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Architecture of Turkey

November 23, 2023

For pre-1923 Turkish architecture, see Ottoman architecture.

Architecture of Turkey or Turkish architecture in the republican period is the architecture practised in Turkey since the foundation of the republic in 1923. In the first years of the republic, Turkish architecture was influenced by Seljuk and Ottoman architecture, in particular during the First National Architectural Movement (also called the Turkish Neoclassical architecture movement). However, starting from the 1930s, architectural styles began to differ from traditional architecture, also as a result of an increasing number of foreign architects being invited to work in the country, mostly from Germany and Austria.[1] The Second World War was a period of isolation, during which the Second National Architectural Movement emerged. Similar to Fascist architecture, the movement aimed to create a modern but nationalistic architecture.[2]

Yalikavak Palmarina in Bodrum (2014) designed by Emre Arolat.

From the 1950s the nation became more internationally connected, which enabled Turkish architects to experiment with new styles and become increasingly inspired by their counterparts in the rest of the world. However, they were largely constrained by the lack of technological infrastructure or insufficient financial resources until the 1980s.[3] Thereafter, the liberalization of the economy and the shift towards export-led growth[4] paved the way for the private sector to become the leading influence on architecture in Turkey.

1920s to early 1930s: First national architectural movement edit

For pre-1923 Turkish architecture, see Ottoman architecture.
Main article: First national architectural movement

The First National Architectural Movement (Turkish: Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı) was an architectural movement led by Turkish architects Vedat Tek (1873–1942) and Mimar Kemaleddin Bey (1870–1927). Followers of the movement wanted to create a new and "national" architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. The movement was also labelled Turkish Neoclassical architecture, or the National Architectural Renaissance.[5] Other prominent followers of this movement were Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–1982) and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953).[6] Notable buildings from this era are the Istanbul Main Post Office (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments (1919–1922),[7] Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926),[8] State Art and Sculpture Museum (1927–1930),[9] Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928),[10] Bebek Mosque,[11] and Kamer Hatun Mosque.[12][13]

Italian architect Raimondo D'Aronco served as the chief palace architect to the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II in Istanbul for 16 years. D'Aronco designed and built a large number of buildings of various types in Istanbul. The stylistic features of his works can be classified in three groups: Revivalism, reinterpretation of the Ottoman forms, Art Nouveau and Vienna Secession. Art Nouveau was first introduced to Istanbul by D'Aronco, and his designs reveal that he drew freely on Byzantine and Ottoman decorations. D'Aronco also mixed Western and Oriental styles in his work, which was likewise a notable characteristic of the designs of Alexander Vallaury in the same period.[14]

1930s to 1950s: Modernism and foreign influence edit

See also: Bauhaus and Art Deco

The Bauhaus style Florya Atatürk Marine Mansion (1935) and the Art Deco style Ankara Central Station (1937) are among the notable examples of this era.[15][16] As there were not enough architects in Turkey until the 1950s, various architects were invited by the government from Germany, Austria, Switzerland and France, in order to manage the rapid construction of the new capital Ankara. About 40 architects and urban planners designed and oversaw various projects (mostly in Ankara, and to a lesser extent in Istanbul and Izmir) between 1924 and 1942. Among them were Gudrun Baudisch, Rudolf Belling, Paul Bonatz, Ernst Arnold Egli, Martin Elsaesser, Anton Hanak, Franz Hillinger, Clemens Holzmeister, Henri Prost, Paolo Vietti-Violi, Werner Issel, Hermann Jansen, Theodor Jost, Heinrich Krippel, Carl Christoph Lörcher, Robert Oerley, Bernhard Pfau, Bruno Taut and Josef Thorak.[1][2]

Selected examples of buildings from this era are the Bauhaus style Florya Atatürk Marine Mansion (1935) designed by Seyfi Arkan; the Art Deco style Ankara railway station (1937) designed by Şekip Akalın; the Court of Cassation building (1933–35) designed by Clemens Holzmeister; the Faculty of Languages, History and Geography building (1937) of Ankara University designed by Bruno Taut; and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey building (1938–63) designed by Clemens Holzmeister.[15]

