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Wikipedia

Comics

February 17, 2023

"Comic" and "Comic art" redirect here. For other uses, see Comic (disambiguation). For the magazine, see Comic Art.
Not to be confused with Underground comix (underground comics).
This article is about the medium and so "comics" is almost always used as a singular noun.

Comics is a medium used to express ideas with images, often combined with text or other visual information. It typically takes the form of a sequence of panels of images. Textual devices such as speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia can indicate dialogue, narration, sound effects, or other information. There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics; some emphasize the combination of images and text, some sequentiality or other image relations, and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring characters. Cartooning and other forms of illustration are the most common image-making means in comics; fumetti is a form that uses photographic images. Common forms include comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, and comic books. Since the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, comic albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly common, while online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century.

The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures. Scholars have posited a pre-history as far back as the Lascaux cave paintings. By the mid-20th century, comics flourished, particularly in the United States, western Europe (especially France and Belgium), and Japan. The history of European comics is often traced to Rodolphe Töpffer's cartoon strips of the 1830s, and became popular following the success in the 1930s of strips and books such as The Adventures of Tintin. American comics emerged as a mass medium in the early 20th century with the advent of newspaper comic strips; magazine-style comic books followed in the 1930s, in which the superhero genre became prominent after Superman appeared in 1938. Histories of Japanese comics and cartooning (manga) propose origins as early as the 12th century. Modern comic strips emerged in Japan in the early 20th century, and the output of comics magazines and books rapidly expanded in the post-World War II era (1945–) with the popularity of cartoonists such as Osamu Tezuka. Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for much of its history, but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater acceptance with the public and academics.

The English term comics is used as a singular noun when it refers to the medium itself (e.g. "Comics is a visual art form."), but becomes plural when referring to works collectively (e.g. "Comics are popular reading material.").

Origins and traditions

Main articles: History of comics and List of comics by country

The European, American, and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths.[1] Europeans have seen their tradition as beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer from as early as 1827 and Americans have seen the origin of theirs in Richard F. Outcault's 1890s newspaper strip The Yellow Kid, though many Americans have come to recognize Töpffer's precedence.[2] Japan has a long history of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era. The ukiyo-e artist Hokusai popularized the Japanese term for comics and cartooning, manga, in the early 19th century.[3] In the 1930s Harry "A" Chesler started a comics studio, which eventually at its height employed 40 artists working for 50 different publishers who helped make the comics medium flourish in "the Golden Age of Comics" after World War II.[4] In the post-war era modern Japanese comics began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work.[5] Towards the close of the 20th century, these three traditions converged in a trend towards book-length comics: the comic album in Europe, the tankōbon[a] in Japan, and the graphic novel in the English-speaking countries.[1]

Outside of these genealogies, comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux cave paintings[6] in France (some of which appear to be chronological sequences of images), Egyptian hieroglyphs, Trajan's Column in Rome,[7] the 11th-century Norman Bayeux Tapestry,[8] the 1370 bois Protat woodcut, the 15th-century Ars moriendi and block books, Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel,[7] and William Hogarth's 18th-century sequential engravings,[9] amongst others.[7][b]

 
Theorists debate whether the Bayeux Tapestry is a precursor to comics.

English-language comics

 
"An angry snarl between friendly relations" - Satirical print on the politics around the Caroline Affair (1840-1841)
 
At the house of the writing pig.
The Upside Downs of Little Lady Lovekins and Old Man Muffaroo, comics by Gustave Verbeek containing reversible figures and ambigram sentences (March 1904).
Main articles: British comics, History of American comics, and American comic book

Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th-century Britain, the earliest of which was the short-lived The Glasgow Looking Glass in 1825.[11] The most popular was Punch,[12] which popularized the term cartoon for its humorous caricatures.[13] On occasion the cartoons in these magazines appeared in sequences;[12] the character Ally Sloper featured in the earliest serialized comic strip when the character began to feature in its own weekly magazine in 1884.[14]

American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck, Judge, and Life. The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcault's The Yellow Kid, led to the development of newspaper comic strips. Early Sunday strips were full-page[15] and often in colour. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with sequentiality, movement, and speech balloons.[16] An example is Gustave Verbeek, who wrote his comic series "The UpsideDowns of Old Man Muffaroo and Little Lady Lovekins" between 1903 and 1905. These comics were made in such a way that one could read the 6-panel comic, flip the book and keep reading. He made 64 such comics in total. In 2012 a remake of a selection of the comics was made by Marcus Ivarsson in the book 'In Uppåner med Lilla Lisen & Gamle Muppen'. (ISBN 978-91-7089-524-1)

 
Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff (1907–1982) was the first successful daily comic strip (1907).

Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff.[17] In Britain, the Amalgamated Press established a popular style of a sequence of images with text beneath them, including Illustrated Chips and Comic Cuts.[18] Humour strips predominated at first, and in the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama also became popular.[17]

Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s, at first reprinting newspaper comic strips; by the end of the decade, original content began to dominate.[19] The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books, in which the superhero genre was prominent.[20] In the UK and the Commonwealth, the DC Thomson-created Dandy (1937) and Beano (1938) became successful humor-based titles, with a combined circulation of over 2 million copies by the 1950s. Their characters, including "Dennis the Menace", "Desperate Dan" and "The Bash Street Kids" have been read by generations of British children.[21] The comics originally experimented with superheroes and action stories before settling on humorous strips featuring a mix of the Amalgamated Press and US comic book styles.[22]

 
Superheroes have been a staple of American comic books (Wonderworld Comics #3, 1939; cover: The Flame by Will Eisner).

The popularity of superhero comic books declined following World War II,[23] while comic book sales continued to increase as other genres proliferated, such as romance, westerns, crime, horror, and humour.[24] Following a sales peak in the early 1950s, the content of comic books (particularly crime and horror) was subjected to scrutiny from parent groups and government agencies, which culminated in Senate hearings that led to the establishment of the Comics Code Authority self-censoring body.[25] The Code has been blamed for stunting the growth of American comics and maintaining its low status in American society for much of the remainder of the century.[26] Superheroes re-established themselves as the most prominent comic book genre by the early 1960s.[27] Underground comix challenged the Code and readers with adult, countercultural content in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[28] The underground gave birth to the alternative comics movement in the 1980s and its mature, often experimental content in non-superhero genres.[29]

Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture; cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society. In the latter half of the 20th century, popular culture won greater acceptance, and the lines between high and low culture began to blur. Comics nevertheless continued to be stigmatized, as the medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates.[30]

The graphic novel—book-length comics—began to gain attention after Will Eisner popularized the term with his book A Contract with God (1978).[31] The term became widely known with the public after the commercial success of Maus, Watchmen, and The Dark Knight Returns in the mid-1980s.[32] In the 21st century graphic novels became established in mainstream bookstores[33] and libraries[34] and webcomics became common.[35]

Franco-Belgian and European comics

Main articles: European comics and Franco-Belgian comics

The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827,[7] and published theories behind the form.[36] Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from the 19th century.[37] The success of Zig et Puce in 1925 popularized the use of speech balloons in European comics, after which Franco-Belgian comics began to dominate.[38] The Adventures of Tintin, with its signature clear line style,[39] was first serialized in newspaper comics supplements beginning in 1929,[40] and became an icon of Franco-Belgian comics.[41]

Following the success of Le Journal de Mickey (est. 1934),[42] dedicated comics magazines[43] like Spirou (est. 1938) and Tintin (1946-1993), and full-colour comic albums became the primary outlet for comics in the mid-20th century.[44] As in the US, at the time comics were seen as infantile and a threat to culture and literacy; commentators stated that "none bear up to the slightest serious analysis",[c] and that comics were "the sabotage of all art and all literature".[46][d]

In the 1960s, the term bandes dessinées ("drawn strips") came into wide use in French to denote the medium.[47] Cartoonists began creating comics for mature audiences,[48] and the term "Ninth Art"[e] was coined, as comics began to attract public and academic attention as an artform.[49] A group including René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959 to give artists greater freedom over their work. Goscinny and Uderzo's The Adventures of Asterix appeared in it[50] and went on to become the best-selling French-language comics series.[51] From 1960, the satirical and taboo-breaking Hara-Kiri defied censorship laws in the countercultural spirit that led to the May 1968 events.[52]

Frustration with censorship and editorial interference led to a group of Pilote cartoonists to found the adults-only L'Écho des savanes in 1972. Adult-oriented and experimental comics flourished in the 1970s, such as in the experimental science fiction of Mœbius and others in Métal hurlant, even mainstream publishers took to publishing prestige-format adult comics.[53]

From the 1980s, mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less common as the number of comics magazines decreased and many comics began to be published directly as albums.[54] Smaller publishers such as L'Association[55] that published longer works[56] in non-traditional formats[57] by auteur-istic creators also became common. Since the 1990s, mergers resulted in fewer large publishers, while smaller publishers proliferated. Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print market.[58]

Japanese comics

Main articles: History of manga and Manga
 
Rakuten Kitazawa created the first modern Japanese comic strip. (Tagosaku to Mokube no Tōkyō Kenbutsu,[f] 1902)

Japanese comics and cartooning (manga),[g] have a history that has been seen as far back as the anthropomorphic characters in the 12th-to-13th-century Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga, 17th-century toba-e and kibyōshi picture books,[62] and woodblock prints such as ukiyo-e which were popular between the 17th and 20th centuries. The kibyōshi contained examples of sequential images, movement lines,[63] and sound effects.[64]

Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western-style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century. New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular, and at the end of the 1890s, American-style newspaper comics supplements began to appear in Japan,[65] as well as some American comic strips.[62] 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern sense,[61] and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip.[66] By the 1930s, comic strips were serialized in large-circulation monthly girls' and boys' magazine and collected into hardback volumes.[67]

The modern era of comics in Japan began after World War II, propelled by the success of the serialized comics of the prolific Osamu Tezuka[68] and the comic strip Sazae-san.[69] Genres and audiences diversified over the following decades. Stories are usually first serialized in magazines which are often hundreds of pages thick and may contain over a dozen stories;[70] they are later compiled in tankōbon-format books.[71] At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, nearly a quarter of all printed material in Japan was comics.[72] Translations became extremely popular in foreign markets—in some cases equaling or surpassing the sales of domestic comics.[73]

Forms and formats

Comic strips are generally short, multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers. In the US, daily strips have normally occupied a single tier, while Sunday strips have been given multiple tiers. In the early 20th century, daily strips were typically in black-and-white and Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page.[74]

Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in different cultures. Comic books, primarily an American format, are thin periodicals[75] usually published in colour.[76] European and Japanese comics are frequently serialized in magazines—monthly or weekly in Europe,[61] and usually black-and-white and weekly in Japan.[77] Japanese comics magazine typically run to hundreds of pages.[78]

 
A comparison of book formats for comics around the world. The left group is from Japan and shows the tankōbon and the smaller bunkobon formats. Those in the middle group of Franco-Belgian comics are in the standard A4-size comic album format. The right group of graphic novels is from English-speaking countries, where there is no standard format.

Book-length comics take different forms in different cultures. European comic albums are most commonly printed in A4-size[79] colour volumes.[44] In English-speaking countries, the trade paperback format originating from collected comic books have also been chosen for original material. Otherwise, bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels and are available in various formats. Despite incorporating the term "novel"—a term normally associated with fiction—"graphic novel" also refers to non-fiction and collections of short works.[80] Japanese comics are collected in volumes called tankōbon following magazine serialization.[81]

Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single panel, often incorporating a caption or speech balloon. Definitions of comics which emphasize sequence usually exclude gag, editorial, and other single-panel cartoons; they can be included in definitions that emphasize the combination of word and image.[82] Gag cartoons first began to proliferate in broadsheets published in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the term "cartoon"[h] was first used to describe them in 1843 in the British humour magazine Punch.[13]

Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet. They are able to reach large audiences, and new readers usually can access archived installments.[83] Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas—meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of a page.[84]

Some consider storyboards[85] and wordless novels to be comics.[86] Film studios, especially in animation, often use sequences of images as guides for film sequences. These storyboards are not intended as an end product and are rarely seen by the public.[85] Wordless novels are books which use sequences of captionless images to deliver a narrative.[87]

Comics studies

Main article: Comics studies

"Comics ... are sometimes four-legged and sometimes two-legged and sometimes fly and sometimes don't ... to employ a metaphor as mixed as the medium itself, defining comics entails cutting a Gordian-knotted enigma wrapped in a mystery ..."

R. C. Harvey, 2001[82]

Similar to the problems of defining literature and film,[88] no consensus has been reached on a definition of the comics medium,[89] and attempted definitions and descriptions have fallen prey to numerous exceptions.[90] Theorists such as Töpffer,[91] R.C. Harvey, Will Eisner,[92] David Carrier,[93] Alain Rey,[89] and Lawrence Grove emphasize the combination of text and images,[94] though there are prominent examples of pantomime comics throughout its history.[90] Other critics, such as Thierry Groensteen[94] and Scott McCloud, have emphasized the primacy of sequences of images.[95] Towards the close of the 20th century, different cultures' discoveries of each other's comics traditions, the rediscovery of forgotten early comics forms, and the rise of new forms made defining comics a more complicated task.[96]

European comics studies began with Töpffer's theories of his own work in the 1840s, which emphasized panel transitions and the visual–verbal combination. No further progress was made until the 1970s.[97] Pierre Fresnault-Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of comics, analyzing text–image relations, page-level image relations, and image discontinuities, or what Scott McCloud later dubbed "closure".[98] In 1987, Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre, or "multiframe", to refer to the comics page as a semantic unit.[99] By the 1990s, theorists such as Benoît Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to artists' poïetic creative choices.[98] Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the definition of comics, a medium that has taken various, equally valid forms over its history. Morgan sees comics as a subset of "les littératures dessinées" (or "drawn literatures").[96] French theory has come to give special attention to the page, in distinction from American theories such as McCloud's which focus on panel-to-panel transitions.[99] In the mid-2000s, Neil Cohn began analyzing how comics are understood using tools from cognitive science, extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience experiments. This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule-bound "grammars" to be understood that extend beyond panel-to-panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts, and that the brain's comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains, such as language and music.[100]

Historical narratives of manga tend to focus either on its recent, post-WWII history, or on attempts to demonstrate deep roots in the past, such as to the Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga picture scroll of the 12th and 13th centuries, or the early 19th-century Hokusai Manga.[101] The first historical overview of Japanese comics was Seiki Hosokibara's Nihon Manga-Shi[i] in 1924.[102] Early post-war Japanese criticism was mostly of a left-wing political nature until the 1986 publication of Tomofusa Kure's Modern Manga: The Complete Picture,[j] which de-emphasized politics in favour of formal aspects, such as structure and a "grammar" of comics. The field of manga studies increased rapidly, with numerous books on the subject appearing in the 1990s.[103] Formal theories of manga have focused on developing a "manga expression theory",[k] with emphasis on spatial relationships in the structure of images on the page, distinguishing the medium from film or literature, in which the flow of time is the basic organizing element.[104] Comics studies courses have proliferated at Japanese universities, and Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics (ja)[l] was established in 2001 to promote comics scholarship.[105] The publication of Frederik L. Schodt's Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics in 1983 led to the spread of use of the word manga outside Japan to mean "Japanese comics" or "Japanese-style comics".[106]

 
 
Will Eisner (top) and Scott McCloud have proposed influential and controversial definitions of comics.

Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with The Comics (1947).[107] Will Eisner's Comics and Sequential Art (1985) and Scott McCloud's Understanding Comics (1993) were early attempts in English to formalize the study of comics. David Carrier's The Aesthetics of Comics (2000) was the first full-length treatment of comics from a philosophical perspective.[108] Prominent American attempts at definitions of comics include Eisner's, McCloud's, and Harvey's. Eisner described what he called "sequential art" as "the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea";[109] Scott McCloud defined comics as "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer",[110] a strictly formal definition which detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings.[111] R.C. Harvey defined comics as "pictorial narratives or expositions in which words (often lettered into the picture area within speech balloons) usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and vice versa".[112] Each definition has had its detractors. Harvey saw McCloud's definition as excluding single-panel cartoons,[113] and objected to McCloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, insisting "the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of verbal content".[99] Aaron Meskin saw McCloud's theories as an artificial attempt to legitimize the place of comics in art history.[92]

Cross-cultural study of comics is complicated by the great difference in meaning and scope of the words for "comics" in different languages.[114] The French term for comics, bandes dessinées ("drawn strip") emphasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as a defining factor,[115] which can imply the exclusion of even photographic comics.[116] The term manga is used in Japanese to indicate all forms of comics, cartooning,[117] and caricature.[114]

Terminology

Main article: Glossary of comics terminology

The term comics refers to the comics medium when used as an uncountable noun and thus takes the singular: "comics is a medium" rather than "comics are a medium". When comic appears as a countable noun it refers to instances of the medium, such as individual comic strips or comic books: "Tom's comics are in the basement."[118]

Panels are individual images containing a segment of action,[119] often surrounded by a border.[120] Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation.[121] The reader puts the pieces together via the process of closure by using background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into events.[122] The size, shape, and arrangement of panels each affect the timing and pacing of the narrative.[123] The contents of a panel may be asynchronous, with events depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time.[124]

 
A caption (the yellow box) gives the narrator a voice. The characters' dialogue appears in speech balloons. The tail of the balloon indicates the speaker.

Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech balloons, captions, and sound effects. Speech balloons indicate dialogue (or thought, in the case of thought balloons), with tails pointing at their respective speakers.[125] Captions can give voice to a narrator, convey characters' dialogue or thoughts,[126] or indicate place or time.[127] Speech balloons themselves are strongly associated with comics, such that the addition of one to an image is sufficient to turn the image into comics.[128] Sound effects mimic non-vocal sounds textually using onomatopoeia sound-words.[129]

Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics, traditionally using ink (especially India ink) with dip pens or ink brushes;[130] mixed media and digital technology have become common. Cartooning techniques such as motion lines[131] and abstract symbols are often employed.[132]

While comics are often the work of a single creator, the labour of making them is frequently divided between a number of specialists. There may be separate writers and artists, and artists may specialize in parts of the artwork such as characters or backgrounds, as is common in Japan.[133] Particularly in American superhero comic books,[134] the art may be divided between a penciller, who lays out the artwork in pencil;[135] an inker, who finishes the artwork in ink;[136] a colourist;[137] and a letterer, who adds the captions and speech balloons.[138]

Etymology

The English-language term comics derives from the humorous (or "comic") work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips, but usage of the term has become standard for non-humorous works as well. The alternate spelling comix – coined by the underground comix movement – is sometimes used to address this ambiguities.[139] The term "comic book" has a similarly confusing history since they are most often not humorous and are periodicals, not regular books.[140] It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes dessinées for French-language Franco-Belgian comics.[141]

Many cultures have taken their word for comics from English, including Russian (комикс, komiks)[142] and German (Comic).[143] Similarly, the Chinese term manhua[144] and the Korean manhwa[145] derive from the Chinese characters with which the Japanese term manga is written.[146]

