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Genetically modified maize

January 01, 1970

Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.

Transgenic maize containing a gene from the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis

Marketed products edit

Herbicide-resistant maize edit

Corn varieties resistant to glyphosate herbicides were first commercialized in 1996 by Monsanto, and are known as "Roundup Ready Corn". They tolerate the use of Roundup.[1] Bayer CropScience developed "Liberty Link Corn" that is resistant to glufosinate.[2] Pioneer Hi-Bred has developed and markets corn hybrids with tolerance to imidazoline herbicides under the trademark "Clearfield" – though in these hybrids, the herbicide-tolerance trait was bred using tissue culture selection and the chemical mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate, not genetic engineering.[3] Consequently, the regulatory framework governing the approval of transgenic crops does not apply for Clearfield.[3]

As of 2011, herbicide-resistant GM corn was grown in 14 countries.[4] By 2012, 26 varieties of herbicide-resistant GM maize were authorised for import into the European Union,[5] but such imports remain controversial.[6] Cultivation of herbicide-resistant corn in the EU provides substantial farm-level benefits.[7]

Insect-resistant corn edit

 
The European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis, destroys corn crops by burrowing into the stem, causing the plant to fall over.

Bt maize/corn edit

Bt maize/Bt corn is a variant of maize that has been genetically altered to express one or more proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis[8] including Delta endotoxins. The protein is poisonous to certain insect pests. Spores of the bacillus are widely used in organic gardening,[9] although GM corn is not considered organic. The European corn borer causes about a billion dollars in damage to corn crops each year.[10]

In recent years, traits have been added to ward off corn ear worms and root worms, the latter of which annually causes about a billion dollars in damages.[11][12]

The Bt protein is expressed throughout the plant. When a vulnerable insect eats the Bt-containing plant, the protein is activated in its gut, which is alkaline. In the alkaline environment, the protein partially unfolds and is cut by other proteins, forming a toxin that paralyzes the insect's digestive system and forms holes in the gut wall. The insect stops eating within a few hours and eventually starves.[13][14]

In 1996, the first GM maize producing a Bt Cry protein was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae.[15]

The Philippine Government has promoted Bt corn, hoping for insect resistance and higher yields.[16]

Approved Bt genes include single and stacked (event names bracketed) configurations of: Cry1A.105 (MON89034), CryIAb (MON810), CryIF (1507), Cry2Ab (MON89034), Cry3Bb1 (MON863 and MON88017), Cry34Ab1 (59122), Cry35Ab1 (59122), mCry3A (MIR604), and Vip3A (MIR162), in both corn and cotton.[17][18]: 285ff  Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010.[19]

A 2018 study found that Bt-corn protected nearby fields of non-Bt corn and nearby vegetable crops, reducing the use of pesticides on those crops. Data from 1976-1996 (before Bt corn was widespread) was compared to data after it was adopted (1996-2016). They examined levels of the European corn borer and corn earworm. Their larvae eat a variety of crops, including peppers and green beans. Between 1992 and 2016, the amount of insecticide applied to New Jersey pepper fields decreased by 85 percent. Another factor was the introduction of more effective pesticides that were applied less often.[20]

Sweet Corn edit

GM sweet corn varieties include "Attribute", the brand name for insect-resistant sweet corn developed by Syngenta[21] and Performance Series insect-resistant sweet corn developed by Monsanto.[22]

Cuba edit

While Cuba's agriculture is largely focused on organic production, as of 2010, the country had developed a variety of genetically modified corn that is resistant to the palomilla moth.[23]

Drought-resistant maize edit

In 2013 Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids called DroughtGard.[24] The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbe Bacillus subtilis; it was approved by the USDA in 2011[25] and by China in 2013.[26]

Health Safety edit

In regular corn crops, insects promote fungal colonization by creating "wounds," or holes, in corn kernels. These wounds are favored by fungal spores for germination, which subsequently leads to mycotoxin accumulation in the crop that can be carcinogenic and toxic to humans and other animals. This can prove to be especially devastating in developing countries with drastic climate patterns such as high temperatures, which favor the development of toxic fungi. In addition, higher mycotoxin levels leads to market rejection or reduced market prices for the grain. GM corn crops encounter fewer insect attacks, and thus, have lower concentrations of mycotoxins. Fewer insect attacks also keep corn ears from being damaged, which increases overall yields.[27]

Products in development edit

In 2007, South African researchers announced the production of transgenic maize resistant to maize streak virus (MSV), although it has not been released as a product.[28] While breeding cultivars for resistance to MSV isn't done in the public, the private sector, international research centers, and national programmes have done all of the breeding.[29] As of 2014, there have been a few MSV-tolerant cultivars released in Africa. A private company Seedco has released 5 MSV cultivars.[30]

Research has been done on adding a single E. coli gene to maize to enable it to be grown with an essential amino acid (methionine).[31][32]

Refuges edit

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations require farmers who plant Bt corn to plant non-Bt corn nearby (called a refuge), with the logic that pests will infest the non-Bt corn and thus will not evolve a resistance to the Bt toxin.[33] Typically, 20% of corn in a grower's fields must be refuge; refuge must be at least 0.5 miles from Bt corn for lepidopteran pests, and refuge for corn rootworm must at least be adjacent to a Bt field.[34] EPA regulations also require seed companies to train farmers how to maintain refuges, to collect data on the refuges and to report that data to the EPA.[33] A study of these reports found that from 2003 to 2005 farmer compliance with keeping refuges was above 90%, but that by 2008 approximately 25% of Bt corn farmers did not keep refuges properly, raising concerns that resistance would develop.[33]