Second national architectural movement edit

See also: Stripped Classicism

The Stripped Classicism movement of the late 1930s and early 1940s in Europe and North America sought a modern interpretation of Neoclassical architecture. The movement had a particularly notable impact on Fascist architecture in Italy and Nazi architecture in Germany, which aimed to develop the modern versions of the architecture of the Roman (Italy) and Holy Roman (Germany) empires, according to their ideologies. In the same period, there was a trend towards creating a new national architecture in Turkey, which was called the Second National Architectural Movement (Turkish: İkinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı).[2][17][18] The foreign architects employed in Turkey in this period (especially from Germany and Austria) played an important role in the introduction of this architectural movement and its style. The pioneers of the movement in Turkey were Sedad Hakkı Eldem, Ekrem Hakkı Ayverdi[19] and Emin Halid Onat. To lead this movement, Professor Sedad Hakkı Eldem held National Architecture seminars at Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, focusing on traditional Turkish house styles.[20]

Like their contemporary equivalents in Europe and North America, the government buildings of this style in Ankara and Istanbul typically had large proportions (high ceilings, high windows, etc.) to give the impression of a strong state authority. Some of them also had monumental facade designs reminiscent of Neoclassical architecture; but with more modern and plain rectangular shapes, symmetry, simplicity, and a general lack of ornateness.

Some of the buildings in this style are the Ankara Opera House, designed by Şevki Balmumcu (1933–34) and renovated by Paul Bonatz (1946–47); the TCDD General Headquarters Building designed by Bedri Uçar in 1938; Istanbul University Faculty of Science and Faculty of Literature buildings (1944–52); Anıtkabir (1944–53); Istanbul Radio Headquarters (1945–49); Şişli Mosque (1945–49); and the Çanakkale Martyrs' Memorial (1954–60). The movement was particularly influential between 1935 and 1950. From the 1950s, the influence of this style diminished due to the next wave, especially International Style and Rationalism.[20]

1950s and more Western influence edit

See also: Rationalism (architecture) and International Style (architecture)

At the beginning of the 1950s, a new generation of architects such as Nevzat Erol, Turgut Cansever, Abdurrahman Hancı, Cengiz Bektaş, Hayati Tabanlıoğlu, Enver Tokay, İlhan Tayman and Yılmaz Sanlı became more influential in the architectural arena. These were architects who either studied in Europe or had information of the modernist architecture of the time. Their quest for modernist architecture was in line with the International Style and Rationalism. However, the development of the Turkish economy was an important factor as well. Even though Turkish architects were able to follow up on the modern design of important architects of the time, they were constrained by the lack of technological infrastructure or insufficient financial resources.[3][13]

Selected examples of buildings from this era are the Anadolu Club Hotel (1951–1957) in Büyükada designed by Turgut Cansever and Abdurrahman Hancı; Hilton Istanbul Bosphorus (1952–1955) designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and Sedad Hakkı Eldem; Istanbul Municipality Headquarters (1953–1960) designed by Nevzat Erol; Emek Business Center (1959–1965) in Ankara designed by Enver Tokay and İlhan Tayman; and Tekel Headquarters (1958–1960) in Istanbul designed by Yılmaz Sanlı and İlhan Tayman.[3]

One of the most important developments of this period was the establishment of the Chamber of Architects of Turkey in 1954. Various professional organizations for architects had existed beforehand, but there were no laws for the architectural profession until 1954.[21] Brutalist architecture become popular during 1950s, the work of Behruz Çinici in Middle East Technical University is the best example of this era.

