Parliament (MP) and of the political party which commands or is likely to command the confidence of a majority of the House of Commons, is appointed Prime Minister by the British sovereign, who then appoints members of the Cabinet on the nomination and advice of the Prime Minister.

Oceania

Country Connection between the legislature and the executive
  Australia Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Australian House of Representatives is appointed Prime Minister of Australia by the Governor-General of Australia, who then appoints the Cabinet of Australia on the advice of the Prime Minister
  New Zealand Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the New Zealand House of Representatives is appointed Prime Minister of New Zealand by the Governor-General of New Zealand, who then appoints the Cabinet of New Zealand on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Papua New Guinea Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the National Parliament is appointed Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea by the Governor-General of Papua New Guinea, who then appoints the Cabinet of Papua New Guinea on the advice of the Prime Minister
  Samoa Legislative Assembly appoints the Cabinet of Samoa
  Vanuatu Parliament of Vanuatu appoints the Cabinet of Vanuatu

See also

References

  1. ^ "The Decreta of León of 1188 – The oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system". UNESCO Memory of the World. 2013. from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
  2. ^ John Keane: The Life and Death of Democracy, London 2009, 169–176.
  3. ^ Jobson, Adrian (2012). The First English Revolution: Simon de Montfort, Henry III and the Barons' War. Bloomsbury. pp. 173–4. ISBN 978-1-84725-226-5. from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
  4. ^ "Simon de Montfort: The turning point for democracy that gets overlooked". BBC. 19 January 2015. from the original on 19 January 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2015
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  8. ^ . Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP), U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014. The earliest, and perhaps greatest, victory for liberalism was achieved in England. The rising commercial class that had supported the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th, and succeeded in establishing the supremacy of Parliament and, eventually, of the House of Commons. What emerged as the distinctive feature of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the idea that the king is subject to law (although this concept is an essential attribute of all constitutionalism). This notion was already well established in the Middle Ages. What was distinctive was the establishment of effective means of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced. Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended upon the consent of citizen subjects.... However, as can be seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights, the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights of property (in the narrow sense) but to establish those liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth. The "rights of man" enumerated in the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England, notably in the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789.
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  13. ^ "How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World". University of Cambridge. 2 December 2013. from the original on 16 December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
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  15. ^ Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh – Article 56
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  24. ^ "Fixed-term Parliament Act 2011". UK Parliament. 26 November 2021. from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
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  26. ^ a b c d Weaver, R. Kent (1985). "Are Parliamentary Systems Better?". The Brookings Review. 3 (4): 16–25. doi:10.2307/20079894. ISSN 0745-1253. JSTOR 20079894.
  27. ^ Norris, Pippa (1995). "The Politics of Electoral Reform in Britain". International Political Science Review. 16 (1): 65–78. doi:10.1177/019251219501600105. ISSN 0192-5121. JSTOR 1601169. S2CID 144867316.
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  29. ^ Lederman, Daniel (November 2001). Accountability and Corruption: Political Institutions Matter. Policy Research Working Papers. World Bank. p. 27. doi:10.1596/1813-9450-2708.
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  33. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. Retrieved 21 August 2017. Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account.
  34. ^ McMenamin, Iain. (PDF). School of Law and Government, Dublin City University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

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parliamentary, system, parliamentary, system, parliamentarian, democracy, system, democratic, governance, state, subordinate, entity, where, executive, derives, democratic, legitimacy, from, ability, command, support, confidence, legislature, typically, parlia. A parliamentary system or parliamentarian democracy is a system of democratic governance of a state or subordinate entity where the executive derives its democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the support confidence of the legislature typically a parliament to which it is accountable In a parliamentary system the head of state is usually a person distinct from the head of government This is in contrast to a presidential system where the head of state often is also the head of government and most importantly where the executive does not derive its democratic legitimacy from the legislature World s states colored by form of government1 Map legend Full presidential republics2 Semi presidential republics2 Republics with an executive president elected by or nominated by the legislature that may or may not be subject to parliamentary confidence Parliamentary republics2 Parliamentary constitutional monarchies where royalty does not hold significant power Parliamentary constitutional monarchies which have a separate head of government but where royalty holds significant executive and or legislative power Absolute monarchies One party states Countries where constitutional provisions for government have been suspended e g military juntas Countries that do not fit