Unmodified crops received most of the economic benefits of Bt corn in the US in 1996–2007, because of the overall reduction of pest populations. This reduction came because females laid eggs on modified and unmodified strains alike, but pest organisms that develop on the modified strain are eliminated.[35]

Seed bags containing both Bt and refuge seed have been approved by the EPA in the United States. These seed mixtures were marketed as "Refuge in a Bag" (RIB) to increase farmer compliance with refuge requirements and reduce additional work needed at planting from having separate Bt and refuge seed bags on hand. The EPA approved a lower percentage of refuge seed in these seed mixtures ranging from 5 to 10%. This strategy is likely to reduce the likelihood of Bt-resistance occurring for corn rootworm, but may increase the risk of resistance for lepidopteran pests, such as European corn borer. Increased concerns for resistance with seed mixtures include partially resistant larvae on a Bt plant being able to move to a susceptible plant to survive or cross pollination of refuge pollen on to Bt plants that can lower the amount of Bt expressed in kernels for ear feeding insects.[36][37]

Resistance edit

Resistant strains of the European corn borer have developed in areas with defective or absent refuge management.[35][33] In 2012, a Florida field trial demonstrated that army worms were resistant to Bt maize produced by Dupont-Dow; armyworm resistance was first discovered in Puerto Rico in 2006, prompting Dow and DuPont to voluntarily stop selling the product on the island.[38]

Regulation edit

Main article: Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms

Regulation of GM crops varies between countries, with some of the most-marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on intended uses.[39][40]

Controversy edit

Main article: Genetically modified food controversies

There is a scientific consensus[41][42][43][44] that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,[45][46][47][48][49] but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.[50][51][52] Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.[53][54][55][56] The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.[57][58][59][60]

The scientific rigor of the studies regarding human health has been disputed due to alleged lack of independence and due to conflicts of interest involving governing bodies and some of those who perform and evaluate the studies.[61][62][63][64] However, no reports of ill effects from GM food have been documented in the human population.[65][66][67]

GM crops provide a number of ecological benefits, but there are also concerns for their overuse, stalled research outside of the Bt seed industry, proper management and issues with Bt resistance arising from their misuse.[64][68][69]

Critics have objected to GM crops on ecological, economic and health grounds. The economic issues derive from those organisms that are subject to intellectual property law, mostly patents. The first generation of GM crops lose patent protection beginning in 2015. Monsanto has claimed it will not pursue farmers who retain seeds of off-patent varieties.[70] These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, protests and to restrictive legislation in most countries.[71]

Introduction of Bt maize led to significant reduction of mycotoxin-related poisoning and cancer rates, as they were significantly less prone to contain mycotoxins (29%), fumonisins (31%) and thricotecens (37%), all of which are toxic and carcinogenic.[72]

Effects on nontarget insects edit

Critics claim that Bt proteins could target predatory and other beneficial or harmless insects as well as the targeted pest. These proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the USA since 1958 with no ill effects on the environment reported.[8] While cyt proteins are toxic towards the insect order Diptera (flies), certain cry proteins selectively target lepidopterans (moths and butterflies), while other cyt selectively target Coleoptera.[73] As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells, resulting in rupture of those cells. Any organism that lacks the appropriate gut receptors cannot be affected by the cry protein, and therefore Bt.[74][75] Regulatory agencies assess the potential for the transgenic plant to impact nontarget organisms before approving commercial release.[76][77]

A 1999 study found that in a lab environment, pollen from Bt maize dusted onto milkweed could harm the monarch butterfly.[78][79] Several groups later studied the phenomenon in both the field and the laboratory, resulting in a risk assessment that concluded that any risk posed by the corn to butterfly populations under real-world conditions was negligible.[80] A 2002 review of the scientific literature concluded that "the commercial large-scale cultivation of current Bt–maize hybrids did not pose a significant risk to the monarch population".[81][82][83] A 2007 review found that "nontarget invertebrates are generally more abundant in Bt cotton and Bt maize fields than in nontransgenic fields managed with insecticides. However, in comparison with insecticide-free control fields, certain nontarget taxa are less abundant in Bt fields."[84]

Gene flow edit

Gene flow is the transfer of genes and/or alleles from one species to another. Concerns focus on the interaction between GM and other maize varieties in Mexico, and of gene flow into refuges.

In 2009 the government of Mexico created a regulatory pathway for genetically modified maize,[85] but because Mexico is the center of diversity for maize, gene flow could affect a large fraction of the world's maize strains.[86][87] A 2001 report in Nature presented evidence that Bt maize was cross-breeding with unmodified maize in Mexico.[88] The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact. Nature later stated, "the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper".[89] A 2005 large-scale study failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca.[90] However, other authors also found evidence of cross-breeding between natural maize and transgenic maize.[91]

A 2004 study found Bt protein in kernels of refuge corn.[92]

In 2017, a large-scale study found "pervasive presence of transgenes and glyphosate in maize-derived food in Mexico"[93]

Food edit

The French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee reviewed the 2009 Vendômois et al. study and concluded that it "presents no admissible scientific element likely to ascribe any haematological, hepatic or renal toxicity to the three re-analysed GMOs."[94] However, the French government applies the precautionary principle with respect to GMOs.[95][96][97]

A review by Food Standards Australia New Zealand and others of the same study concluded that the results were due to chance alone.[98][99]