See also

See also lists

Notes

  1. ^ tankōbon (単行本, translation close to "independently appearing book")
  2. ^ David Kunzle has compiled extensive collections of these and other proto-comics in his The Early Comic Strip (1973) and The History of the Comic Strip (1990).[10]
  3. ^ French: "... aucune ne supporte une analyse un peu serieuse." – Jacqueline & Raoul Dubois in La Presse enfantine française (Midol, 1957)[45]
  4. ^ French: "C'est le sabotage de tout art et de toute littérature." – Jean de Trignon in Histoires de la littérature enfantine de ma Mère l'Oye au Roi Babar (Hachette, 1950)[45]
  5. ^ French: neuvième art
  6. ^ Tagosaku and Mokube Sightseeing in Tokyo (Japanese: 田吾作と杢兵衛の東京見物, Hepburn: Tagosaku to Mokube no Tokyo Kenbutsu)
  7. ^ "Manga" (Japanese: 漫画) can be glossed in many ways, amongst them "whimsical pictures", "disreputable pictures",[59] "irresponsible pictures",[60] "derisory pictures", and "sketches made for or out of a sudden inspiration".[61]
  8. ^ "cartoon": from the Italian cartone, meaning "card", which referred to the cardboard on which the cartoons were typically drawn.[13]
  9. ^ Hosokibara, Seiki (1924). 日本漫画史 [Japanese Comics History]. Yuzankaku.
  10. ^ Kure, Tomofusa (1986). 現代漫画の全体像 [Modern Manga: The Complete Picture]. Joho Center Publishing. ISBN 978-4-575-71090-8.[103]
  11. ^ "Manga expression theory" (Japanese: 漫画表現論, Hepburn: manga hyōgenron)[104]
  12. ^ Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics (Japanese: 日本マンガ学会, Hepburn: Nihon Manga Gakkai)

References

  1. ^ a b Couch 2000.
  2. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beerbohm 2003; Sabin 2005, p. 186; Rowland 1990, p. 13.
  3. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 41; Power 2009, p. 24; Gravett 2004, p. 9.
  4. ^ Ewing, Emma Mai (1976-09-12). "The 'Funnies'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. from the original on 2018-11-28. Retrieved 2019-03-05.
  5. ^ Couch 2000; Petersen 2010, p. 175.
  6. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Barker 1989, p. 6; Groensteen 2014; Grove 2010, p. 59; Beaty 2012; Jobs 2012, p. 98.
  7. ^ a b c d Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv.
  8. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beaty 2012, p. 61; Grove 2010, pp. 16, 21, 59.
  9. ^ Grove 2010, p. 79.
  10. ^ Beaty 2012, p. 62.
  11. ^ Dempster, Michael. "Glasgow Looking Glass". Wee Windaes. National Library of Scotland. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
  12. ^ a b Clark & Clark 1991, p. 17.
  13. ^ a b c Harvey 2001, p. 77.
  14. ^ Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxii.
  15. ^ Nordling 1995, p. 123.
  16. ^ Gordon 2002, p. 35.
  17. ^ a b Harvey 1994, p. 11.
  18. ^ Bramlett, Cook & Meskin 2016, p. 45.
  19. ^ Rhoades 2008, p. 2.
  20. ^ Rhoades 2008, p. x.
  21. ^ Childs & Storry 2013, p. 532.
  22. ^ Bramlett, Cook & Meskin 2016, p. 46.
  23. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. 51.
  24. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. 49.
  25. ^ Gabilliet 2010, pp. 49–50.
  26. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. 50.
  27. ^ Gabilliet 2010, pp. 52–55.
  28. ^ Gabilliet 2010, p. 66.
  29. ^ Hatfield 2005, pp. 20, 26; Lopes 2009, p. 123; Rhoades 2008, p. 140.
  30. ^ Lopes 2009, pp. xx–xxi.
  31. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 222.
  32. ^ Kaplan 2008, p. 172; Sabin 1993, p. 246; Stringer 1996, p. 262; Ahrens & Meteling 2010, p. 1; Williams & Lyons 2010, p. 7.
  33. ^ Gabilliet 2010, pp. 210–211.
  34. ^ Lopes 2009, p. 151–152.
  35. ^ Thorne 2010, p. 209.
  36. ^ Harvey 2010.
  37. ^ Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.
  38. ^ Vessels 2010, p. 45; Miller 2007, p. 17.
  39. ^ Screech 2005, p. 27; Miller 2007, p. 18.
  40. ^ Miller 2007, p. 17.
  41. ^ Theobald 2004, p. 82; Screech 2005, p. 48; McKinney 2011, p. 3.
  42. ^ Grove 2005, pp. 76–78.
  43. ^ Petersen 2010, pp. 214–215; Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.
  44. ^ a b Petersen 2010, pp. 214–215.
  45. ^ a b Grove 2005, p. 46.
  46. ^ Grove 2005, pp. 45–46.
  47. ^ Grove 2005, p. 51.
  48. ^ Miller 1998, p. 116; Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.
  49. ^ Miller 2007, p. 23.
  50. ^ Miller 2007, p. 21.
  51. ^ Screech 2005, p. 204.
  52. ^ Miller 2007, p. 22.
  53. ^ Miller 2007, pp. 25–28.
  54. ^ Miller 2007, pp. 33–34.
  55. ^ Beaty 2007, p. 9.
  56. ^ Lefèvre 2010, pp. 189–190.
  57. ^ Grove 2005, p. 153.
  58. ^ Miller 2007, pp. 49–53.
  59. ^ Karp & Kress 2011, p. 19.
  60. ^ Gravett 2004, p. 9.
  61. ^ a b c Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 22.
  62. ^ a b Schodt 1996, p. 22.
  63. ^ Mansfield 2009, p. 253.
  64. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 42.
  65. ^ Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 21–22.
  66. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 128; Gravett 2004, p. 21.
  67. ^ Schodt 1996, p. 22; Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 23–24.
  68. ^ Gravett 2004, p. 24.
  69. ^ MacWilliams 2008, p. 3; Hashimoto & Traphagan 2008, p. 21; Sugimoto 2010, p. 255; Gravett 2004, p. 8.
  70. ^ Schodt 1996, p. 23; Gravett 2004, pp. 13–14.
  71. ^ Gravett 2004, p. 14.
  72. ^ Brenner 2007, p. 13; Lopes 2009, p. 152; Raz 1999, p. 162; Jenkins 2004, p. 121.
  73. ^ Lee 2010, p. 158.
  74. ^ Booker 2014, p. xxvi–xxvii.
  75. ^ Orr 2008, p. 11; Collins 2010, p. 227.
  76. ^ Orr 2008, p. 10.
  77. ^ Schodt 1996, p. 23; Orr 2008, p. 10.
  78. ^ Schodt 1996, p. 23.
  79. ^ Grove 2010, p. 24; McKinney 2011.
  80. ^ Goldsmith 2005, p. 16; Karp & Kress 2011, pp. 4–6.
  81. ^ Poitras 2001, p. 66–67.
  82. ^ a b Harvey 2001, p. 76.
  83. ^ Petersen 2010, pp. 234–236.
  84. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 234; McCloud 2000, p. 222.
  85. ^ a b Rhoades 2008, p. 38.
  86. ^ Beronä 2008, p. 225.
  87. ^ Cohen 1977, p. 181.
  88. ^ Groensteen 2012, pp. 128–129.
  89. ^ a b Groensteen 2012, p. 124.
  90. ^ a b Groensteen 2012, p. 126.
  91. ^ Thomas 2010, p. 158.
  92. ^ a b Beaty 2012, p. 65.
  93. ^ Groensteen 2012, pp. 126, 131.
  94. ^ a b Grove 2010, pp. 17–19.
  95. ^ Thomas 2010, pp. 157, 170.
  96. ^ a b Groensteen 2012a, pp. 112–113.
  97. ^ Miller 2007, p. 101.
  98. ^ a b Groensteen 2012a, p. 112.
  99. ^ a b c Groensteen 2012a, p. 113.
  100. ^ Cohn 2013.
  101. ^ Stewart 2014, pp. 28–29.
  102. ^ Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 23; Stewart 2014, p. 29.
  103. ^ a b Kinsella 2000, pp. 96–97.
  104. ^ a b Kinsella 2000, p. 100.
  105. ^ Morita 2010, pp. 37–38.
  106. ^ Stewart 2014, p. 30.
  107. ^ Inge 1989, p. 214.
  108. ^ Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxix.
  109. ^ Yuan 2011; Eisner 1985, p. 5.
  110. ^ Kovacs & Marshall 2011, p. 10; Holbo 2012, p. 13; Harvey 2010, p. 1; Beaty 2012, p. 6; McCloud 1993, p. 9.
  111. ^ Beaty 2012, p. 67.
  112. ^ Chute 2010, p. 7; Harvey 2001, p. 76.
  113. ^ Harvey 2010, p. 1.
  114. ^ a b Morita 2010, p. 33.
  115. ^ Groensteen 2012, p. 130; Morita 2010, p. 33.
  116. ^ Groensteen 2012, p. 130.
  117. ^ Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 336.
  118. ^ Chapman 2012, p. 8; Chute & DeKoven 2012, p. 175; Fingeroth 2008, p. 4.
  119. ^ Lee 1978, p. 15.
  120. ^ Eisner 1985, pp. 28, 45.
  121. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 10.
  122. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 316.
  123. ^ Eisner 1985, p. 30.
  124. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 12–13.
  125. ^ Lee 1978, p. 15; Markstein 2010; Eisner 1985, p. 157; Dawson 2010, p. 112; Saraceni 2003, p. 9.
  126. ^ Lee 1978, p. 15; Lyga & Lyga 2004.
  127. ^ Saraceni 2003, p. 9; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 18.
  128. ^ Forceville, Veale & Feyaerts 2010, p. 56.
  129. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, pp. 156, 318.
  130. ^ Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978, p. 145; Rhoades 2008, p. 139.
  131. ^ Bramlett 2012, p. 25; Guigar 2010, p. 126; Cates 2010, p. 98.
  132. ^ Goldsmith 2005, p. 21; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 13–14.
  133. ^ O'Nale 2010, p. 384.
  134. ^ Tondro 2011, p. 51.
  135. ^ Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161.
  136. ^ Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978, p. 145.
  137. ^ Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315.
  138. ^ Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 163.
  139. ^ Gomez Romero & Dahlman 2012.
  140. ^ Groensteen 2012, p. 131 (translator's note).
  141. ^ McKinney 2011, p. xiii.
  142. ^ Alaniz 2010, p. 7.
  143. ^ Frahm 2003.
  144. ^ Wong 2002, p. 11; Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177.
  145. ^ Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 301.
  146. ^ Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177; Thompson 2007, p. xiii.