any of the above systems e g provisional governments unclear political situations No government 1 This map was compiled according to the Wikipedia list of countries by system of government See there for sources 2 This map presents only the de jure form of government and not the de facto degree of democracy Some countries which are de jure republics are de facto authoritarian regimes For a measure of the degree of democracy in countries around the world see the Democracy Index vte Countries with parliamentary systems may be constitutional monarchies where a monarch is the head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of parliament or parliamentary republics where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the head of government is regularly from the legislature In a few parliamentary republics among some others the head of government is also head of state but is elected by and is answerable to parliament In bicameral parliaments the head of government is generally though not always a member of the lower house Parliamentarianism is the dominant form of government in Europe with 32 of its 50 sovereign states being parliamentarian It is also common in the Caribbean being the form of government of 10 of its 13 island states and in Oceania Elsewhere in the world parliamentary countries are less common but they are distributed through all continents most often in former colonies of the British Empire that subscribe to a particular brand of parliamentarianism known as the Westminster system Contents 1 History 2 Characteristics 2 1 Types 2 1 1 Westminster system 2 1 2 Consensus system 2 2 Election of the head of government 2 3 Power of dissolution and call for election 2 4 Anti defection law 2 5 Parliamentary sovereignty 2 6 Metrics 3 Advantages 3 1 Adaptability 3 2 Scrutiny and accountability 3 3 Distribution of power 3 4 Calling of elections 4 Disadvantages 4 1 Incomplete separation of power 4 2 Legislative flip flopping 4 3 Political fragmentation 4 4 Democratic unaccountability 5 Countries 5 1 Africa 5 2 Americas 5 3 Asia 5 4 Europe 5 5 Oceania 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksHistory EditFurther information History of parliamentarism Since ancient times when societies were tribal there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders Eventually these councils slowly evolved into the modern parliamentary system The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages specifically in 1188 Alfonso IX King of Leon Spain convened the three states in the Cortes of Leon 1 2 An early example of parliamentary government developed in today s Netherlands and Belgium during the Dutch revolt 1581 when the sovereign legislative and executive powers were taken over by the States General of the Netherlands from the monarch King Philip II of Spain citation needed The modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain between 1707 and 1800 and its contemporary the Parliamentary System in Sweden between 1721 and 1772 In England Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for convening two famous parliaments 3 4 5 The first in 1258 stripped the king of unlimited authority and the second in 1265 included ordinary citizens from the towns 6 Later in the 17th century the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689 7 8 In the Kingdom of Great Britain the monarch in theory chaired the cabinet and chose ministers In practice King George I s inability to speak English led to the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the leading minister literally the prime or first minister Robert Walpole The gradual democratisation of parliament with the broadening of the voting franchise increased parliament s role in controlling government and in deciding whom the king could ask to form a government By the 19th century the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister and the complexion of the government 9 10 Other countries gradually adopted what came to be called the Westminster system of government with an executive answerable to the lower house of a bicameral parliament and exercising in the name of the head of state powers nominally vested in the head of state hence the use of phrases such as Her Majesty s government in constitutional monarchies or His Excellency s government in parliamentary republics Such a system became particularly prevalent in older British dominions many of which had their constitutions enacted by the British parliament such as Australia New Zealand Canada the Irish Free State and the Union of South Africa Some of these parliaments were reformed from or were initially developed as distinct from their original British model the Australian Senate for instance has since its inception more closely reflected the US Senate than the British House of Lords whereas since 1950 there is no upper house in New Zealand Many of these countries such as Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados have severed institutional ties to Great Britain by becoming republics with their own ceremonial Presidents but retain the Westminster system of government Democracy and parliamentarianism became increasingly prevalent in Europe in the years after World War I partially imposed by the democratic victors how the United States Great Britain and France on the defeated countries and their successors notably Germany s Weimar Republic and the First Austrian Republic Nineteenth century urbanisation the Industrial Revolution and modernism had already made the parliamentarist demands of the Radicals and the emerging movement of social democrats increasingly impossible to ignore these forces came to dominate many states that transitioned to parliamentarism particularly in the French Third Republic where the Radical Party and its centre left allies dominated the government for several decades However the rise of Fascism in the 1930s put an end to parliamentary democracy in Italy and Germany among others After the Second World War the defeated fascist Axis powers were occupied by the victorious Allies In those countries occupied by the Allied democracies the United States United Kingdom and France parliamentary constitutions were implemented resulting in the parliamentary constitutions of Italy and West Germany now all of Germany and the 1947 Constitution of Japan The experiences of the war in the occupied nations where the legitimate democratic governments were allowed to return strengthened the public commitment to parliamentary principles in Denmark a new constitution was written in 1953 while a long