A 2011 Canadian study looked at the presence of CryAb1 protein (BT toxin) in non-pregnant women, pregnant women and fetal blood. All groups had detectable levels of the protein, including 93% of pregnant women and 80% of fetuses at concentrations of 0.19 ± 0.30 and 0.04 ± 0.04 mean ± SD ng/ml, respectively.[100] The paper did not discuss safety implications or find any health problems. FSANZ agency published a comment pointing out a number of inconsistencies in the paper, most notably that it "does not provide any evidence that GM foods are the source of the protein".[101]

In January 2013, the European Food Safety Authority released all data submitted by Monsanto in relation to the 2003 authorisation of maize genetically modified for glyphosate tolerance.[102]

Starlink corn recalls edit

Main article: Starlink corn recall

StarLink contains Cry9C, which had not previously been used in a GM crop.[103] Starlink's creator, Plant Genetic Systems, had applied to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to market Starlink for use in animal feed and in human food.[104]: 14  However, because the Cry9C protein lasts longer in the digestive system than other Bt proteins, the EPA had concerns about its allergenicity, and PGS did not provide sufficient data to prove that Cry9C was not allergenic.[105]: 3  As a result, PGS split its application into separate permits for use in food and use in animal feed.[103][106] Starlink was approved by the EPA for use in animal feed only in May 1998.[104]: 15 

StarLink corn was subsequently found in food destined for consumption by humans in the US, Japan, and South Korea.[104]: 20–21  This corn became the subject of the widely publicized Starlink corn recall, which started when Taco Bell-branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain the corn. Sales of StarLink seed were discontinued.[107][108] The registration for Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000. Pioneer had been bought by AgrEvo which then became Aventis CropScience at the time of the incident,[104]: 15–16  which was later bought by Bayer.[109]

Fifty-one people reported adverse effects to the FDA; US Centers for Disease Control (CDC), which determined that 28 of them were possibly related to Starlink.[110] However, the CDC studied the blood of these 28 individuals and concluded there was no evidence of hypersensitivity to the Starlink Bt protein.[111]

A subsequent review of these tests by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act Scientific Advisory Panel points out that while "the negative results decrease the probability that the Cry9C protein is the cause of allergic symptoms in the individuals examined ... in the absence of a positive control and questions regarding the sensitivity and specificity of the assay, it is not possible to assign a negative predictive value to this."[112]

The US corn supply has been monitored for the presence of the Starlink Bt proteins since 2001.[113]

In 2005, aid sent by the UN and the US to Central American nations also contained some StarLink corn. The nations involved, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala refused to accept the aid.[114]

Corporate espionage edit

On 19 December 2013 six Chinese citizens were indicted in Iowa on charges of plotting to steal genetically modified seeds worth tens of millions of dollars from Monsanto and DuPont. Mo Hailong, director of international business at the Beijing Dabeinong Technology Group Co., part of the Beijing-based DBN Group, was accused of stealing trade secrets after he was found digging in an Iowa cornfield.[115]

See also edit

References edit

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  41. ^ Nicolia A, Manzo A, Veronesi F, Rosellini D (March 2014). "An overview of the last 10 years of genetically engineered crop safety research". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 34 (1): 77–88. doi:10.3109/07388551.2013.823595. PMID 24041244. S2CID 9836802. We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide, and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly connected with the use of GM crops.

    The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food/feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns.
  42. ^ "State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 30 August 2019. Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU (2003) and they are consistent with the views of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002). These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities (inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom and the United States) using their national food safety procedures (ICSU). To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world (GM Science Review Panel). Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants - mainly maize, soybean and oilseed rape - without any observed adverse effects (ICSU).
  43. ^ Ronald P (May 2011). "Plant genetics, sustainable agriculture and global food security". Genetics. 188 (1): 11–20. doi:10.1534/genetics.111.128553. PMC 3120150. PMID 21546547. There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat. After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted, no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered crops (Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002). Both the U.S. National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre (the European Union's scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission) have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops (Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004; European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008). These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment (European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation 2010).
  44. ^

    But see also:

    Domingo JL, Giné Bordonaba J (May 2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants". Environment International. 37 (4): 734–42. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003. PMID 21296423. In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.

    Krimsky S (2015). "An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment". Science, Technology, & Human Values. 40 (6): 883–914. doi:10.1177/0162243915598381. S2CID 40855100. I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story.

    And contrast:

    Panchin AY, Tuzhikov AI (March 2017). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 37 (2): 213–217. doi:10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684. PMID 26767435. S2CID 11786594. Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm.

    The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.

    and

    Yang YT, Chen B (April 2016). "Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 96 (6): 1851–5. Bibcode:2016JSFA...96.1851Y. doi:10.1002/jsfa.7523. PMID 26536836. It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA (citing Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011). Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer-reviewed literature to date.

    Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far more precise and, in most cases, less likely to create an unexpected outcome.
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    Pinholster G (25 October 2012). "AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers"" (PDF). American Association for the Advancement of Science. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
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    . American Medical Association. Archived from the original on 10 June 2001. (PDF). American Medical Association. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2019. Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and/or substantiated in the peer-reviewed literature.
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    GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods.
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    "Genetically modified foods and health: a second interim statement" (PDF). British Medical Association. March 2004. (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2020. Retrieved 30 August 2019. In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns cannot, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available.

    When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case-by-case basis.

    Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects.