Works cited

Books

Academic journals

  • Couch, Chris (December 2000). "The Publication and Formats of Comics, Graphic Novels, and Tankobon". Image & Narrative (1). ISSN 1780-678X. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
  • Frahm, Ole (October 2003). "Too much is too much. The never innocent laughter of the Comics". Image & Narrative (7). ISSN 1780-678X. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
  • Gomez Romero, Luis; Dahlman, Ian (2012). "Introduction - Justice framed: law in comics and graphic novels". Law Text Culture. 16 (1): 3–32.
  • Groensteen, Thierry (Spring 2012a). "The Current State of French Comics Theory". Scandinavian Journal of Comic Art. 1 (1): 111–122.
  • Cohen, Martin S. (April 1977). "The Novel in Woodcuts: A Handbook". Journal of Modern Literature. 6 (2): 171–195. JSTOR 3831165.
  • Yuan, Ting (2011). "From Ponyo to 'My Garfield Story': Using Digital Comics as an Alternative Pathway to Literary Composition". Childhood Education. 87 (4).

Web

  • Beerbohm, Robert (2003). . The Search For Töpffer in America. Archived from the original on June 9, 2013. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
  • Harvey, R.C. (2010-12-20). . The Comics Journal. Fantagraphics Books. Archived from the original on 2011-09-14. Retrieved 2013-02-06.
  • Markstein, Don (2010). "Glossary of Specialized Cartoon-related Words and Phrases Used in Don Markstein's Toonopedia". Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on 2009-10-16. Retrieved 2013-02-05.

Further reading

External links

Academic journals

  • The Comics Grid: Journal of Comics Scholarship
  • ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies
  • Image [&] Narrative
  • International Journal of Comic Art
  • Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics

Archives

  • Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum
  • Michigan State University Comic Art Collection
  • at the University of Missouri
  • Cartoon Art Museum of San Francisco
  • . Prints & Books. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 2009-11-04. Retrieved 2011-03-15.