1960s and 1970s edit

Following the 1960 coup d'état, Turkey endured various kinds of political and economic crises which affected the construction industry as well as the architectural sector. Despite these hardships, architects were able to design some important buildings. Abandoning Rationalism, Turkish architects tried to design their buildings in more flexible and fragmented forms. Important works from this period are the Vakıflar Hotel in Istanbul (1968, today the Ceylan Intercontinental Hotel), Middle East Technical University Campuses (1961) in Ankara, Istanbul Manufacturers' Market (1959), Turkish Historical Society Building (1967), Grand Ankara Hotel (1960, today the Rixos Grand Ankara Hotel) and Atatürk Cultural Center (1969) in Istanbul.[22][23]

As a result of economic and social turbulence, architecture in Turkey suffered also in the 1970s. There were no significant breakthroughs during this period. Some important designs from the 1970s are the Turkish Language Association Building (1972), Atatürk Library (1973) and Abdi İpekçi Arena (1979).[24]

1980s and 1990s edit

In January 1980, the government of Prime Minister Süleyman Demirel began implementing a far-reaching reform program designed by then Undersecretary of the Prime Ministry Turgut Özal to shift Turkey's economy toward export-led growth. These reforms had a positive effect on the construction industry and architecture.[4] New methods such as prefabrication and curtain wall systems were introduced to Turkish architects and contractors in the 1980s. In addition, steel, aluminum, plastic and glass production increased, which allowed architects to free themselves from rigid forms.

 
Panoramic view of Istanbul.

Until the 1980s, the government sector was the leading client when it came to architecture and construction. However, the liberalization of the economy paved the way for the private sector to become the leading influence. Notable architects from this period include Behruz Çinici, Merih Karaaslan, Sevinç Hadi, Şandor Hadi, Ersen Gürsel, Mehmet Çubuk, Doğan Tekeli, Sami Sisa, Emre Arolat, Murat Tabanlıoğlu, Melkan Tabanlıoğlu, Hüsrev Tayla, Doğan Hasol, Atilla Yücel, Sema Soygeniş, Murat Soygeniş and Kaya Arıkoğlu, among others.[23][24][25]

21st century edit

 
A view of Maslak business district in Istanbul, 2007. Istanbul's skyline has changed significantly since the 1990s.[26][27]

When architects and structural engineers collaborate they can design buildings which are more sustainable.[28]

Earthquakes edit

In earthquake-prone areas, all buildings built to 20th century standards may be dangerous,[29] but shortly after the 1999 İzmit earthquake, which killed over 17 thousand people, a new seismic code was brought into force to protect against earthquakes in Turkey.[30][31] Also following that earthquake a so-called earthquake tax was raised during the government of Bülent Ecevit.[32] Initially thought as a temporary tax, it became permanent.[30] The aim of the tax is to prepare for earthquake related damage.[32][33][need quotation to verify] In 2007 the seismic code was strengthened.[34][35] However, it is alleged that builders often ignored the rules due to corruption.[36] After the 2011 Van earthquakes Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said: "Municipalities, constructors and supervisors should now see that their negligence amounts to murder."[37] In 2018, a zoning law gave amnesties to some unlicensed buildings and some with unlicensed floors.[37]

Further resilience over the 2007 code was mandated in the 2018 Turkish Seismic Code, which took effect on 1 January 2019.[34][38] Improvements included design supervision and site specific hazard definitions,[39] and for new buildings in vulnerable regions required rebar in high quality concrete.[40] Beams and columns in those buildings must be in the right place to properly absorb shaking.[40] The code is said by foreign experts to be very modern and similar to US codes.[41] However, these 21st century building codes were not very well enforced.[29]

In a bid to shore up support going into the 2018 Turkish presidential election, the government offered amnesties for violations of the building code, allowing non-compliance to continue with the payment of a fee.[42] This poor enforcement of seismic codes was a contributing factor to the devastation of the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes in which over 42,000 people died in Turkey.[31] There were high incidences of support column failure leading to pancake collapses, which complicated rescue efforts. Experts lamented the practice would turn cities into graveyards.[43] The 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake collapsed many older buildings and some recent ones:[44] the Environment and Urbanization Ministry is assessing the damage.[45]