    The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit.
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External links edit

  • "List of approved varieties".
  • . Archived from the original on 21 July 2011.
  • . Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. - research project on coexistence and traceability of GM and non-GM supply chains
  • "EFSA GMO Panel deliberations on the Austrian report "Biological effects of transgenic maize NK603 x MON 810 fed in long term reproduction studies in mice"". 26 February 2018. (Part of the minutes of the plenary meeting held on 3–4 December 2008, see on page 9)

January 01, 1970
genetically, modified, maize, corn, genetically, modified, crop, specific, maize, strains, have, been, genetically, engineered, express, agriculturally, desirable, traits, including, resistance, pests, herbicides, maize, strains, with, both, traits, multiple, . Genetically modified maize corn is a genetically modified crop Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally desirable traits including resistance to pests and to herbicides Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow One strain called Starlink was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000 Transgenic maize containing a gene from the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis Contents 1 Marketed products 1 1 Herbicide resistant maize 1 2 Insect resistant corn 1 2 1 Bt maize corn 1 2 2 Sweet Corn 1 2 3 Cuba 1 3 Drought resistant maize 1 3 1 Health Safety 2 Products in development 3 Refuges 4 Resistance 5 Regulation 6 Controversy 6 1 Effects on nontarget insects 6 2 Gene flow 6 3 Food 6 4 Starlink corn recalls 6 5 Corporate espionage 7 See also 8 References 9 External linksMarketed products editHerbicide resistant maize edit Corn varieties resistant to glyphosate herbicides were first commercialized in 1996 by Monsanto and are known as Roundup Ready Corn They tolerate the use of Roundup 1 Bayer CropScience developed Liberty Link Corn that is resistant to glufosinate 2 Pioneer Hi Bred has developed and markets corn hybrids with tolerance to imidazoline herbicides under the trademark Clearfield though in these hybrids the herbicide tolerance trait was bred using tissue culture selection and the chemical mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate not genetic engineering 3 Consequently the regulatory framework governing the approval of transgenic crops does not apply for Clearfield 3 As of 2011 herbicide resistant GM corn was grown in 14 countries 4 By 2012 26 varieties of herbicide resistant GM maize were authorised for import into the European Union 5 but such imports remain controversial 6 Cultivation of herbicide resistant corn in the EU provides substantial farm level benefits 7 Insect resistant corn edit nbsp The European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis destroys corn crops by burrowing into the stem causing the plant to fall over Bt maize corn edit Bt maize Bt corn is a variant of maize that has been genetically altered to express one or more proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis 8 including Delta endotoxins The protein is poisonous to certain insect pests Spores of the bacillus are widely used in organic gardening 9 although GM corn is not considered organic The European corn borer causes about a billion dollars in damage to corn crops each year 10 In recent years traits have been added to ward off corn ear worms and root worms the latter of which annually causes about a billion dollars in damages 11 12 The Bt protein is expressed throughout the plant When a vulnerable insect eats the Bt containing plant the protein is activated in its gut which is alkaline In the alkaline environment the protein partially unfolds and is cut by other proteins forming a toxin that paralyzes the insect s digestive system and forms holes in the gut wall The insect stops eating within a few hours and eventually starves 13 14 In 1996 the first GM maize producing a Bt Cry protein was approved which killed the European corn borer and related species subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae 15 The Philippine Government has promoted Bt corn hoping for insect resistance and higher yields 16 Approved Bt genes include single and stacked event names bracketed configurations of Cry1A 105 MON89034 CryIAb MON810 CryIF 1507 Cry2Ab MON89034 Cry3Bb1 MON863 and MON88017 Cry34Ab1 59122 Cry35Ab1 59122 mCry3A MIR604 and Vip3A MIR162 in both corn and cotton 17 18 285ff Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010 19 A 2018 study found that Bt corn protected nearby fields of non Bt corn and nearby vegetable crops reducing the use of pesticides on those crops Data from 1976 1996 before Bt corn was widespread was compared to data after it was adopted 1996 2016 They examined levels of the European corn borer and corn earworm Their larvae eat a variety of crops including peppers and green beans Between 1992 and 2016 the amount of insecticide applied to New Jersey pepper fields decreased by 85 percent Another factor was the introduction of more effective pesticides that were applied less often 20 Sweet Corn edit GM sweet corn varieties include Attribute the brand name for insect resistant sweet corn developed by Syngenta 21 and Performance Series insect resistant sweet corn developed by Monsanto 22 Cuba edit While Cuba s agriculture is largely focused on organic production as of 2010 the country had developed a variety of genetically modified corn that is resistant to the palomilla moth 23 Drought resistant maize edit In 2013 Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids called DroughtGard 24 The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbe Bacillus subtilis it was approved by the USDA in 2011 25 and by China in 2013 26 Health Safety edit In regular corn crops insects promote fungal colonization by creating wounds or holes in corn kernels These wounds are favored by fungal spores for germination which subsequently leads to mycotoxin accumulation in the crop that can be carcinogenic and toxic to humans and other animals This can prove to be especially devastating in developing countries with drastic climate patterns such as high temperatures which favor the development of toxic fungi In addition higher mycotoxin levels leads to market rejection or reduced market prices for the grain GM corn crops encounter fewer insect attacks and thus have lower concentrations of mycotoxins Fewer insect attacks also keep corn ears from being damaged which increases overall yields 27 Products in development editIn 2007 South African researchers announced the production of transgenic maize resistant to maize streak virus MSV although it has not been released as a product 28 While breeding cultivars for resistance to MSV isn t done in the public the private sector international research centers and national programmes have done all of the breeding 29 As of 2014 there have been a few MSV tolerant cultivars released in Africa A private company Seedco has released 5 MSV cultivars 30 Research has been done on adding a single E coli gene to maize