Databases

  • Grand Comics Database

February 17, 2023
comics, comic, comic, redirect, here, other, uses, comic, disambiguation, magazine, comic, confused, with, underground, comix, underground, comics, this, article, about, medium, comics, almost, always, used, singular, noun, medium, used, express, ideas, with, . Comic and Comic art redirect here For other uses see Comic disambiguation For the magazine see Comic Art Not to be confused with Underground comix underground comics This article is about the medium and so comics is almost always used as a singular noun Comics is a medium used to express ideas with images often combined with text or other visual information It typically takes the form of a sequence of panels of images Textual devices such as speech balloons captions and onomatopoeia can indicate dialogue narration sound effects or other information There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics some emphasize the combination of images and text some sequentiality or other image relations and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring characters Cartooning and other forms of illustration are the most common image making means in comics fumetti is a form that uses photographic images Common forms include comic strips editorial and gag cartoons and comic books Since the late 20th century bound volumes such as graphic novels comic albums and tankōbon have become increasingly common while online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures Scholars have posited a pre history as far back as the Lascaux cave paintings By the mid 20th century comics flourished particularly in the United States western Europe especially France and Belgium and Japan The history of European comics is often traced to Rodolphe Topffer s cartoon strips of the 1830s and became popular following the success in the 1930s of strips and books such as The Adventures of Tintin American comics emerged as a mass medium in the early 20th century with the advent of newspaper comic strips magazine style comic books followed in the 1930s in which the superhero genre became prominent after Superman appeared in 1938 Histories of Japanese comics and cartooning manga propose origins as early as the 12th century Modern comic strips emerged in Japan in the early 20th century and the output of comics magazines and books rapidly expanded in the post World War II era 1945 with the popularity of cartoonists such as Osamu Tezuka Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for much of its history but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater acceptance with the public and academics The English term comics is used as a singular noun when it refers to the medium itself e g Comics is a visual art form but becomes plural when referring to works collectively e g Comics are popular reading material Contents 1 Origins and traditions 1 1 English language comics 1 2 Franco Belgian and European comics 1 3 Japanese comics 2 Forms and formats 3 Comics studies 4 Terminology 4 1 Etymology 5 See also 5 1 See also lists 6 Notes 7 References 7 1 Works cited 7 1 1 Books 7 1 2 Academic journals 7 1 3 Web 8 Further reading 9 External linksOrigins and traditions EditMain articles History of comics and List of comics by country Examples of early comics MangaHokusai early 19th century Histoire de Monsieur CryptogameRodolphe Topffer 1830 Ally Sloper in Some of the Mysteries of Loan and DiscountCharles Henry Ross 1867 The Yellow KidR F Outcault 1898The European American and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths 1 Europeans have seen their tradition as beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe Topffer from as early as 1827 and Americans have seen the origin of theirs in Richard F Outcault s 1890s newspaper strip The Yellow Kid though many Americans have come to recognize Topffer s precedence 2 Japan has a long history of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era The ukiyo e artist Hokusai popularized the Japanese term for comics and cartooning manga in the early 19th century 3 In the 1930s Harry A Chesler started a comics studio which eventually at its height employed 40 artists working for 50 different publishers who helped make the comics medium flourish in the Golden Age of Comics after World War II 4 In the post war era modern Japanese comics began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work 5 Towards the close of the 20th century these three traditions converged in a trend towards book length comics the comic album in Europe the tankōbon a in Japan and the graphic novel in the English speaking countries 1 Outside of these genealogies comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux cave paintings 6 in France some of which appear to be chronological sequences of images Egyptian hieroglyphs Trajan s Column in Rome 7 the 11th century Norman Bayeux Tapestry 8 the 1370 bois Protat woodcut the 15th century Ars moriendi and block books Michelangelo s The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel 7 and William Hogarth s 18th century sequential engravings 9 amongst others 7 b Theorists debate whether the Bayeux Tapestry is a precursor to comics English language comics Edit An angry snarl between friendly relations Satirical print on the politics around the Caroline Affair 1840 1841 At the house of the writing pig The Upside Downs of Little Lady Lovekins and Old Man Muffaroo comics by Gustave Verbeek containing reversible figures and ambigram sentences March 1904 Main articles British comics History of American comics and American comic book Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th century Britain the earliest of which was the short lived The Glasgow Looking Glass in 1825 11 The most popular was Punch 12 which popularized the term cartoon for its humorous caricatures 13 On occasion the cartoons in these magazines appeared in sequences 12 the character Ally Sloper featured in the earliest serialized comic strip when the character began to feature in its own weekly magazine in 1884 14 American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck Judge and Life The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American particularly Outcault s The Yellow Kid led to the development of newspaper comic strips Early Sunday strips were full page 15 and often in colour Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with sequentiality movement and speech balloons 16 An example is Gustave Verbeek who wrote his comic series The UpsideDowns of Old Man Muffaroo and Little Lady Lovekins between 1903 and 1905 These comics were made in such a way that one could read the 6 panel comic flip the book and keep reading He made 64 such comics in total In 2012 a remake of a selection of the comics was made by Marcus Ivarsson in the book In Uppaner med Lilla Lisen amp Gamle Muppen ISBN 978 91 7089 524 1 Bud Fisher s Mutt and Jeff 1907 1982 was the first successful daily comic strip 1907 Shorter black and white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher s Mutt and Jeff 17 In Britain the Amalgamated Press established a popular style of a sequence of images with text beneath them including Illustrated Chips and Comic Cuts 18 Humour strips predominated at first and in the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama also became popular 17 Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s at first reprinting newspaper comic strips by the end of the decade original content began to dominate 19 The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books in which the superhero genre was prominent 20 In the UK and the Commonwealth the DC Thomson created Dandy 1937 and Beano 1938 became successful humor based titles with a combined circulation of over 2 million copies by the 1950s Their characters including Dennis the Menace Desperate Dan and The Bash Street Kids have been read by generations of British children 21 The comics originally experimented with superheroes and action stories before settling on humorous strips featuring a mix of the Amalgamated Press and US comic book styles 22 Superheroes have been a staple of American comic books Wonderworld Comics 3 1939 cover The Flame by Will Eisner The popularity of superhero comic books declined following World War II 23 while comic book sales continued to increase as other genres proliferated such as romance westerns crime horror and humour 24 Following a sales peak in the early 1950s the content of comic books particularly crime and horror was subjected to scrutiny from parent groups and government agencies which culminated in Senate hearings that led to the establishment of the Comics Code Authority self censoring body 25 The Code has been blamed for stunting the growth of American comics and maintaining its low status in American society for much of the remainder of the century 26 Superheroes re established themselves as the most prominent comic book genre by the early 1960s 27 Underground comix challenged the Code and readers with adult countercultural content in the late 1960s and early 1970s 28 The underground gave birth to the alternative comics movement in the 1980s and its mature often experimental content in non superhero genres 29 Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society In the latter half of the 20th century popular culture won greater acceptance and the lines between high and low culture began to blur Comics nevertheless continued to be stigmatized as the medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates 30 The graphic novel book length comics began to gain attention after Will Eisner popularized the term with his book A Contract with God 1978 31 The term became widely known with the public after the commercial success of Maus Watchmen and The Dark Knight Returns in the mid 1980s 32 In the 21st century graphic novels became established in mainstream bookstores 33 and libraries 34 and webcomics became common 35 Franco Belgian and European comics Edit Main articles European comics and Franco Belgian comics The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Topffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827 7 and published theories behind the form 36 Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from the 19th century 37 The success of Zig et Puce in 1925 popularized the use of speech balloons in European comics after which Franco Belgian comics began to dominate 38 The Adventures of Tintin with its signature clear line style 39 was first serialized in newspaper comics supplements beginning in 1929 40 and became an icon of Franco Belgian comics 41 Following the success of Le Journal de Mickey est 1934 42 dedicated comics magazines 43 like Spirou est 1938 and Tintin 1946 1993 and full colour comic albums became the primary outlet for comics in the mid 20th century 44 As in the US at the time comics were seen as infantile and a threat to culture and literacy commentators stated that none bear up to the slightest serious analysis c and that comics were the sabotage of all art and all literature 46 d In the 1960s the term bandes dessinees drawn strips came into wide use in French to denote the medium 47 Cartoonists began creating comics for mature audiences 48 and the term Ninth Art e was coined as comics began to attract public and academic attention as an artform 49 A group including Rene Goscinny and Albert Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959 to give artists greater freedom over their work Goscinny and Uderzo s The Adventures of Asterix appeared in it 50 and went on to become the best selling French language comics series 51 From 1960 the satirical and taboo breaking Hara Kiri defied censorship laws in the countercultural spirit that led to the May 1968 events 52 Frustration with censorship and editorial interference led to a group of Pilote cartoonists to found the adults only L Echo des savanes in 1972 Adult oriented and experimental comics flourished in the 1970s such as in the experimental science fiction of Mœbius and others in Metal hurlant even mainstream publishers took to publishing prestige format adult comics 53 From the 1980s mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less common as the number of comics magazines decreased and many comics began to be published directly as albums 54 Smaller publishers such as L Association 