Unreinforced masonry buildings are vulnerable.[46] Many older buildings in Istanbul are vulnerable to pancake collapses.[47] Retrofitting old buildings is possible but expensive.[47] Although over 3 million housing units nationwide were strengthened in the 2 decades before 2023, as of that year many apartment blocks do not meet 21st century standards.[44] Building with wood has been suggested.[48]

Climate change edit

This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey § Buildings.[edit]

Buildings are the largest energy consumers, and there are substantial opportunities for energy savings in both new build and renovations.[49] A typical residential building emits almost 50 kgCO2eq/m2/year, mostly due to the energy used by residents.[50] The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has said that more could be done to improve the energy efficiency of buildings, and that tax incentives offered for this would create jobs.[51]: 62  Turkey was a co-leader of the group discussing zero-carbon buildings at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, and the city of Eskişehir has pledged to convert all existing buildings to zero emissions by 2050.[52][53] Such energy efficiency improvements can be made in the same programme as increasing resilience to earthquakes in Turkey.[54] However, in 2020 gas was subsidized.[55]: 18  Increasing the proportion of passive houses has been suggested,[56] as has adopting some EU building standards.[57]

In rural areas without a piped gas supply, heat pumps could be an alternative to wood, coal and bottled gas: but buying a heat pump is rare as it is very expensive for householders as there is no subsidy.[58]: 29  However, owners of larger properties such as shopping centres, schools and government buildings have shown more interest.[59]

Direct geothermal heating (not to be confused with heat pumps) installed capacity totaled 3.5 GW thermal (GWt) in 2020, with the potential for 60 GWt, but it is unclear how much is low-carbon.[60] According to a 2020 report commissioned by the environment ministry and the EBRD further research on Turkish geothermal is needed: specifically how to limit carbon dioxide venting to the atmosphere.[61]: 283, 284 

There is no data on the carbon intensity of cement.[62]: 13  Emissions from cement production could be lessened by reducing its clinker content[63]—for example, by making Limestone Calcined Clay Cement, which is only half clinker. The second-largest reduction could be made by switching half the fuel from hard coal and petroleum coke (petcoke) to a mixture of rubber from waste tires, refuse-derived fuel and biomass.[64] Although the country has enough of these materials, most cement kilns (there are 54[65]: 156 ) use coal, petcoke or lignite as their primary energy source.[65]: 154  More cross-laminated timber could be used for building, instead of concrete.[66]

Further decarbonisation of cement production would depend heavily on carbon capture and storage (CCS).[67][68]: 109  Despite Turkey's earthquake risk, CCS may be technically feasible in a salt dome near Lake Tuz[69] or in Diyarbakır Province.[70]