to enable it to be grown with an essential amino acid methionine 31 32 Refuges editUS Environmental Protection Agency EPA regulations require farmers who plant Bt corn to plant non Bt corn nearby called a refuge with the logic that pests will infest the non Bt corn and thus will not evolve a resistance to the Bt toxin 33 Typically 20 of corn in a grower s fields must be refuge refuge must be at least 0 5 miles from Bt corn for lepidopteran pests and refuge for corn rootworm must at least be adjacent to a Bt field 34 EPA regulations also require seed companies to train farmers how to maintain refuges to collect data on the refuges and to report that data to the EPA 33 A study of these reports found that from 2003 to 2005 farmer compliance with keeping refuges was above 90 but that by 2008 approximately 25 of Bt corn farmers did not keep refuges properly raising concerns that resistance would develop 33 Unmodified crops received most of the economic benefits of Bt corn in the US in 1996 2007 because of the overall reduction of pest populations This reduction came because females laid eggs on modified and unmodified strains alike but pest organisms that develop on the modified strain are eliminated 35 Seed bags containing both Bt and refuge seed have been approved by the EPA in the United States These seed mixtures were marketed as Refuge in a Bag RIB to increase farmer compliance with refuge requirements and reduce additional work needed at planting from having separate Bt and refuge seed bags on hand The EPA approved a lower percentage of refuge seed in these seed mixtures ranging from 5 to 10 This strategy is likely to reduce the likelihood of Bt resistance occurring for corn rootworm but may increase the risk of resistance for lepidopteran pests such as European corn borer Increased concerns for resistance with seed mixtures include partially resistant larvae on a Bt plant being able to move to a susceptible plant to survive or cross pollination of refuge pollen on to Bt plants that can lower the amount of Bt expressed in kernels for ear feeding insects 36 37 Resistance editResistant strains of the European corn borer have developed in areas with defective or absent refuge management 35 33 In 2012 a Florida field trial demonstrated that army worms were resistant to Bt maize produced by Dupont Dow armyworm resistance was first discovered in Puerto Rico in 2006 prompting Dow and DuPont to voluntarily stop selling the product on the island 38 Regulation editMain article Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms Regulation of GM crops varies between countries with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe Regulation varies in a given country depending on intended uses 39 40 Controversy editMain article Genetically modified food controversies There is a scientific consensus 41 42 43 44 that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food 45 46 47 48 49 but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case by case basis before introduction 50 51 52 Nonetheless members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe 53 54 55 56 The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country with some nations banning or restricting them and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation 57 58 59 60 The scientific rigor of the studies regarding human health has been disputed due to alleged lack of independence and due to conflicts of interest involving governing bodies and some of those who perform and evaluate the studies 61 62 63 64 However no reports of ill effects from GM food have been documented in the human population 65 66 67 GM crops provide a number of ecological benefits but there are also concerns for their overuse stalled research outside of the Bt seed industry proper management and issues with Bt resistance arising from their misuse 64 68 69 Critics have objected to GM crops on ecological economic and health grounds The economic issues derive from those organisms that are subject to intellectual property law mostly patents The first generation of GM crops lose patent protection beginning in 2015 Monsanto has claimed it will not pursue farmers who retain seeds of off patent varieties 70 These controversies have led to litigation international trade disputes protests and to restrictive legislation in most countries 71 Introduction of Bt maize led to significant reduction of mycotoxin related poisoning and cancer rates as they were significantly less prone to contain mycotoxins 29 fumonisins 31 and thricotecens 37 all of which are toxic and carcinogenic 72 Effects on nontarget insects edit Critics claim that Bt proteins could target predatory and other beneficial or harmless insects as well as the targeted pest These proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the USA since 1958 with no ill effects on the environment reported 8 While cyt proteins are toxic towards the insect order Diptera flies certain cry proteins selectively target lepidopterans moths and butterflies while other cyt selectively target Coleoptera 73 As a toxic mechanism cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid gut epithelial cells resulting in rupture of those cells Any organism that lacks the appropriate gut receptors cannot be affected by the cry protein and therefore Bt 74 75 Regulatory agencies assess the potential for the transgenic plant to impact nontarget organisms before approving commercial release 76 77 A 1999 study found that in a lab environment pollen from Bt maize dusted onto milkweed could harm the monarch butterfly 78 79 Several groups later studied the phenomenon in both the field and the laboratory resulting in a risk assessment that concluded that any risk posed by the corn to butterfly populations under real world conditions was negligible 80 A 2002 review of the scientific literature concluded that the commercial large scale cultivation of current Bt maize hybrids did not pose a significant risk to the monarch population 81 82 83 A 2007 review found that nontarget invertebrates are generally more abundant in Bt cotton and Bt maize fields than in nontransgenic fields managed with insecticides However in comparison with insecticide free control fields certain nontarget taxa are less abundant in Bt fields 84 Gene flow edit Gene flow is the transfer of genes and or alleles from one species to another Concerns focus on the interaction between GM and other maize varieties in Mexico and of gene flow into refuges In 2009 the government of Mexico created a regulatory pathway for genetically modified maize 85 but because Mexico is the center of diversity for maize gene flow could affect a large fraction of the world s maize strains 86 87 A 2001 report in Nature presented evidence that Bt maize was cross breeding with unmodified maize in Mexico 88 The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact Nature later stated the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper 89 A 2005 large scale study failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca 90 However other authors also found evidence of cross breeding between natural maize