and acrimonious debate in Norway resulted in no changes being made to that country s strongly entrenched democratic constitution Characteristics EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed January 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message Further information Parliamentary procedure A parliamentary system may be either bicameral with two chambers of parliament or houses or unicameral with just one parliamentary chamber A bicameral parliament usually consists of a directly elected lower house with the power to determine the executive government and an upper house which may be appointed or elected through a different mechanism from the lower house Types Edit Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies the Westminster and Consensus systems 11 Westminster system Edit The Palace of Westminster in London United Kingdom The Westminster system originates from the British Houses of Parliament The Westminster system is usually found in the Commonwealth of Nations and countries which were influenced by the British political tradition 12 13 14 These parliaments tend to have a more adversarial style of debate and the plenary session of parliament is more important than committees Some parliaments in this model are elected using a plurality voting system first past the post such as the United Kingdom Canada India and Malaysia while others use some form of proportional representation such as Ireland and New Zealand The Australian House of Representatives is elected using instant runoff voting while the Senate is elected using proportional representation through single transferable vote Regardless of which system is used the voting systems tend to allow the voter to vote for a named candidate rather than a closed list Most Westminster systems employ strict monism where Ministers must be members of Parliament simultaneously while some Westminster systems such as Bangladesh 15 permit the appointment of extra parliamentary Ministers and others such as Jamaica allow outsiders to be appointed to the Ministry through an appointed Upper House a majority of Ministers which by necessity includes the Prime Minister must come from within the lower house of Parliament Consensus system Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message The Reichstag Building in Berlin Germany The Consensus system is used in most Western European countries The Western European parliamentary model e g Spain Germany tends to have a more consensual debating system and usually has semi circular debating chambers Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use proportional representation with open party lists than the Westminster Model legislatures The committees of these Parliaments tend to be more important than the plenary chamber Most Western European countries do not employ strict monism and allow extra parliamentary ministers as a matter of course The Netherlands Slovakia and Sweden outright implement the principle of dualism as a form of separation of powers where Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed or elected minister Election of the head of government Edit Implementations of the parliamentary system can also differ as to how the prime minister and government are appointed and whether the government needs the explicit approval of the parliament rather than just the absence of its disapproval Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature though in other countries this only exists as a convention The head of state appoints a prime minister who will likely have majority support in parliament While in practice most prime ministers under the Westminster system including Australia Canada Malaysia New Zealand and the United Kingdom are the leaders of the largest party in parliament technically the appointment of the prime minister is a prerogative exercised by the monarch the governor general or the president The head of state appoints a prime minister who must gain a vote of confidence within a set time Examples Italy Thailand The head of state appoints the leader of the political party holding a plurality of seats in parliament as prime minister For example in Greece if no party has a majority the leader of the party with a plurality of seats is given an exploratory mandate to receive the confidence of the parliament within three days If this is not possible then the leader of the party with the second highest seat number is given the exploratory mandate If this fails then the leader of the third largest party is given it and so on The head of state nominates a candidate for prime minister who is then submitted to parliament for approval before appointment Example Spain where the King sends a proposal to the Congress of Deputies for approval Also Germany where under the German Basic Law constitution the Bundestag votes on a candidate nominated by the federal president In these cases citation needed parliament can choose another candidate who then would be appointed by the head of state Parliament nominates a candidate whom the head of state is constitutionally obliged to appoint as prime minister Example Japan where the Emperor appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the National Diet Also Ireland where the President of Ireland appoints the Taoiseach on the nomination of Dail Eireann A public officeholder other than the head of state or their representative nominates a candidate who if approved by parliament is appointed as prime minister Example Under the Swedish Instrument of Government 1974 the power to appoint someone to form a government has been moved from the monarch to the Speaker of Parliament and the parliament itself The speaker nominates a candidate who is then elected to prime minister statsminister by the parliament if an absolute majority of the members of parliament does not vote against the candidate i e they can be elected even if more members of parliament vote No than Yes Direct election by popular vote Example Israel 1996 2001 where the prime minister was elected in a general election with no regard to political affiliation and whose procedure can also be described as of a semi parliamentary system 16 17 Power of dissolution and call for election Edit Furthermore there are variations as to what conditions exist if any for the government to have the right to dissolve the parliament In some countries especially those operating under a Westminster system such as the United Kingdom Denmark Malaysia Australia and New Zealand the prime minister has the de facto power to call an election at will In