55 that published longer works 56 in non traditional formats 57 by auteur istic creators also became common Since the 1990s mergers resulted in fewer large publishers while smaller publishers proliferated Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print market 58 Japanese comics Edit Main articles History of manga and Manga Rakuten Kitazawa created the first modern Japanese comic strip Tagosaku to Mokube no Tōkyō Kenbutsu f 1902 Japanese comics and cartooning manga g have a history that has been seen as far back as the anthropomorphic characters in the 12th to 13th century Chōju jinbutsu giga 17th century toba e and kibyōshi picture books 62 and woodblock prints such as ukiyo e which were popular between the 17th and 20th centuries The kibyōshi contained examples of sequential images movement lines 63 and sound effects 64 Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular and at the end of the 1890s American style newspaper comics supplements began to appear in Japan 65 as well as some American comic strips 62 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper the first use of the word manga in its modern sense 61 and where in 1902 Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip 66 By the 1930s comic strips were serialized in large circulation monthly girls and boys magazine and collected into hardback volumes 67 The modern era of comics in Japan began after World War II propelled by the success of the serialized comics of the prolific Osamu Tezuka 68 and the comic strip Sazae san 69 Genres and audiences diversified over the following decades Stories are usually first serialized in magazines which are often hundreds of pages thick and may contain over a dozen stories 70 they are later compiled in tankōbon format books 71 At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries nearly a quarter of all printed material in Japan was comics 72 Translations became extremely popular in foreign markets in some cases equaling or surpassing the sales of domestic comics 73 Forms and formats EditComic strips are generally short multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers In the US daily strips have normally occupied a single tier while Sunday strips have been given multiple tiers In the early 20th century daily strips were typically in black and white and Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page 74 Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in different cultures Comic books primarily an American format are thin periodicals 75 usually published in colour 76 European and Japanese comics are frequently serialized in magazines monthly or weekly in Europe 61 and usually black and white and weekly in Japan 77 Japanese comics magazine typically run to hundreds of pages 78 A comparison of book formats for comics around the world The left group is from Japan and shows the tankōbon and the smaller bunkobon formats Those in the middle group of Franco Belgian comics are in the standard A4 size comic album format The right group of graphic novels is from English speaking countries where there is no standard format Book length comics take different forms in different cultures European comic albums are most commonly printed in A4 size 79 colour volumes 44 In English speaking countries the trade paperback format originating from collected comic books have also been chosen for original material Otherwise bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels and are available in various formats Despite incorporating the term novel a term normally associated with fiction graphic novel also refers to non fiction and collections of short works 80 Japanese comics are collected in volumes called tankōbon following magazine serialization 81 Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single panel often incorporating a caption or speech balloon Definitions of comics which emphasize sequence usually exclude gag editorial and other single panel cartoons they can be included in definitions that emphasize the combination of word and image 82 Gag cartoons first began to proliferate in broadsheets published in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries and the term cartoon h was first used to describe them in 1843 in the British humour magazine Punch 13 Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet They are able to reach large audiences and new readers usually can access archived installments 83 Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of a page 84 Some consider storyboards 85 and wordless novels to be comics 86 Film studios especially in animation often use sequences of images as guides for film sequences These storyboards are not intended as an end product and are rarely seen by the public 85 Wordless novels are books which use sequences of captionless images to deliver a narrative 87 Comics studies EditMain article Comics studies Comics are sometimes four legged and sometimes two legged and sometimes fly and sometimes don t to employ a metaphor as mixed as the medium itself defining comics entails cutting a Gordian knotted enigma wrapped in a mystery R C Harvey 2001 82 Similar to the problems of defining literature and film 88 no consensus has been reached on a definition of the comics medium 89 and attempted definitions and descriptions have fallen prey to numerous exceptions 90 Theorists such as Topffer 91 R C Harvey Will Eisner 92 David Carrier 93 Alain Rey 89 and Lawrence Grove emphasize the combination of text and images 94 though there are prominent examples of pantomime comics throughout its history 90 Other critics such as Thierry Groensteen 94 and Scott McCloud have emphasized the primacy of sequences of images 95 Towards the close of the 20th century different cultures discoveries of each other s comics traditions the rediscovery of forgotten early comics forms and the rise of new forms made defining comics a more complicated task 96 European comics studies began with Topffer s theories of his own work in the 1840s which emphasized panel transitions and the visual verbal combination No further progress was made until the 1970s 97 Pierre Fresnault Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of comics analyzing text image relations page level image relations and image discontinuities or what Scott McCloud later dubbed closure 98 In 1987 Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre or multiframe to refer to the comics page as a semantic unit 99 By the 1990s theorists such as Benoit Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to artists poietic creative choices 98 Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the definition of comics a medium that has taken various equally valid forms over its history Morgan sees comics as a subset of les litteratures dessinees or drawn literatures 96 French theory has come to give special attention to the page in distinction from American theories such as McCloud s which focus on panel to panel transitions 99 In the mid 2000s Neil Cohn began analyzing how comics are understood using tools from cognitive science extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience experiments This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule bound grammars to be understood that extend beyond panel to panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts and that the brain s comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains such as language and music 100 Historical narratives of manga tend to focus either on its recent post WWII history or on attempts to demonstrate deep roots in the past such as to the Chōju jinbutsu giga picture scroll of the 12th and 13th centuries or the early 19th century Hokusai Manga 101 The first historical overview of Japanese comics was Seiki Hosokibara s Nihon Manga Shi i in 1924 102 Early post war Japanese criticism was mostly of a left wing political nature until the 1986 publication of Tomofusa Kure s Modern Manga The Complete Picture j which de emphasized politics in favour of formal aspects such as structure and a grammar of comics The field of manga studies increased rapidly with numerous books on the subject appearing in the 1990s 103 Formal theories of manga have focused on developing a manga expression theory k with emphasis on spatial relationships in the structure of images on the page distinguishing the medium from film or literature in which the flow of time is the basic organizing element 104 Comics studies courses have proliferated at Japanese universities and Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics ja l was established in 2001 to promote comics scholarship 105 The publication of Frederik L Schodt s Manga Manga The World of Japanese Comics in 1983 led to the spread of use of the word manga outside Japan to mean Japanese comics or Japanese style comics 106 Will Eisner top and Scott McCloud have proposed influential and controversial definitions of comics Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with The Comics 1947 107 Will Eisner s Comics and Sequential Art 1985 and Scott McCloud s Understanding Comics 1993 were early attempts in English to formalize the study of comics David Carrier s The Aesthetics of Comics 2000 was the first full length treatment of comics from a philosophical perspective 108 Prominent American attempts at definitions of comics include Eisner s McCloud s and Harvey s Eisner described what he called sequential art as the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea 109 Scott McCloud defined comics as juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence intended to convey information and or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer 110 a strictly formal definition which detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings 111 R C Harvey defined comics as pictorial narratives or expositions in which words often lettered into the picture area within speech balloons usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and vice versa 112 Each definition has had its detractors Harvey saw McCloud s definition as excluding single panel cartoons 113 and objected to McCloud s de emphasizing verbal elements insisting the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of verbal content 99 Aaron Meskin saw McCloud s theories as an artificial attempt to legitimize the place of comics in art history 92 Cross cultural study of comics is complicated by the great difference in meaning and scope of the words for comics in different languages 114 The French term for comics bandes dessinees drawn strip emphasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as a defining factor 115 which can imply the exclusion of even photographic comics 116 The term manga is used in Japanese to indicate all forms of comics cartooning 117 and caricature 114 Terminology EditMain article Glossary of comics terminology The term comics refers to the comics medium when used as an uncountable noun and thus takes the singular comics is a medium rather than comics are a medium When comic appears as a countable noun it refers to instances of the medium such as individual comic strips or comic books Tom s comics are in the basement 118 Panels are individual images containing a segment of action 119 often surrounded by a border 120 Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation 121 The reader puts the pieces together via the process of closure by using background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into events 122 The size shape and arrangement of panels each affect the timing and pacing of the narrative 123 The contents of a panel may be asynchronous with events depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time 124 A caption the yellow box gives the narrator a voice The characters dialogue appears in speech balloons The tail of the balloon indicates the speaker Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech balloons captions and sound effects Speech balloons indicate dialogue or thought in the case of thought balloons with tails pointing at their respective speakers 125 Captions can give voice to a narrator convey characters dialogue or thoughts 126 or indicate place or time 127 Speech balloons themselves are strongly associated with comics such that the addition of one to an image is sufficient to turn the image into comics 128 Sound effects mimic non