and transgenic maize 91 A 2004 study found Bt protein in kernels of refuge corn 92 In 2017 a large scale study found pervasive presence of transgenes and glyphosate in maize derived food in Mexico 93 Food edit The French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee reviewed the 2009 Vendomois et al study and concluded that it presents no admissible scientific element likely to ascribe any haematological hepatic or renal toxicity to the three re analysed GMOs 94 However the French government applies the precautionary principle with respect to GMOs 95 96 97 A review by Food Standards Australia New Zealand and others of the same study concluded that the results were due to chance alone 98 99 A 2011 Canadian study looked at the presence of CryAb1 protein BT toxin in non pregnant women pregnant women and fetal blood All groups had detectable levels of the protein including 93 of pregnant women and 80 of fetuses at concentrations of 0 19 0 30 and 0 04 0 04 mean SD ng ml respectively 100 The paper did not discuss safety implications or find any health problems FSANZ agency published a comment pointing out a number of inconsistencies in the paper most notably that it does not provide any evidence that GM foods are the source of the protein 101 In January 2013 the European Food Safety Authority released all data submitted by Monsanto in relation to the 2003 authorisation of maize genetically modified for glyphosate tolerance 102 Starlink corn recalls edit Main article Starlink corn recall StarLink contains Cry9C which had not previously been used in a GM crop 103 Starlink s creator Plant Genetic Systems had applied to the US Environmental Protection Agency EPA to market Starlink for use in animal feed and in human food 104 14 However because the Cry9C protein lasts longer in the digestive system than other Bt proteins the EPA had concerns about its allergenicity and PGS did not provide sufficient data to prove that Cry9C was not allergenic 105 3 As a result PGS split its application into separate permits for use in food and use in animal feed 103 106 Starlink was approved by the EPA for use in animal feed only in May 1998 104 15 StarLink corn was subsequently found in food destined for consumption by humans in the US Japan and South Korea 104 20 21 This corn became the subject of the widely publicized Starlink corn recall which started when Taco Bell branded taco shells sold in supermarkets were found to contain the corn Sales of StarLink seed were discontinued 107 108 The registration for Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000 Pioneer had been bought by AgrEvo which then became Aventis CropScience at the time of the incident 104 15 16 which was later bought by Bayer 109 Fifty one people reported adverse effects to the FDA US Centers for Disease Control CDC which determined that 28 of them were possibly related to Starlink 110 However the CDC studied the blood of these 28 individuals and concluded there was no evidence of hypersensitivity to the Starlink Bt protein 111 A subsequent review of these tests by the Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act Scientific Advisory Panel points out that while the negative results decrease the probability that the Cry9C protein is the cause of allergic symptoms in the individuals examined in the absence of a positive control and questions regarding the sensitivity and specificity of the assay it is not possible to assign a negative predictive value to this 112 The US corn supply has been monitored for the presence of the Starlink Bt proteins since 2001 113 In 2005 aid sent by the UN and the US to Central American nations also contained some StarLink corn The nations involved Nicaragua Honduras El Salvador and Guatemala refused to accept the aid 114 Corporate espionage edit On 19 December 2013 six Chinese citizens were indicted in Iowa on charges of plotting to steal genetically modified seeds worth tens of millions of dollars from Monsanto and DuPont Mo Hailong director of international business at the Beijing Dabeinong Technology Group Co part of the Beijing based DBN Group was accused of stealing trade secrets after he was found digging in an Iowa cornfield 115 See also editGenetically modified food Genetically modified crops Genetically modified food controversiesReferences edit Roundup Ready System Monsanto Archived from the original on 2 April 2013 Bayer LibertyLink official website Bayer Crop Science Retrieved 28 October 2014 a b Tan S Evans RR Dahmer ML Singh BK Shaner DL March 2005 Imidazolinone tolerant crops history current status and future Pest Management Science 61 3 246 57 doi 10 1002 ps 993 PMID 15627242 James C 2011 ISAAA Brief 43 Global Status of Commercialized Biotech GM Crops 2011 ISAAA Briefs Ithaca New York International Service for the Acquisition of Agri biotech Applications ISAAA Retrieved 27 July 2012 Staff EU register of genetically modified food and feed European Commission Health and Consumers EU register of authorised GMOs Retrieved 26 August 2012 Hogan M 5 April 2012 BASF to undertake GMO potato trials in Europe Reuters Edition US Retrieved 26 August 2012 Wesseler J Scatasta S Nillesen E August 2007 The maximum incremental social tolerable irreversible costs MISTICs and other benefits and costs of introducing transgenic maize in the EU 15 PDF Pedobiologia 51 3 261 9 doi 10 1016 j pedobi 2007 04 004 a b History of Bt University of California Retrieved 8 February 2010 Bt Crop Spraying ucsd edu Witkowski JF Wedberg JL Steffey KL Sloderbeck PE Siegfried BD Rice ME et al 1997 Why manage European corn borer In Ostlie KR Hutchison KR Hellmich RL eds Bt Corn amp European Corn Borer Long term Success Through Resistance Management North Central Region NCR Archived from the original on 28 September 2013 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a work ignored help Marra MC Piggott NE Goodwin BK 2012 The impact of corn rootworm protected biotechnology traits in the United States AgBioForum 15 2 217 230 Hodgson EW Western corn rootworm PDF Utah State University Extension and Utah Plant Pest Diagnostic Laboratory Grochulski P Masson L Borisova S Pusztai Carey M Schwartz JL Brousseau R Cygler M December 1995 Bacillus thuringiensis CryIA a insecticidal toxin crystal structure and channel formation Journal of Molecular Biology 254 3 447 64 doi 10 1006 jmbi 1995 0630 PMID 7490762 Peairs FB 2013 Bt Corn Health and the Environment 0 707 PDF Colorado State University Extension Office Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Hellmich RL Hellmich KA 2012 Use and impact of Bt maize Nature Education Knowledge 3 10 4 Freedman A 2013 Rice security in Southeast Asia beggar thy neighbor or cooperation The Pacific Review 26 5 Taylor amp Francis 433 454 doi 10 1080 09512748 2013 842303 ISSN 0951 2748 S2CID 153573639 p 443 Bessin R November 2010 first published May 1996 Bt Corn for Corn Borer Control University of Kentucky College of Agriculture Castagnola AS Jurat Fuentes JL 2 March 2012 Bt Crops Past and Future Chapter 15 In Sansinenea E ed Bacillus ThuringiensisBiotechnology Springer Hodgson E Gassmann A May 2010 New Corn Trait