Spain the prime minister is the only person with the de jure power to call an election granted by Article 115 of the Constitution In Israel parliament may vote to dissolve itself in order to call an election or the prime minister may call a snap election with presidential consent if his government is deadlocked A non passage of the budget automatically calls a snap election Other countries only permit an election to be called in the event of a vote of no confidence against the government a supermajority vote in favour of an early election or a prolonged deadlock in parliament These requirements can still be circumvented For example in Germany in 2005 Gerhard Schroder deliberately allowed his government to lose a confidence motion in order to call an early election In Sweden the government may call a snap election at will but the newly elected Riksdag is only elected to fill out the previous Riksdag s term The last time this option was used was in 1958 In Greece a general election is called if the Parliament fails to elect a new head of state when his or her term ends In January 2015 this constitutional provision was exploited by Syriza to trigger a snap election win it and oust rivals New Democracy from power In Italy the government has no power to call a snap election A snap election can only be called by the head of state following a consultation with the presidents of both houses of parliament Norway is unique among parliamentary systems in that the Storting always serves the whole of its four year term Australia uniquely under certain conditions allows the prime minister to request of the Governor General a double dissolution whereby all rather than only half of the Senate is dissolved in effect electing all of the Parliament simultaneously The parliamentary system can be contrasted with a presidential system which operates under a stricter separation of powers whereby the executive does not form part of nor is appointed by the parliamentary or legislative body In such a system parliaments or congresses do not select or dismiss heads of government and governments cannot request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments although the parliament may still be able to dissolve itself as in the case of Cyprus There also exists the semi presidential system that draws on both presidential systems and parliamentary systems by combining a powerful president with an executive responsible to parliament for example the French Fifth Republic Parliamentarianism may also apply to regional and local governments An example is Oslo which has an executive council Byrad as a part of the parliamentary system The devolved nations of the United Kingdom are also parliamentary and which as with the UK Parliament may hold early elections this has only occurred with regards to the Northern Ireland Assembly in 2017 and 2022 Anti defection law Edit Anti defection law redirects here For the law in India see Anti defection law India A few parliamentary democratic nations such as India Pakistan and Bangladesh have enacted laws that prohibit floor crossing or switching parties after the election Under these laws elected representatives will lose their seat in the parliament if they go against their party in votes 18 19 20 In the UK parliament a member is free to cross over to a different party In Canada and Australia there are no restraints on legislators switching sides 21 In New Zealand waka jumping legislation provides that MPs who switch parties or are expelled from their party may be expelled from Parliament at the request of their former party s leader Parliamentary sovereignty Edit Further information Parliamentary sovereignty A few parliamentary democracies such as the United Kingdom and New Zealand have weak or non existent checks on the legislative power of their Parliaments 22 23 where any newly approved Act shall take precedence over all prior Acts All laws are equally unentrenched wherein judicial review may not outright annul nor amend them as frequently occurs in other parliamentary systems like Germany Whilst the head of state for both nations Monarch and or Governor General has the de jure power to withhold assent to any bill passed by their Parliament this check has not been exercised in Britain since the 1708 Scottish Militia Bill Whilst both the UK and New Zealand have some Acts or parliamentary rules establishing supermajorities or additional legislative procedures for certain legislation such as previously with the Fixed term Parliaments Act 2011 FTPA these can be bypassed through the enactment of another that amends or ignores these supermajorities away such as with the Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019 bypassing the 2 3rd supermajority required for an early dissolution under the FTPA 24 which enabled the early dissolution for the 2019 general election Metrics Edit Parliamentarism metrics allow a quantitative comparison of the strength of parliamentary systems for individual countries One parliamentarism metric is the Parliamentary Powers Index 25 Advantages EditAdaptability Edit Parliamentary systems like that found in the United Kingdom are widely considered to be more flexible allowing a rapid change in legislation and policy as long as there is a stable majority or coalition in parliament allowing the government to have few legal limits on what it can do 26 Due to the first past the post voting method this system produces the classic Westminster Model with the twin virtues of strong but responsive party government 27 This electoral system providing a strong majority in the House of Commons paired with the fused power system results in a particularly powerful Government able to provide change and innovate 26 Scrutiny and accountability Edit The United Kingdom s fused power system is often noted to be advantageous with regard to accountability The centralised government allows for more transparency as to where decisions originate from this directly contrasts with the American system with former Treasury Secretary C Douglas Dillon saying the president blames Congress the Congress blames the president and the public remains confused and disgusted with government in Washington 28 Furthermore ministers of the U K cabinet are subject to weekly Question Periods in which their actions policies are scrutinised no such regular check on the government exists in the U S system Distribution of power Edit A 2001 World Bank study found that parliamentary systems are associated with less corruption 29 Calling of elections Edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message In his 1867 book The English Constitution Walter Bagehot praised parliamentary governments for producing serious debates for allowing for a change in power without an election and for allowing elections at any time Bagehot considered the four year election rule of the United States to be unnatural as it can potentially allow a president who has disappointed the public with a dismal performance in the second year of his term to continue on until the end of his four year term Under a parliamentary system a prime minister that has lost support in the middle of his term can be easily replaced by his own peers with a more popular alternative as the Conservative Party in the UK did with successive prime ministers David Cameron Theresa May Boris Johnson and Liz Truss Although Bagehot praised parliamentary governments for allowing an election to take place at any time the lack of a definite election calendar can be abused Under some systems such as the British a ruling party can schedule elections when it believes that it is likely to retain power and so avoid elections at times of unpopularity from 2011 election timing in the UK was partially fixed under the Fixed term Parliaments Act 2011 which was repealed by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 Thus by a shrewd timing of elections in a parliamentary system a party can extend its rule for longer than is feasible in a presidential system This problem can be alleviated somewhat by setting fixed dates for parliamentary elections as is the case in several of Australia s state parliaments In other systems such as the Dutch and the Belgian the ruling party or coalition has some flexibility in determining the election date Conversely flexibility in the timing of parliamentary elections can avoid periods of legislative gridlock that can occur in a fixed period presidential system In any case voters ultimately have the power to choose whether to vote for the ruling party or someone else Disadvantages EditIncomplete separation of power Edit According to Arturo Fontaine parliamentary systems in Europe have yielded very powerful heads of government which is rather what is often criticized about presidential systems Fontaine compares United Kingdom s Margaret Thatcher to the United States Ronald Reagan noting the former head of government was much more powerful despite governing under a parliamentary system 30 The rise to power of Viktor Orban in Hungary has been claimed to show how parliamentary systems can be subverted 30 The situation in Hungary was according to Fontaine allowed by the deficient separation of powers that characterises parliamentary and semi presidential systems 30 Once Orban s party got two thirds of the seats in Parliament in a single election a supermajority large enough to amend the Hungarian constitution there was no institution that was able to balance the concentration of power 30 In a presidential system it would require at least two separate elections to create the same effect the presidential election and the legislative election and that the president s party has the legislative supermajority required for constitutional amendments Safeguards against this situation implementable in both systems include the establishment of an upper house or a requirement for external ratification of constitutional amendments such as a referendum Fontaine also notes as a warning example of the flaws of parliamentary systems that if the United States would have had a parliamentary system Donald Trump could as head of government have dissolved the United States Congress 30 Legislative flip flopping Edit The ability for strong parliamentary governments to push legislation through with the ease of fused power systems such as in the United Kingdom whilst positive in allowing rapid adaptation when necessary e g the nationalisation of services during the world wars in the opinion of some commentators does have its drawbacks The flip flopping of legislation back and forth as the majority in parliament changed between the Conservatives and Labour over the period 1940 1980 contesting over the nationalisation and privatisation of the British Steel Industry resulted in major instability for the British steel sector 26 Political fragmentation Edit In R Kent Weaver s book Are Parliamentary Systems Better he writes that an advantage of presidential systems is their ability to allow and accommodate more diverse viewpoints He states that because legislators are not compelled to vote against their constituents on matters of local concern parties can serve as organizational and roll call cuing vehicles without forcing out dissidents 26 Democratic unaccountability Edit All current parliamentary democracies see the indirect election or appointment of their head of government As a result the electorate has limited power to remove or install the person or party wielding the most power Although strategic voting may enable the party of the prime minister to be removed or empowered this can be at the expense of voters first preferences in the many parliamentary systems utilising first past the post or having no effect in dislodging those parties who consistently form part of a coalition government as with the current Dutch prime minister Mark Rutte and his party the VVD s 4 terms in office despite their peak support reaching only 26 6 in 2012 earning him the epithet Teflon Rutte for his ability to survive elections 31 Countries EditMain article List of countries by system of government Parliamentary systems Africa Edit Country Connection between the legislature and the executive Botswana Parliament of Botswana elects the President who appoints the Cabinet Ethiopia Federal Parliamentary Assembly appoints the Council of Ministers Lesotho National Assembly of Lesotho determines the Prime Minister of Lesotho Mauritius National Assembly appoints the Cabinet of Mauritius Somalia Federal Parliament of Somalia elects the President who appoints the Prime Minister South Africa Parliament of South Africa elects the President who appoints the CabinetAmericas Edit Parliament of Canada Country Connection between the legislature and the executive Antigua and Barbuda Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Antigua and Barbuda is appointed Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda by the Governor General of Antigua and Barbuda who then appoints the Cabinet of Antigua and Barbuda on the advice of the Prime Minister The Bahamas Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of the Bahamas is