See also edit

Notes edit

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  13. ^ a b "Mass Housing Development by a Government Agency and the Politics of Urbanization" (PDF). 14th International Planning History Conference submission by Nilufer Baturayoglu Yoney and Yildiz Salman, Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture, Turkey. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
  14. ^ Manfredi Nicoletti, Raimondo D'Aronco, Milano 1955.
  15. ^ a b Cengizkan, Ali (2010). "The production of a mise en scène for a nation and its subjects: Clemens Holzmeister et al. in the Ministries Quarter for Ankara, Turkey". The Journal of Architecture. 15 (6): 731–770. doi:10.1080/13602365.2011.533539. S2CID 144989288.
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  27. ^ Albayrak, Ayla (11 January 2012). "New Tower to Dwarf Istanbul's Minarets". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
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  29. ^ a b "In Turkey and Syria, outdated building methods all but assured disaster from a quake". NPR.
  30. ^ a b Baysan, Lauren Said-Moorhouse,Isil Sariyuce,Zeena Saifi,Reyhan (8 February 2023). "Emotions run high in Turkey amid questions over state response to deadly quake". CNN. Retrieved 11 February 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ a b "Turkey's earthquakes show the deadly extent of construction scams". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
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  33. ^ "Erdogan zwackte Steuergeld ab, statt Häuser gegen Erdbeben zu sichern". Focus. 8 February 2023.
  34. ^ a b "Turkey: New building code for earthquake resilience". www.preventionweb.net. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
  35. ^ "2007 Turkish Earthquake Code" (PDF).
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  37. ^ a b Beaumont, Peter (7 February 2023). "Turkey earthquake death toll prompts questions over building standards". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
  38. ^ "International-Workshop-on-Advanced-Materials-and-Innovative-Systems-in-Structural-Engineering-Seismic-Practices-New-Improvements-in-the-2018-Turkish-Seismic-Code".
  39. ^ Sucuoğlu, Haluk. "New Improvements in the 2019 Building Earthquake Code of Turkey".
  40. ^ a b "Turkey earthquake: Anger at building standards grows". BBC News. 8 February 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
  41. ^ Pettersson, Lauren Said-Moorhouse,Christian Edwards,Krystina Shveda,Henrik (7 February 2023). "The earthquake in Turkey is one of the deadliest this century. Here's why". CNN. Retrieved 9 February 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ "Turkey's lax policing of building codes known before quake". AP NEWS. 10 February 2023. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
  43. ^ "Turkey earthquake failures leave Erdogan looking vulnerable". BBC News. 11 February 2023. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
  44. ^ a b "The earthquakes in Turkey and Syria have shaken both countries". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  45. ^ "Turkey earthquake: Anger at building standards grows". BBC News. 8 February 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
  46. ^ "Practices of Brick Masonry Construction in Turkey and their Seismic Behaviors during Earthquakes".
  47. ^ a b "Earthquake in Turkey a warning for Istanbul, which faces much larger death toll if quake strikes".
  48. ^ "Hollanda'ya depreme dayanıklı konut yapmayı öğreten Türkiye neden bu kadar fazla yıkım yaşıyor?". BBC News Türkçe (in Turkish). 10 February 2023. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  49. ^ Ayas, Ceren (August 2020). Decarbonization of Turkey's economy: long-term strategies and immediate challenges (Report). Climate Action Network Europe, SEE Change Net, TEPAV. TR2015/DG/01/A5-02/147A.
  50. ^ Atmaca, Adem; Atmaca, Nihat (15 March 2022). "Carbon footprint assessment of residential buildings, a review and a case study in Turkey". Journal of Cleaner Production. 340: 130691. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130691. ISSN 0959-6526. S2CID 246561830.
  51. ^ OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey 2021 (Report). OECD. 2021. ISSN 1999-0480.
  52. ^ "12 global initiatives to beat back climate threats". Reuters. 23 September 2019. from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2019.
  53. ^ Renewables 2020 Global Status Report. REN21 (Report). p. 62. ISBN 978-3-948393-00-7. from the original on 24 May 2019. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  54. ^ "World Bank Provides $265 million Boost to Improve Earthquake Resilience and Energy Efficiency of Public Buildings in Turkey". World Bank. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
  55. ^ "Still Not Getting Energy Prices Right: A Global and Country Update of Fossil Fuel Subsidies". IMF. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
  56. ^ "Sıfır Enerji ve Pasif Ev Derneği" [Zero energy and passive house association]. Sıfır Enerji ve Pasif Ev Derneği – SEPEV (in Turkish). from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  57. ^ Hatipoglu, Hatice Kalfaoglu; Cetin, Rukiye; Hatipoglu, Atilla (21 September 2022). "Sustainable housing: Analysis of energy performance potential in Turkey with translation of building standards of Austria". Građevinar (in Croatian). 74 (8): 647–659. doi:10.14256/JCE.3332.2021. ISSN 0350-2465. S2CID 252447067.
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  59. ^ Cetin, Aysegul; Kadioglu, Yusuf Kagan; Paksoy, Halime (1 April 2020). "Underground thermal heat storage and ground source heat pump activities in Turkey". Solar Energy. 200: 22–28. Bibcode:2020SoEn..200...22C. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2018.12.055. ISSN 0038-092X. S2CID 127200801.
  60. ^ "Turkey only outranked by China in direct utilization of geothermal energy". Think GeoEnergy – Geothermal Energy News. 4 April 2020. from the original on 27 April 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
  61. ^ Stantec Mühendislik ve Müşavirlik Ltd.Şti (December 2020). Cumulative Impact Assessment of Geothermal Resources in Turkey. www.jeotermaletki.com (Report). Ministry of Environment and Urbanization of the Republic of Turkey and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
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References edit