Deregulated in the U S Iowa State Extension Department of Entomology Gittig D 15 March 2018 Planting GMOs kills so many bugs that it helps non GMO crops Ars Technica Retrieved 13 April 2018 Syngenta Sweet Corn Products PDF syngenta us com Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 8 April 2018 U S Technology Use Guide PDF Monsanto 2013 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Anna Glayzer for The Food Commission 19 July 2010 Cuba s food production revolution MON87460 OECD BioTrack Database Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 27 December 2011 Monsanto Co Determination of Nonregulated Status of Corn Genetically Engineered for Drought Tolerance PDF Federal Register 76 248 APHIS 2011 0023 Eisenstein M September 2013 Plant breeding Discovery in a dry spell Nature 501 7468 S7 9 Bibcode 2013Natur 501S 7E doi 10 1038 501S7a PMID 24067764 Pellegrino E Bedini S Nuti M Ercoli L February 2018 Impact of genetically engineered maize on agronomic environmental and toxicological traits a meta analysis of 21 years of field data Scientific Reports 8 1 3113 Bibcode 2018NatSR 8 3113P doi 10 1038 s41598 018 21284 2 PMC 5814441 PMID 29449686 Shepherd DN Mangwende T Martin DP Bezuidenhout M Kloppers FJ Carolissen CH et al November 2007 Maize streak virus resistant transgenic maize a first for Africa Plant Biotechnology Journal 5 6 759 67 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 584 7352 doi 10 1111 j 1467 7652 2007 00279 x PMID 17924935 Pratt R Gordon S Lipps P Asea G Bigirwa G Pixley K June 2003 Use of IPM in the control of multiple diseases in maize strategies for selection of host resistance African Crop Science Journal 11 3 189 98 doi 10 4314 acsj v11i3 27570 hdl 1807 47314 Search Results MSV tolerance Seed Co The African Seed Company Retrieved 18 December 2021 Planta J Xiang X Leustek T Messing J October 2017 Engineering sulfur storage in maize seed proteins without apparent yield loss Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114 43 11386 11391 Bibcode 2017PNAS 11411386P doi 10 1073 pnas 1714805114 PMC 5664557 PMID 29073061 Genetically Boosting the Nutritional Value of Corn Could Benefit Millions Rutgers Today news rutgers edu 9 October 2017 a b c d Witkowski JF Wedberg JL Steffey KL Sloderbeck PE Siegfried BD Rice ME et al 1997 How does resistance develop In Ostlie KR Hutchison KR Hellmich RL eds Bt Corn amp European Corn Borer Long term Success Through Resistance Management North Central Region NCR Archived from the original on 28 September 2013 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a work ignored help E Cullen R Proost D Volenberg 2008 Insect resistance management and refuge requirements for Bt corn PDF Report Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 a b Tabashnik BE October 2010 Plant science Communal benefits of transgenic corn Science 330 6001 189 90 doi 10 1126 science 1196864 PMID 20929767 S2CID 36595050 Siegfried BD Hellmich RL 2012 Understanding successful resistance management the European corn borer and Bt corn in the United States GM Crops amp Food 3 3 184 93 doi 10 4161 gmcr 20715 PMID 22688691 Devos Y Meihls LN Kiss J Hibbard BE April 2013 Resistance evolution to the first generation of genetically modified Diabrotica active Bt maize events by western corn rootworm management and monitoring considerations Transgenic Research 22 2 269 99 doi 10 1007 s11248 012 9657 4 PMID 23011587 S2CID 10821353 Kaskey J 16 November 2012 DuPont Dow Corn Defeated by Armyworms in Florida Study Bloomberg News Archived from the original on 5 March 2015 subscription required Wesseler J and N Kalaitzandonakes 2011 Present and Future EU GMO policy In Arie Oskam Gerrit Meesters and Huib Silvis eds EU Policy for Agriculture Food and Rural Areas Second Edition pp 23 323 23 332 Wageningen Wageningen Academic Publishers Beckmann V C Soregaroli J Wesseler 2011 Coexistence of genetically modified GM and non modified non GM crops Are the two main property rights regimes equivalent with respect to the coexistence value In Genetically modified food and global welfare edited by Colin Carter GianCarlo Moschini and Ian Sheldon pp 201 224 Volume 10 in Frontiers of Economics and Globalization Series Bingley UK Emerald Group Publishing Nicolia A Manzo A Veronesi F Rosellini D March 2014 An overview of the last 10 years of genetically engineered crop safety research Critical Reviews in Biotechnology 34 1 77 88 doi 10 3109 07388551 2013 823595 PMID 24041244 S2CID 9836802 We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly connected with the use of GM crops The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data Such debate even if positive and part of the natural process of review by the scientific community has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti GE crops campaigns State of Food and Agriculture 2003 2004 Agricultural Biotechnology Meeting the Needs of the Poor Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Retrieved 30 August 2019 Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU 2003 and they are consistent with the views of the World Health Organization WHO 2002 These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities inter alia Argentina Brazil Canada China the United Kingdom and the United States using their national food safety procedures ICSU To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world GM Science Review Panel Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants mainly maize soybean and oilseed rape without any observed adverse effects ICSU Ronald P May 2011 Plant genetics sustainable agriculture and global food security Genetics 188 1 11 20 doi 10 1534 genetics 111 128553 PMC 3120150 PMID 21546547 There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered crops Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002 Both the U S National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre the European Union s scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004 European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008 These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment European Commission Directorate General for Research and Innovation 2010 But see also Domingo JL Gine Bordonaba J May 2011 A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants Environment International 37 4 734 42 doi 10 1016 j envint 2011 01 003 PMID 21296423 In spite of this the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited However it is important to remark that for the first time a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting on the basis of their studies that a number of varieties of GM products mainly maize and soybeans are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non GM plant and those raising still serious concerns was observed Moreover it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants Anyhow this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies Krimsky S 2015 An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment Science Technology amp Human Values 40 6 883 914 doi 10 1177 0162243915598381 S2CID 40855100 I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story