vocal sounds textually using onomatopoeia sound words 129 Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics traditionally using ink especially India ink with dip pens or ink brushes 130 mixed media and digital technology have become common Cartooning techniques such as motion lines 131 and abstract symbols are often employed 132 While comics are often the work of a single creator the labour of making them is frequently divided between a number of specialists There may be separate writers and artists and artists may specialize in parts of the artwork such as characters or backgrounds as is common in Japan 133 Particularly in American superhero comic books 134 the art may be divided between a penciller who lays out the artwork in pencil 135 an inker who finishes the artwork in ink 136 a colourist 137 and a letterer who adds the captions and speech balloons 138 Etymology Edit The English language term comics derives from the humorous or comic work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips but usage of the term has become standard for non humorous works as well The alternate spelling comix coined by the underground comix movement is sometimes used to address this ambiguities 139 The term comic book has a similarly confusing history since they are most often not humorous and are periodicals not regular books 140 It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their languages such as manga for Japanese comics or bandes dessinees for French language Franco Belgian comics 141 Many cultures have taken their word for comics from English including Russian komiks komiks 142 and German Comic 143 Similarly the Chinese term manhua 144 and the Korean manhwa 145 derive from the Chinese characters with which the Japanese term manga is written 146 See also EditAnimation Billy Ireland Cartoon Library amp Museum Picture book See also lists Edit List of best selling comic series List of best selling manga List of comic books List of comics by country List of comics creators List of comics publishing companies List of comic strip syndicates List of Franco Belgian comics series List of newspaper comic strips Lists of manga List of manga artists List of manga magazines List of manga publishers List of years in comics Portals Comics Arts Visual artsNotes Edit tankōbon 単行本 translation close to independently appearing book David Kunzle has compiled extensive collections of these and other proto comics in his The Early Comic Strip 1973 and The History of the Comic Strip 1990 10 French aucune ne supporte une analyse un peu serieuse Jacqueline amp Raoul Dubois in La Presse enfantine francaise Midol 1957 45 French C est le sabotage de tout art et de toute litterature Jean de Trignon in Histoires de la litterature enfantine de ma Mere l Oye au Roi Babar Hachette 1950 45 French neuvieme art Tagosaku and Mokube Sightseeing in Tokyo Japanese 田吾作と杢兵衛の東京見物 Hepburn Tagosaku to Mokube no Tokyo Kenbutsu Manga Japanese 漫画 can be glossed in many ways amongst them whimsical pictures disreputable pictures 59 irresponsible pictures 60 derisory pictures and sketches made for or out of a sudden inspiration 61 cartoon from the Italian cartone meaning card which referred to the cardboard on which the cartoons were typically drawn 13 Hosokibara Seiki 1924 日本漫画史 Japanese Comics History Yuzankaku Kure Tomofusa 1986 現代漫画の全体像 Modern Manga The Complete Picture Joho Center Publishing ISBN 978 4 575 71090 8 103 Manga expression theory Japanese 漫画表現論 Hepburn manga hyōgenron 104 Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics Japanese 日本マンガ学会 Hepburn Nihon Manga Gakkai References Edit a b Couch 2000 Gabilliet 2010 p xiv Beerbohm 2003 Sabin 2005 p 186 Rowland 1990 p 13 Petersen 2010 p 41 Power 2009 p 24 Gravett 2004 p 9 Ewing Emma Mai 1976 09 12 The Funnies The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 2018 11 28 Retrieved 2019 03 05 Couch 2000 Petersen 2010 p 175 Gabilliet 2010 p xiv Barker 1989 p 6 Groensteen 2014 Grove 2010 p 59 Beaty 2012 Jobs 2012 p 98 a b c d Gabilliet 2010 p xiv Gabilliet 2010 p xiv Beaty 2012 p 61 Grove 2010 pp 16 21 59 Grove 2010 p 79 Beaty 2012 p 62 Dempster Michael Glasgow Looking Glass Wee Windaes National Library of Scotland Retrieved 20 June 2022 a b Clark amp Clark 1991 p 17 a b c Harvey 2001 p 77 Meskin amp Cook 2012 p xxii Nordling 1995 p 123 Gordon 2002 p 35 a b Harvey 1994 p 11 Bramlett Cook amp Meskin 2016 p 45 Rhoades 2008 p 2 Rhoades 2008 p x Childs amp Storry 2013 p 532 Bramlett Cook amp Meskin 2016 p 46 Gabilliet 2010 p 51 Gabilliet 2010 p 49 Gabilliet 2010 pp 49 50 Gabilliet 2010 p 50 Gabilliet 2010 pp 52 55 Gabilliet 2010 p 66 Hatfield 2005 pp 20 26 Lopes 2009 p 123 Rhoades 2008 p 140 Lopes 2009 pp xx xxi Petersen 2010 p 222 Kaplan 2008 p 172 Sabin 1993 p 246 Stringer 1996 p 262 Ahrens amp Meteling 2010 p 1 Williams amp Lyons 2010 p 7 Gabilliet 2010 pp 210 211 Lopes 2009 p 151 152 Thorne 2010 p 209 Harvey 2010 Lefevre 2010 p 186 Vessels 2010 p 45 Miller 2007 p 17 Screech 2005 p 27 Miller 2007 p 18 Miller 2007 p 17 Theobald 2004 p 82 Screech 2005 p 48 McKinney 2011 p 3 Grove 2005 pp 76 78 Petersen 2010 pp 214 215 Lefevre 2010 p 186 a b Petersen 2010 pp 214 215 a b Grove 2005 p 46 Grove 2005 pp 45 46 Grove 2005 p 51 Miller 1998 p 116 Lefevre 2010 p 186 Miller 2007 p 23 Miller 2007 p 21 Screech 2005 p 204 Miller 2007 p 22 Miller 2007 pp 25 28 Miller 2007 pp 33 34 Beaty 2007 p 9 Lefevre 2010 pp 189 190 Grove 2005 p 153 Miller 2007 pp 49 53 Karp amp Kress 2011 p 19 Gravett 2004 p 9 a b c Johnson Woods 2010 p 22 a b Schodt 1996 p 22 Mansfield 2009 p 253 Petersen 2010 p 42 Johnson Woods 2010 pp 21 22 Petersen 2010 p 128 Gravett 2004 p 21 Schodt 1996 p 22 Johnson Woods 2010 pp 23 24 Gravett 2004 p 24 MacWilliams 2008 p 3 Hashimoto amp Traphagan 2008 p 21 Sugimoto 2010 p 255 Gravett 2004 p 8 Schodt 1996 p 23 Gravett 2004 pp 13 14 Gravett 2004 p 14 Brenner 2007 p 13 Lopes 2009 p 152 Raz 1999 p 162 Jenkins 2004 p 121 Lee 2010 p 158 Booker 2014 p xxvi xxvii Orr 2008 p 11 Collins 2010 p 227 Orr 2008 p 10 Schodt 1996 p 23 Orr 2008 p 10 Schodt 1996 p 23 Grove 2010 p 24 McKinney 2011 Goldsmith 2005 p 16 Karp amp Kress 2011 pp 4 6 Poitras 2001 p 66 67 a b Harvey 2001 p 76 Petersen 2010 pp 234 236 Petersen 2010 p 234 McCloud 2000 p 222 a b Rhoades 2008 p 38 Berona 2008 p 225 Cohen 1977 p 181 Groensteen 2012 pp 128 129 a b Groensteen 2012 p 124 a b Groensteen 2012 p 126 Thomas 2010 p 158 a b Beaty 2012 p 65 Groensteen 2012 pp 126 131 a b Grove 2010 pp 17 19 Thomas 2010 pp 157 170 a b Groensteen 2012a pp 112 113 Miller 2007 p 101 a b Groensteen 2012a p 112 a b c Groensteen 2012a p 113 Cohn 2013 Stewart 2014 pp 28 29 Johnson Woods 2010 p 23 Stewart 2014 p 29 a b Kinsella 2000 pp 96 97 a b Kinsella 2000 p 100 Morita 2010 pp 37 38 Stewart 2014 p 30 Inge 1989 p 214 Meskin amp Cook 2012 p xxix Yuan 2011 Eisner 1985 p 5 Kovacs amp Marshall 2011 p 10 Holbo 2012 p 13 Harvey 2010 p 1 Beaty 2012 p 6 McCloud 1993 p 9 Beaty 2012 p 67 Chute 2010 p 7 Harvey 2001 p 76 Harvey 2010 p 1 a b Morita 2010 p 33 Groensteen 2012 p 130 Morita 2010 p 33 Groensteen 2012 p 130 Johnson Woods 2010 p 336 Chapman 2012 p 8 Chute amp DeKoven 2012 p 175 Fingeroth 2008 p 4 Lee 1978 p 15 Eisner 1985 pp 28 45 Duncan amp Smith 2009 p 10 Duncan amp Smith 2009 p 316 Eisner 1985 p 30 Duncan amp Smith 2009 p 315 Karp amp Kress 2011 p 12 13 Lee 1978 p 15 Markstein 2010 Eisner 1985 p 157 Dawson 2010 p 112 Saraceni 2003 p 9 Lee 1978 p 15 Lyga amp Lyga 2004 Saraceni 2003 p 9 Karp amp Kress 2011 p 18 Forceville Veale amp Feyaerts 2010 p 56 Duncan amp Smith 2009 pp 156 318 Markstein 2010 Lyga amp Lyga 2004 p 161 Lee 1978 p 145 Rhoades 2008 p 139 Bramlett 2012 p 25 Guigar 2010 p 126 Cates 2010 p 98 Goldsmith 2005 p 21 Karp amp Kress 2011 p 13 14 O Nale 2010 p 384 Tondro 2011 p 51 Lyga amp Lyga 2004 p 161 Markstein 2010 Lyga amp Lyga 2004 p 161 Lee 1978 p 145 Duncan amp Smith 2009 p 315 Lyga amp Lyga 2004 p 163 Gomez Romero amp Dahlman 2012 Groensteen 2012 p 131 translator s note McKinney 2011 p xiii Alaniz 2010 p 7 Frahm 2003 Wong 2002 p 11 Cooper Chen 2010 p 177 Johnson Woods 2010 p 301 Cooper Chen 2010 p 177 Thompson 2007 p xiii Works cited Edit Books Edit Ahrens Jorn Meteling Arno 2010 Comics and the City Urban Space in Print Picture and Sequence Continuum International Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8264 4019 8 Alaniz Jose 2010 Komiks Comic Art in Russia University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 60473 366 2 Barker Martin 1989 Comics Ideology Power and the Critics Manchester University Press ISBN 978 0 7190 2589 1 Beaty Bart 2007 Unpopular Culture Transforming the European Comic Book in The 1990s University of Toronto Press ISBN 978 0 8020 9412 4 Beaty Bart 2012 Comics Versus Art University of Toronto Press ISBN 978 1 4426 9627 3 Berona David A 2008 Wordless Books The Original Graphic Novels Abrams Books ISBN 978 0 8109 9469 0 Booker M Keith ed 2014 Introduction Comics through Time A History of Icons Idols and Ideas ABC CLIO pp xxv xxxvii ISBN 978 0 313 39751 6 Bramlett Frank 2012 Linguistics and the Study of Comics Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 36282 6 Bramlett Frank Cook Roy Meskin Aaron eds 2016 The Routledge Companion to Comics Routledge pp 45 6 ISBN 978 1 317 91538 6 Brenner Robin E 2007 Understanding Manga and Anime Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 313 09448 4 Cates Isaac 2010 Comic and the Grammar of Diagrams In Ball David M Kuhlman Martha B eds The Comics of Chris Ware Drawing Is a Way of Thinking University Press of Mississippi pp 90 105 ISBN 978 1 60473 442 3 Chapman Robyn 2012 Drawing Comics Lab 52 Exercises on Characters Panels Storytelling Publishing amp Professional Practices Quarry Books ISBN 978 1 61058 629 0 Childs Peter Storry Michael 2013 Encyclopedia of Contemporary British Culture Routledge p 532 ISBN 978 1 134 75555 4 Chute Hillary L 2010 Graphic Women Life Narrative and Contemporary Comics Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 15062 0 Chute Hillary DeKoven Marianne 2012 Comic books and graphic novels In Glover David McCracken Scott eds The Cambridge Companion to Popular Fiction Cambridge University Press pp 175 195 ISBN 978 0 521 51337 1 Clark Alan Clark Laurel 1991 Comics An Illustrated History Green Wood ISBN 978 1 872532 55 4 Cohn Neil 2013 The Visual Language of Comics Introduction to the Structure and Cognition of Sequential Images London Bloomsbury ISBN 978 1 4411 8145 9 Collins Rachel 2010 Drawing Comics into Canadian Libraries In Weiner Robert G ed Graphic Novels and Comics in Libraries and Archives McFarland amp Company pp 226 241 ISBN 978 0 7864 5693 2 Cooper Chen Anne M 2010 Cartoon Cultures The Globalization of Japanese Popular Media Peter Lang ISBN 978 1 4331 0368 1 Crespi John 2020 Manhua Modernity Chinese Culture and the Pictorial Turn University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 97386 2 Dawson Willow 2010 Lila amp Ecco s Do It Yourself Comics Club Kids Can Press Ltd ISBN 978 1 55453 438 8 Duncan Randy Smith Matthew J 2009 The Power of Comics Continuum International Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8264 2936 0 Eisner Will 1985 Comics and Sequential Art Poorhouse Press ISBN 978 0 9614728 0 1 Fingeroth Danny 2008 The Rough Guide to Graphic Novels Rough Guides ISBN 978 1 84353 993 3 Forceville Charles Veale Tony Feyaerts Kurt 2010 Balloonics The Visuals of Balloons in Comics In Goggin Joyce Hassler Forest Dan eds The Rise and Reason of Comics and Graphic Literature Critical Essays on the Form McFarland amp Company p 54 ISBN 978 0 7864 4294 2 Gabilliet Jean Paul 2010 Of Comics and Men A Cultural History of American Comic Books translated from French by Bart Beaty and Nick Nguyen University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 60473 267 2 Goldsmith Francisca 2005 Graphic Novels Now Building Managing And Marketing a Dynamic Collection American Library Association ISBN 978 0 8389 0904 1 Gordon Ian 2002 Comic Strips and Consumer Culture Smithsonian ISBN 978 1 58834 031 3 Gravett Paul 2004 Manga 60 Years of Japanese Comics Laurence King Publishing ISBN 978 1 85669 391 2 Groensteen Thierry 2012 Originally published in French in 1999 The Impossible Definition In Heer Jeet Worcester Kent eds A Comics Studies Reader translated by Bart Beaty University Press of Mississippi pp 124 131 ISBN 978 1 60473 109 5 Groensteen Thierry 