  • Holod, Renata (2005). Modern Turkish architecture. Ankara: Chamber of Architects of Turkey.
  • Bozdoğan, Sibel (2002). Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic. University of Washington Press.

Further reading edit

  • Sibel Bozdoğan and Esra Akcan, "Turkey: modern architectures in history", Reaktion Books, 2012.

External links edit

 
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November 23, 2023
architecture, turkey, 1923, turkish, architecture, ottoman, architecture, turkish, architecture, republican, period, architecture, practised, turkey, since, foundation, republic, 1923, first, years, republic, turkish, architecture, influenced, seljuk, ottoman,. For pre 1923 Turkish architecture see Ottoman architecture Architecture of Turkey or Turkish architecture in the republican period is the architecture practised in Turkey since the foundation of the republic in 1923 In the first years of the republic Turkish architecture was influenced by Seljuk and Ottoman architecture in particular during the First National Architectural Movement also called the Turkish Neoclassical architecture movement However starting from the 1930s architectural styles began to differ from traditional architecture also as a result of an increasing number of foreign architects being invited to work in the country mostly from Germany and Austria 1 The Second World War was a period of isolation during which the Second National Architectural Movement emerged Similar to Fascist architecture the movement aimed to create a modern but nationalistic architecture 2 Yalikavak Palmarina in Bodrum 2014 designed by Emre Arolat From the 1950s the nation became more internationally connected which enabled Turkish architects to experiment with new styles and become increasingly inspired by their counterparts in the rest of the world However they were largely constrained by the lack of technological infrastructure or insufficient financial resources until the 1980s 3 Thereafter the liberalization of the economy and the shift towards export led growth 4 paved the way for the private sector to become the leading influence on architecture in Turkey Contents 1 1920s to early 1930s First national architectural movement 2 1930s to 1950s Modernism and foreign influence 2 1 Second national architectural movement 3 1950s and more Western influence 4 1960s and 1970s 5 1980s and 1990s 6 21st century 6 1 Earthquakes 6 2 Climate change 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links1920s to early 1930s First national architectural movement editFor pre 1923 Turkish architecture see Ottoman architecture Main article First national architectural movement The First National Architectural Movement Turkish Birinci Ulusal Mimarlik Akimi was an architectural movement led by Turkish architects Vedat Tek 1873 1942 and Mimar Kemaleddin Bey 1870 1927 Followers of the movement wanted to create a new and national architecture which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture The movement was also labelled Turkish Neoclassical architecture or the National Architectural Renaissance 5 Other prominent followers of this movement were Arif Hikmet Koyunoglu 1888 1982 and Giulio Mongeri 1873 1953 6 Notable buildings from this era are the Istanbul Main Post Office 1905 1909 Tayyare Apartments 1919 1922 7 Istanbul 4th Vakif Han 1911 1926 8 State Art and Sculpture Museum 1927 1930 9 Ethnography Museum of Ankara 1925 1928 10 Bebek Mosque 11 and Kamer Hatun Mosque 12 13 Italian architect Raimondo D Aronco served as the chief palace architect to the Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid II in Istanbul for 16 years D Aronco designed and built a large number of buildings of various types in Istanbul The stylistic features of his works can be classified in three groups Revivalism reinterpretation of the Ottoman forms Art Nouveau and Vienna Secession Art Nouveau was first introduced to Istanbul by D Aronco and his designs reveal