appointed Prime Minister of the Bahamas by the Governor General of the Bahamas who then appoints the Cabinet of the Bahamas on the advice of the Prime Minister Barbados Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of Barbados is appointed Prime Minister of Barbados by the President of Barbados who then appoints the Cabinet of Barbados on the advice of the Prime Minister Belize Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Belize is appointed Prime Minister of Belize by the Governor General of Belize who then appoints the Cabinet of Belize on the advice of the Prime Minister Canada Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Commons of Canada is appointed Prime Minister of Canada by the Governor General of Canada who then appoints the Cabinet of Canada on the advice of the Prime Minister Dominica Parliament approves the Cabinet of Dominica Grenada Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Grenada is appointed Prime Minister of Grenada by the Governor General of Grenada who then appoints the Cabinet of Grenada on the advice of the Prime Minister Jamaica Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Jamaica is appointed Prime Minister of Jamaica by the Governor General of Jamaica who then appoints the Cabinet of Jamaica on the advice of the Prime Minister Saint Kitts and Nevis Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the National Assembly of Saint Kitts and Nevis is appointed Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis by the Governor General of Saint Kitts and Nevis who then appoints the Cabinet of Saint Kitts and Nevis on the advice of the Prime Minister Saint Lucia Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of Saint Lucia is appointed Prime Minister of Saint Lucia by the Governor General of Saint Lucia who then appoints the Cabinet of Saint Lucia on the advice of the Prime Minister Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Assembly of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is appointed Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines by the Governor General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines who then appoints the Cabinet of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines on the advice of the Prime Minister Suriname National Assembly elects the President who appoints the Cabinet of Suriname Trinidad and Tobago Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the House of Representatives of Trinidad and Tobago is appointed Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago by the President of Trinidad and Tobago who then appoints the Cabinet of Trinidad and Tobago on the advice of the Prime MinisterAsia Edit Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban parliament building of Bangladesh Sansad Bhavan parliament building of India Council of Representatives of Iraq Knesset of Israel in Jerusalem Parliament of Malaysia Country Connection between the legislature and the executive Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad approves the Cabinet of Bangladesh Bhutan Parliament of Bhutan approves the Lhengye Zhungtshog Cambodia Parliament of Cambodia approves the Council of Ministers China Republic of 1947 Constitution The Legislative Yuan approves the Executive Yuan in which the premier is nominated and appointed by the president with the consent of the Legislative Yuan 2005 Amendments The Legislative Yuan approves the Executive Yuan in which the premier is appointed by the president The Legislative Yuan may vote for motion of no confidence India President of India appoints the leader of the political party or alliance that has the support of a majority in the House of the People as Prime Minister of India who then forms the Union Council of Ministers Iraq Council of Representatives approves the Cabinet of Iraq Israel A member of the Knesset that has the best chance of forming a coalition is given a mandate to do so by the President of Israel On success they are appointed as the Prime Minister of Israel The Prime Minister then appoints the Cabinet of Israel Japan National Diet nominates the Prime Minister who appoints the Cabinet of Japan Kuwait National Assembly approves the Crown Prince who appoints the Prime Minister who appoints the Cabinet of Kuwait Laos National Assembly elects the President who nominates the Prime Minister Lebanon Maronite Christian president is elected by the Parliament of Lebanon He appoints the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim and the cabinet The Parliament thereafter approves the Cabinet of Lebanon through a vote of confidence a simple majority Malaysia Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Dewan Rakyat is appointed Prime Minister of Malaysia by the Yang di Pertuan Agong who then appoints the Cabinet of Malaysia on the advice of the Prime Minister Myanmar Assembly of the Union by an electoral college elects the President who forms the Cabinet of Myanmar Nepal Parliament of Nepal elects the Prime Minister who by turn appoints the Cabinet of Nepal Pakistan Parliament of Pakistan appoints the Cabinet of Pakistan Singapore Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Parliament of Singapore is appointed Prime Minister of Singapore by the President of Singapore who then appoints the Cabinet of Singapore on the advice of the Prime Minister Thailand The Monarch appoints the MP or individual nominated by in the House of Representatives usually the leader of the largest party or coalition as Prime Minister who forms the Cabinet of Thailand Vietnam National Assembly elects the President and Prime Minister who forms the Cabinet Europe Edit National Assembly of Armenia The administrative building of the Albanian Parliament The Congress of Deputies the lower chamber of Spanish Parliament Country Connection between the legislature and the executive Albania Parliament of Albania approves the Cabinet of Albania Andorra Armenia National Assembly appoints and no sooner than one year can dismiss through the constructive vote of no confidence the Government of Armenia Austria In theory chancellor and ministers are appointed by the President As a practical matter they are unable to govern without the support or at least toleration of a majority in the National Council The cabinet is politically answerable to the National Council and can be dismissed by the National Council through a motion of no confidence Belgium Federal Parliament approves the Cabinet of Belgium Bulgaria National Assembly appoints the Council of Ministers of Bulgaria Croatia Croatian Parliament approves