2014 Definitions In Miller Ann Beaty Bart eds The French Comics Theory Reader Leuven University Press pp 93 114 ISBN 978 90 5867 988 8 Grove Laurence 2005 Text Image Mosaics in French Culture Emblems and Comic Strips Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 3488 1 Grove Laurence 2010 Comics in French The European Bande Dessinee in Context Berghahn Books ISBN 978 1 84545 588 0 Guigar Brad J 2010 The Everything Cartooning Book Create Unique And Inspired Cartoons For Fun And Profit Adams Media ISBN 978 1 4405 2306 9 Harvey R C 1994 The Art of the Funnies An Aesthetic History University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 0 87805 674 3 Harvey R C 2001 Comedy at the Juncture of Word and Image In Varnum Robin Gibbons Christina T eds The Language of Comics Word and Image University Press of Mississippi pp 75 96 ISBN 978 1 57806 414 4 Hashimoto Akiko Traphagan John W 2008 Imagined Families Lived Families Culture and Kinship in Contemporary Japan SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 7577 5 Hatfield Charles 2005 Alternative Comics An Emerging Literature University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 57806 719 0 Holbo John 2012 Redefining Comics In Meskin Aaron Cook Roy T eds The Art of Comics A Philosophical Approach John Wiley amp Sons pp 3 30 ISBN 978 1 4443 3464 7 Inge Thomas M 1989 Handbook of American Popular Culture Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 25406 2 Jenkins Henry 2004 Pop Cosmopolitanism Mapping Cultural Flows in an Age of Media Convergence In Suarez Orozco Marcelo M Qin Hilliard Desiree Baolian eds Globalization Culture and Education for a New Millennium University of California Press pp 114 140 ISBN 978 0 520 24125 1 Jobs Richard Ivan 2012 Tarzan under Attack In Wannamaker Annette Abate Michelle Ann eds Global Perspectives on Tarzan From King of the Jungle to International Icon Routledge pp 73 106 ISBN 978 1 136 44791 4 Johnson Woods Toni 2010 Manga An Anthology of Global and Cultural Perspectives Continuum International Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8264 2938 4 Kaplan Arie 2008 From Krakow to Krypton Jews and Comic Books Jewish Publication Society ISBN 978 0 8276 0843 6 Karp Jesse Kress Rush 2011 Graphic Novels in Your School Library American Library Association ISBN 978 0 8389 1089 4 Kinsella Sharon 2000 Adult Manga Culture amp Power in Contemporary Japanese Society University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 2318 4 Kovacs George Marshall C W 2011 Classics and Comics Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 979290 0 Lee Hye Kyung 2010 Between Fan Culture and Copyright Infringement Manga Scanlation In O Reilly Daragh Kerrigan Finola eds Marketing the Arts A Fresh Approach Taylor amp Francis pp 153 170 ISBN 978 0 415 49685 8 Lee Stan 1978 How to Draw Comics the Marvel Way Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 671 53077 8 Lopes Paul 2009 Demanding Respect The Evolution of the American Comic Book Temple University Press ISBN 978 1 59213 443 4 Lefevre Pascal 2010 European Comics In Booker M Keith ed Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels Two Volumes ABC CLIO pp 185 192 ISBN 978 0 313 35747 3 Lyga Allyson A W Lyga Barry 2004 Graphic Novels in Your Media Center A Definitive Guide Libraries Unlimited ISBN 978 1 59158 142 0 MacWilliams Mark Wheeler 2008 Japanese Visual Culture Explorations in the World of Manga and Anime M E Sharpe ISBN 978 0 7656 1602 9 Mansfield Stephen 2009 Tokyo A Cultural History Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 538634 9 McCloud Scott 1993 Understanding Comics The Invisible Art Kitchen Sink Press ISBN 978 0 87816 243 7 McCloud Scott 2000 Reinventing Comics How Imagination and Technology Are Revolutionizing an Art Form HarperCollins ISBN 978 0 06 095350 8 McKinney Mark ed 2011 History and Politics in French Language Comics and Graphic Novels University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 60473 761 5 Meskin Aaron Cook Roy T eds 2012 The Art of Comics A Philosophical Approach John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4443 3464 7 Miller Ann 1998 Comic Strips Cartoonists In Hughes Alex Reader Keith eds Encyclopedia of Contemporary French Culture CRC Press pp 116 119 ISBN 978 0 415 13186 5 Miller Ann 2007 Reading Bande Dessinee Critical Approaches to French language Comic Strip Intellect Books ISBN 978 1 84150 177 2 Morita Naoko 2010 Cultural Recognition of Comics and Comics Studies Comments on Thierry Groensteen s Keynote Lecture In Berndt Jaqueline ed Comics worlds amp the world of comics towards scholarship on a global scale Global Manga Studies Vol 1 International Manga Research Center Kyoto Seika University pp 31 39 ISBN 978 4 905187 03 5 Nordling Lee 1995 Your Career in the Comics Andrews McMeel Publishing ISBN 978 0 8362 0748 4 O Nale Robert 2010 Manga In Booker M Keith ed Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels Two Volumes ABC CLIO pp 378 387 ISBN 978 0 313 35747 3 Orr Tamra 2008 Manga Artists Rosen Publishing ISBN 978 1 4042 1854 3 Petersen Robert 2010 Comics Manga and Graphic Novels A History of Graphic Narratives ABC CLIO ISBN 978 0 313 36330 6 Poitras Gilles 2001 Anime Essentials Every Thing a Fan Needs to Know Stone Bridge Press ISBN 978 1 880656 53 2 Power Natsu Onoda 2009 God of Comics Osamu Tezuka and the Creation of Post World War II Manga University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 60473 478 2 Raz Aviad E 1999 Riding the Black Ship Japan and Tokyo Disneyland Harvard University Asia Center ISBN 978 0 674 76894 9 Rhoades Shirrel 2008 A Complete History of American Comic Books Peter Lang ISBN 978 1 4331 0107 6 Rowland Barry D 1990 Herbie and Friends Cartoons in Wartime Dundurn Press ISBN 978 0 920474 52 5 Sabin Roger 1993 Adult Comics An Introduction Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 04419 6 Sabin Roger 2005 Some Observations on BD in the US In Forsdick Charles Grove Laurence McQuillan Libbie eds The Francophone Bande Dessinee Rodopi pp 175 188 ISBN 978 90 420 1776 4 Saraceni Mario 2003 The Language of Comics Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 21422 3 Schodt Frederik L 1996 Dreamland Japan Writings on Modern Manga Stone Bridge Press ISBN 978 1 880656 23 5 Screech Matthew 2005 Masters of the Ninth Art Bandes Dessinees and Franco Belgian Identity Liverpool University Press ISBN 978 0 85323 938 3 Stewart Ronald 2014 Manga as Schism Kitazawa Rakuten s Resistance to Old Fashioned Japan In Berndt Jaqueline Kummerling Meibauer Bettina eds Manga s Cultural Crossroads Routledge pp 27 49 ISBN 978 1 134 10283 9 Stringer Jenny ed 1996 Graphic novel The Oxford Companion to Twentieth Century Literature in English Oxford University Press p 262 ISBN 978 0 19 212271 1 Sugimoto Yoshio 2010 An Introduction to Japanese Society Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 87956 9 Theobald John 2004 The Media and the Making of History Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 3822 3 Thomas Evan 2010 10 Invisible Art Invisible Planes Invisible People In Aldama Frederick Luis ed Multicultural Comics From Zap to Blue Beetle University of Texas Press ISBN 978 0 292 73743 3 Thorne Amy 2010 Part Eight Metacomic Webcomics In Weiner Robert G ed Graphic Novels and Comics in Libraries and Archives Essays on Readers Research History and Cataloging McFarland amp Company pp 209 212 ISBN 978 0 7864 5693 2 Tondro Jason 2011 Superheroes of the Round Table Comics Connections to Medieval and Renaissance Literature McFarland ISBN 978 0 7864 8876 6 Thompson Jason 2007 Manga The Complete Guide New York Ballantine Books ISBN 978 0 345 48590 8 Vessels Joel E 2010 Drawing France French Comics and the Republic University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 60473 444 7 Williams Paul Lyons James 2010 The Rise of the American Comics Artist Creators and Contexts University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 60473 792 9 Wong Wendy Siuyi 2002 Hong Kong Comics Princeton Architectural Press ISBN 978 1 56898 269 4 Academic journals Edit Couch Chris December 2000 The Publication and Formats of Comics Graphic Novels and Tankobon Image amp Narrative 1 ISSN 1780 678X Retrieved 2012 02 05 Frahm Ole October 2003 Too much is too much The never innocent laughter of the Comics Image amp Narrative 7 ISSN 1780 678X Retrieved 2012 02 05 Gomez Romero Luis Dahlman Ian 2012 Introduction Justice framed law in comics and graphic novels Law Text Culture 16 1 3 32 Groensteen Thierry Spring 2012a The Current State of French Comics Theory Scandinavian Journal of Comic Art 1 1 111 122 Cohen Martin S April 1977 The Novel in Woodcuts A Handbook Journal of Modern Literature 6 2 171 195 JSTOR 3831165 Yuan Ting 2011 From Ponyo to My Garfield Story Using Digital Comics as an Alternative Pathway to Literary Composition Childhood Education 87 4 Web Edit Beerbohm Robert 2003 The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck Part III The Search For Topffer in America Archived from the original on June 9 2013 Retrieved 2012 07 23 Harvey R C 2010 12 20 Defining Comics Again Another in the Long List of Unnecessarily Complicated Definitions The Comics Journal Fantagraphics Books Archived from the original on 2011 09 14 Retrieved 2013 02 06 Markstein Don 2010 Glossary of Specialized Cartoon related Words and Phrases Used in Don Markstein s Toonopedia Don Markstein s Toonopedia Archived from the original on 2009 10 16 Retrieved 2013 02 05 Further reading EditCarrier David 2002 The Aesthetics of Comics Penn State Press ISBN 978 0 271 02188 1 Cohn Neil 2013 The Visual Language of Comics Introduction to the Structure and Cognition of Sequential Images London Bloomsbury ISBN 978 1 4411 8145 9 Dowd Douglas Bevan Hignite Todd 2006 Strips Toons And Bluesies Essays in Comics And Culture Princeton Architectural Press ISBN 978 1 56898 621 0 Eisner Will 1995 Graphic Storytelling Poorhouse Press ISBN 978 0 9614728 3 2 Estren Mark James 1993 A History of Underground Comics Ronin Publishing ISBN 978 0 914171 64 5 Groensteen Thierry 2007 1999 The System of Comics University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 57806 925 5 Groth Gary Fiore R eds 1988 The New Comics Berkley Books ISBN 978 0 425 11366 0 Heer Jeet Worcester Kent eds 2012 A Comics Studies Reader University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 60473 109 5 Horn Maurice ed 1977 The World Encyclopedia of Comics Avon ISBN 978 0 87754 323 7 Kunzle David 1973 The Early Comic Strip Narrative Strips and Picture Stories in the European Broadsheet from c 1450 to 1825 University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 05775 3 OCLC 470776042 Kunzle David 1990 History of the Comic Strip The Nineteenth Century University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 01865 5 McCloud Scott 2000 Reinventing Comics How Tmagination and Technology are Revolutionizing an Art Form 1st Perennial ed Perennial ISBN 0060953500 McCloud Scott 2006 Making Comics Storytelling Secrets of Comics Manga and Graphic Novels 1st Perennial ed ISBN 0060780940 Sabin Roger 1996 Comics Comix and Graphic Novels A History of Comic Art Phaidon ISBN 978 0 7148 3993 6 Stein Daniel Thon Jan Noel eds 2015 From Comic Strips to Graphic Novels Contributions to the Theory and History of Graphic Narrative De Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 042656 4 Waugh Coulton 1947 The Comics University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 0 87805 499 2 External links EditComics at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Comics at CurlieAcademic journals The Comics Grid Journal of Comics Scholarship ImageTexT Interdisciplinary Comics Studies Image amp Narrative International Journal of Comic Art Journal of Graphic Novels and ComicsArchives Billy Ireland Cartoon Library amp Museum Michigan State University Comic Art Collection Comic Art Collection at the University of Missouri Cartoon Art Museum of San Francisco Time Archives Collection of Comics Comics in the National Art Library Prints amp Books Victoria and Albert Museum Archived from the original on 2009 11 04 Retrieved 2011 03 15 Databases Grand Comics Database Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Comics amp oldid 1138333524, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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