that he drew freely on Byzantine and Ottoman decorations D Aronco also mixed Western and Oriental styles in his work which was likewise a notable characteristic of the designs of Alexander Vallaury in the same period 14 nbsp Istanbul Main Post Office in Sirkeci designed by Vedat Tek 1905 1909 nbsp Istanbul Main Post Office interior nbsp Old Fatih Municipality Building built by Yervant Terziyan nbsp Istanbul 4th Vakif Han in Eminonu designed by Mimar Kemaleddin Bey 1911 1926 nbsp Tayyare Apartments in Laleli Istanbul designed by Mimar Kemaleddin Bey 1919 1922 nbsp First Ziraat Bank Headquarters in Ankara nbsp First Ziraat Bank Headquarters in Ankara designed by Giulio Mongeri 1925 1929 nbsp State Art and Sculpture Museum in Ankara designed by Arif Hikmet Koyunoglu 1927 1930 nbsp Ethnography Museum of Ankara was designed by architect Arif Hikmet Koyunoglu 1925 1928 nbsp Ankara Palas Hotel nbsp Denizli Gazi Mustafa Kemal Elementary School 1932 1930s to 1950s Modernism and foreign influence editSee also Bauhaus and Art Deco The Bauhaus style Florya Ataturk Marine Mansion 1935 and the Art Deco style Ankara Central Station 1937 are among the notable examples of this era 15 16 As there were not enough architects in Turkey until the 1950s various architects were invited by the government from Germany Austria Switzerland and France in order to manage the rapid construction of the new capital Ankara About 40 architects and urban planners designed and oversaw various projects mostly in Ankara and to a lesser extent in Istanbul and Izmir between 1924 and 1942 Among them were Gudrun Baudisch Rudolf Belling Paul Bonatz Ernst Arnold Egli Martin Elsaesser Anton Hanak Franz Hillinger Clemens Holzmeister Henri Prost Paolo Vietti Violi Werner Issel Hermann Jansen Theodor Jost Heinrich Krippel Carl Christoph Lorcher Robert Oerley Bernhard Pfau Bruno Taut and Josef Thorak 1 2 Selected examples of buildings from this era are the Bauhaus style Florya Ataturk Marine Mansion 1935 designed by Seyfi Arkan the Art Deco style Ankara railway station 1937 designed by Sekip Akalin the Court of Cassation building 1933 35 designed by Clemens Holzmeister the Faculty of Languages History and Geography building 1937 of Ankara University designed by Bruno Taut and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey building 1938 63 designed by Clemens Holzmeister 15 nbsp Designed by Seyfi Arkan Florya Ataturk Marine Mansion 1935 is a notable Bauhaus style building in Istanbul nbsp Ankara Opera House designed by Sevki Balmumcu 1933 34 and renovated by Paul Bonatz 1946 47 nbsp Ankara Central Station 1937 designed by Sekip Akalin in the Art Deco style nbsp Designed by Sekip Akalin Ankara Central Station 1937 is a notable Art Deco design of its era nbsp The Faculty of Languages History and Geography building 1937 of Ankara University nbsp The Faculty of Languages History and Geography building 1937 of Ankara University was designed by Bruno Taut Second national architectural movement edit See also Stripped Classicism The Stripped Classicism movement of the late 1930s and early 1940s in Europe and North America sought a modern interpretation of Neoclassical architecture The movement had a particularly notable impact on Fascist architecture in Italy and Nazi architecture in Germany which aimed to develop the modern versions of the architecture of the Roman Italy and Holy Roman Germany empires according to their ideologies In the same period there was a trend towards creating a new national architecture in Turkey which was called the Second National Architectural Movement Turkish Ikinci Ulusal Mimarlik Akimi 2 17 18 The foreign architects employed in Turkey in this period especially from Germany and Austria played an important role in the introduction of this architectural movement and its style The pioneers of the movement in Turkey were Sedad Hakki Eldem Ekrem Hakki Ayverdi 19 and Emin Halid Onat To lead this movement Professor Sedad Hakki