President of Government and the Cabinet nominated by him her Czech Republic President of the Czech Republic appoints usually the leader of the largest party or coalition in the Chamber of Deputies of the Parliament as Prime Minister who forms the Cabinet The Prime Minister must gain a vote of confidence by the Chamber of Deputies Denmark The Monarch appoints based on recommendations from the leaders of the parties in Folketinget the cabinet leader who is most likely to successfully assemble a Cabinet which will not be disapproved by a majority in Folketinget Estonia Riigikogu elects the Prime Minister candidate nominated by the President of the Republic normally this candidate is the leader of the parliamentary coalition of parties The Government of the Republic of Estonia is later appointed by the President of the Republic under proposal of the approved Prime Minister candidate The Riigikogu may remove the Prime Minister and any other member of the government through a motion of no confidence Finland Parliament of Finland appoints the Cabinet of Finland Georgia The prime minister is nominated by a political party that has secured the best results in the parliamentary election The nominee must win the confidence vote of the Parliament and then be appointed by the President of Georgia Germany Bundestag elects the Federal Chancellor after nomination from the President of Germany who forms the Cabinet Greece Hellenic Parliament approves the Cabinet of Greece Hungary National Assembly approves the Cabinet of Hungary Iceland The President of Iceland appoints and discharges the Cabinet of Iceland Ministers can not even resign without being discharged by presidential decree Ireland Dail Eireann nominates the Taoiseach who is then appointed by the President of Ireland Italy Italian Parliament grants and revokes its confidence in the Cabinet of Italy appointed by the President of Italy Kosovo Assembly of Kosovo appoints the Government of Kosovo Latvia Saeima appoints the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies appoints the Cabinet of Luxembourg Malta House of Representatives appoints the Cabinet of Malta Moldova Parliament of Moldova appoints the Cabinet of Moldova Montenegro Parliament of Montenegro appoints the Government of Montenegro Netherlands Second Chamber of the States General can dismiss the Cabinet of the Netherlands through a motion of no confidence North Macedonia Assembly approves the Government of North Macedonia Norway The Monarch appoints the MP leading the largest party or coalition in Stortinget as Prime Minister who forms the Cabinet Poland The President of Poland and the governing party in the Sejm are elected by popular vote The President appoints the Prime Minister from the largest party or coalition as the head of government However the Polish system is often regarded as de facto semi presidential the President of Poland has the power to veto legislation passed by parliament and can dissolve the parliament under certain conditions 32 33 34 The Constitution of Poland defines the country s system as de jure parliamentary republic Portugal After the elections for the Assembly of the Republic or the resignation of the previous government the president listens to the parties in the Assembly of the Republic and invites someone to form a government usually the leader of the biggest party Then the president swears in the prime minister and the Government San Marino Serbia National Assembly appoints the Government of Serbia Slovakia National Council approves the Government of Slovakia Slovenia National Assembly appoints the Government of Slovenia Spain The Congress of Deputies elects the President of the Government who forms the Cabinet Sweden The Riksdag elects the Prime Minister who in turn appoints the other members of the Government Switzerland A United Federal Assembly elects the members of the Swiss Federal Council United Kingdom The Leader almost invariably a Member of Parliament MP and of the political party which commands or is likely to command the confidence of a majority of the House of Commons is appointed Prime Minister by the British sovereign who then appoints members of the Cabinet on the nomination and advice of the Prime Minister Oceania Edit Parliament of Australia Parliament of New Zealand Country Connection between the legislature and the executive Australia Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the Australian House of Representatives is appointed Prime Minister of Australia by the Governor General of Australia who then appoints the Cabinet of Australia on the advice of the Prime Minister New Zealand Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the New Zealand House of Representatives is appointed Prime Minister of New Zealand by the Governor General of New Zealand who then appoints the Cabinet of New Zealand on the advice of the Prime Minister Papua New Guinea Leader of the political party that has the support of a majority in the National Parliament is appointed Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea by the Governor General of Papua New Guinea who then appoints the Cabinet of Papua New Guinea on the advice of the Prime Minister Samoa Legislative Assembly appoints the Cabinet of Samoa Vanuatu Parliament of Vanuatu appoints the Cabinet of VanuatuSee also EditLaw reform List of legislatures by country List of political systems in France Parliament in the Making Parliamentary leader Rule according to higher law Rule of law Parliamentary monarchy Parliamentary republic Strengthened parliamentary systemReferences Edit The Decreta of Leon of 1188 The oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system UNESCO Memory of the World 2013 Archived from the original on 24 June 2016 Retrieved 21 May 2016 John Keane The Life and Death of Democracy London 2009 169 176 Jobson Adrian 2012 The First English Revolution Simon de Montfort Henry III and the Barons War Bloomsbury pp 173 4 ISBN 978 1 84725 226 5 Archived from the original on 1 August 2020 Retrieved 6 June 2020 Simon de Montfort The turning point for democracy that gets overlooked BBC 19 January 2015 Archived from the original on 19 January 2015 Retrieved 19 January 2015 The January Parliament and how it defined Britain The Telegraph 20 January 2015 Archived from the original on 23 January 2015 Retrieved 28 January 2015 Norgate Kate 1894 Montfort Simon of 1208 1265 In Lee Sidney ed Dictionary of National Biography Vol 38 London Smith Elder amp Co Kopstein Jeffrey Lichbach Mark Hanson Stephen E eds 2014 Comparative Politics Interests Identities