And contrast Panchin AY Tuzhikov AI March 2017 Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons Critical Reviews in Biotechnology 37 2 213 217 doi 10 3109 07388551 2015 1130684 PMID 26767435 S2CID 11786594 Here we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions such as GMO embargo share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data Having accounted for these flaws we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention However despite their claims they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality andYang YT Chen B April 2016 Governing GMOs in the USA science law and public health Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 96 6 1851 5 Bibcode 2016JSFA 96 1851Y doi 10 1002 jsfa 7523 PMID 26536836 It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA citing Domingo and Bordonaba 2011 Overall a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer reviewed literature to date Despite various concerns today the American Association for the Advancement of Science the World Health Organization and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods Compared with conventional breeding techniques genetic engineering is far more precise and in most cases less likely to create an unexpected outcome Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors On Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods PDF American Association for the Advancement of Science 20 October 2012 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 30 August 2019 The EU for example has invested more than 300 million in research on the biosafety of GMOs Its recent report states The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent research groups is that biotechnology and in particular GMOs are not per se more risky than e g conventional plant breeding technologies The World Health Organization the American Medical Association the U S National Academy of Sciences the British Royal Society and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques Pinholster G 25 October 2012 AAAS Board of Directors Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers PDF American Association for the Advancement of Science Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 30 August 2019 European Commission Directorate General for Research 2010 A decade of EU funded GMO research 2001 2010 PDF Directorate General for Research and Innovation Biotechnologies Agriculture Food European Commission European Union doi 10 2777 97784 ISBN 978 92 79 16344 9 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 30 August 2019 AMA Report on Genetically Modified Crops and Foods online summary American Medical Association January 2001 Retrieved 30 August 2019 A report issued by the scientific council of the American Medical Association AMA says that no long term health effects have been detected from the use of transgenic crops and genetically modified foods and that these foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts from online summary prepared by ISAAA Crops and foods produced using recombinant DNA techniques have been available for fewer than 10 years and no long term effects have been detected to date These foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts Featured CSA Report Genetically Modified Crops and Foods I 00 Full Text American Medical Association Archived from the original on 10 June 2001 REPORT 2 OF THE COUNCIL ON SCIENCE AND PUBLIC HEALTH A 12 Labeling of Bioengineered Foods PDF American Medical Association 2012 Archived from the original PDF on 7 September 2012 Retrieved 30 August 2019 Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years and during that time no overt consequences on human health have been reported and or substantiated in the peer reviewed literature Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms United States Public and Scholarly Opinion Library of Congress 30 June 2015 Retrieved 30 August 2019 Several scientific organizations in the US have issued studies or statements regarding the safety of GMOs indicating that there is no evidence that GMOs present unique safety risks compared to conventionally bred products These include the National Research Council the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Medical Association Groups in the US opposed to GMOs include some environmental organizations organic farming organizations and consumer organizations A substantial number of legal academics have criticized the US s approach to regulating GMOs National Academies Of Sciences Engineering Division on Earth Life Studies Board on Agriculture Natural Resources Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops Past Experience Future Prospects 2016 Genetically Engineered Crops Experiences and Prospects The National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine US p 149 doi 10 17226 23395 ISBN 978 0 309 43738 7 PMID 28230933 Retrieved 30 August 2019 Overall finding on purported adverse effects on human health of foods derived from GE crops On the basis of detailed examination of comparisons of currently commercialized GE with non GE foods in compositional analysis acute and chronic animal toxicity tests long term data on health of livestock fed GE foods and human epidemiological data the committee found no differences that implicate a higher risk to human health from GE foods than from their non GE counterparts Frequently asked questions on genetically modified foods World Health Organization Retrieved 30 August 2019 Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case by case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health In addition no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and where appropriate adequate post market monitoring should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods Haslberger AG July 2003 Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects Nature Biotechnology 21 7 739 41 doi 10 1038 nbt0703 739 PMID 12833088 S2CID 2533628 These principles dictate a case by case premarket assessment that includes an evaluation of both direct and unintended effects Some medical organizations including the British Medical Association advocate further caution based upon the precautionary principle Genetically modified foods and health a second interim statement PDF British Medical Association March 2004 Archived PDF from the original on 2 March 2020 Retrieved 30 August 2019 In our view the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods However safety concerns cannot as yet be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks it is prudent to err on the side of caution and above all learn from accumulating knowledge and experience Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment As with all novel foods safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case by case basis Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming the environment food safety and other potential health effects The Royal Society review 2002 concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences 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