and Institutions in a Changing Global Order 4 revised ed Cambridge University Press pp 37 9 ISBN 978 1139991384 Archived from the original on 30 June 2020 Retrieved 6 June 2020 Britain pioneered the system of liberal democracy that has now spread in one form or another to most of the world s countries Constitutionalism America amp Beyond Bureau of International Information Programs IIP U S Department of State Archived from the original on 24 October 2014 Retrieved 30 October 2014 The earliest and perhaps greatest victory for liberalism was achieved in England The rising commercial class that had supported the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th and succeeded in establishing the supremacy of Parliament and eventually of the House of Commons What emerged as the distinctive feature of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the idea that the king is subject to law although this concept is an essential attribute of all constitutionalism This notion was already well established in the Middle Ages What was distinctive was the establishment of effective means of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended upon the consent of citizen subjects However as can be seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights of property in the narrow sense but to establish those liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth The rights of man enumerated in the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England notably in the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789 Blick Andrew Jones George 1 January 2012 The Institution of Prime Minister History of Government Blog Government of the United Kingdom Archived from the original on 10 March 2016 Carter Byrum E 2015 1955 The Historical Development of the Office of Prime Minister Office of the Prime Minister Princeton University Press ISBN 9781400878260 Archived from the original on 19 August 2020 Retrieved 6 June 2020 Lijphart Arend 1999 Patterns of democracy New Haven Yale University Press Julian Go 2007 A Globalizing Constitutionalism Views from the Postcolony 1945 2000 In Arjomand Said Amir ed Constitutionalism and political reconstruction Brill pp 92 94 ISBN 978 9004151741 Archived from the original on 1 August 2020 Retrieved 6 June 2020 How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World University of Cambridge 2 December 2013 Archived from the original on 16 December 2013 Retrieved 16 December 2013 Seidle F Leslie Docherty David C 2003 Reforming parliamentary democracy McGill Queen s University Press p 3 ISBN 9780773525085 Archived from the original on 19 August 2020 Retrieved 6 June 2020 Constitution of the People s Republic of Bangladesh Article 56 Duverger Maurice September 1996 Les monarchies republicaines The crowned republics PDF Pouvoirs revue francaise d etudes constitutionnelles et politiques in French No 78 Paris Editions du Seuil pp 107 120 ISBN 2 02 030123 7 ISSN 0152 0768 Archived from the original PDF on 1 October 2018 Retrieved 10 September 2016 Frosini Justin Orlando 2008 Ferrari Giuseppe Franco ed Forms of State and Forms of Government Giuffre Editore pp 54 55 ISBN 9788814143885 Archived from the original on 19 August 2020 Retrieved 13 November 2016 via Google Books Archived copy PDF Archived PDF from the original on 19 August 2019 Retrieved 16 December 2019 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Anti defection law the challenges legalservicesindia com Archived from the original on 2 December 2019 Retrieved 16 December 2019 ANTI DEFECTION LAW A DEATH KNELL FOR PARLIAMENTARY DISSENT PDF NUJS Law Review March 2012 Archived from the original PDF on 28 May 2016 Retrieved 15 May 2016 Columns Anti Defection Laws in India Its flaws and its falls 1 August 2019 UK Parliament glossary UK Parliament 27 October 2022 Archived from the original on 28 September 2022 Retrieved 27 October 2022 Our system of government New Zealand Parliament 20 January 2016 Archived from the original on 17 October 2022 Retrieved 27 October 2022 Fixed term Parliament Act 2011 UK Parliament 26 November 2021 Archived from the original on 21 October 2022 Retrieved 27 October 2022 M Steven Fish and Matthew Kroenig The Handbook of National Legislatures A Global Survey Cambridge University Press 2009 a b c d Weaver R Kent 1985 Are Parliamentary Systems Better The Brookings Review 3 4 16 25 doi 10 2307 20079894 ISSN 0745 1253 JSTOR 20079894 Norris Pippa 1995 The Politics of Electoral Reform in Britain International Political Science Review 16 1 65 78 doi 10 1177 019251219501600105 ISSN 0192 5121 JSTOR 1601169 S2CID 144867316 Sundquist James L 1992 Constitutional reform and effective government Internet Archive Washington D C Brookings Institution Lederman Daniel November 2001 Accountability and Corruption Political Institutions Matter Policy Research Working Papers World Bank p 27 doi 10 1596 1813 9450 2708 a b c d e Valenzuela Manguini Alvaro 5 November 2021 Arturo Fontaine Si se estableciera el semipresidencialismo a poco andar el pueblo sentiria que ha sido enganado Emol in Spanish Retrieved 7 November 2021 Henley Jon 14 December 2021 Teflon Mark Rutte set for fourth Dutch term after record breaking talks The Guardian Retrieved 27 October 2022 Shugart Matthew Soberg September 2005 Semi Presidential Systems Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns PDF Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies Archived from the original PDF on 19 August 2008 Retrieved 21 August 2017 Shugart Matthew Soberg December 2005 Semi Presidential Systems Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns PDF French Politics 3 3 323 351 doi 10 1057 palgrave fp 8200087 Retrieved 21 August 2017 Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as quite considerable in Duverger s sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people s elected agent Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto as in Mongolia Poland and Senegal In these cases while the government is fully accountable to parliament it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account McMenamin Iain Semi Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland PDF School of Law and Government Dublin City University Archived from the original PDF on 12 February 2012 Retrieved 11 December 2017 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Parliamentary system Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Parliamentary system amp oldid 1134225983, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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