Eldem held National Architecture seminars at Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University focusing on traditional Turkish house styles 20 Like their contemporary equivalents in Europe and North America the government buildings of this style in Ankara and Istanbul typically had large proportions high ceilings high windows etc to give the impression of a strong state authority Some of them also had monumental facade designs reminiscent of Neoclassical architecture but with more modern and plain rectangular shapes symmetry simplicity and a general lack of ornateness Some of the buildings in this style are the Ankara Opera House designed by Sevki Balmumcu 1933 34 and renovated by Paul Bonatz 1946 47 the TCDD General Headquarters Building designed by Bedri Ucar in 1938 Istanbul University Faculty of Science and Faculty of Literature buildings 1944 52 Anitkabir 1944 53 Istanbul Radio Headquarters 1945 49 Sisli Mosque 1945 49 and the Canakkale Martyrs Memorial 1954 60 The movement was particularly influential between 1935 and 1950 From the 1950s the influence of this style diminished due to the next wave especially International Style and Rationalism 20 nbsp The Faculty of Law building 1937 of Ankara University nbsp The Grand National Assembly of Turkey building 1938 63 in Ankara was designed by Clemens Holzmeister nbsp TCDD General Headquarters Building designed by Bedri Ucar 1939 41 nbsp The Halkevi in Mersin designed by Ertugrul Mentese 1944 46 nbsp Istanbul University Faculty of Science and Faculty of Literature Buildings designed by Sedad Hakki Eldem and Emin Halid Onat 1944 52 nbsp Istanbul University Faculty of Science and Faculty of Literature Buildings nbsp Anitkabir in Ankara designed by Emin Halid Onat and Ahmet Orhan Arda 1944 53 nbsp Istanbul Radio Hall designed by Dogan Erginbas Omer Guney and Ismail Utkular 1945 nbsp Canakkale Martyrs Memorial designed by Feridun Kip Dogan Erginbas and Ismail Utkular 1954 60 1950s and more Western influence editSee also Rationalism architecture and International Style architecture At the beginning of the 1950s a new generation of architects such as Nevzat Erol Turgut Cansever Abdurrahman Hanci Cengiz Bektas Hayati Tabanlioglu Enver Tokay Ilhan Tayman and Yilmaz Sanli became more influential in the architectural arena These were architects who either studied in Europe or had information of the modernist architecture of the time Their quest for modernist architecture was in line with the International Style and Rationalism However the development of the Turkish economy was an important factor as well Even though Turkish architects were able to follow up on the modern design of important architects of the time they were constrained by the lack of technological infrastructure or insufficient financial resources 3 13 Selected examples of buildings from this era are the Anadolu Club Hotel 1951 1957 in Buyukada designed by Turgut Cansever and Abdurrahman Hanci Hilton Istanbul Bosphorus 1952 1955 designed by Skidmore Owings amp Merrill and Sedad Hakki Eldem Istanbul Municipality Headquarters 1953 1960 designed by Nevzat Erol Emek Business Center 1959 1965 in Ankara designed by Enver Tokay and Ilhan Tayman and Tekel Headquarters 1958 1960 in Istanbul designed by Yilmaz Sanli and Ilhan Tayman 3 One of the most important developments of this period was the establishment of the Chamber of Architects of Turkey in 1954 Various professional organizations for architects had existed beforehand but there were no laws for the architectural profession until 1954 21 Brutalist architecture become popular during 1950s the work of Behruz Cinici in Middle East Technical University is the best example of this era nbsp Hilton Istanbul Bosphorus was designed in 1952 by SOM and Sedad Hakki Eldem nbsp Hilton Istanbul Bosphorus was designed in 1952 by SOM and Sedad Hakki Eldem nbsp Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality City Hall was designed in 1953 by Nevzat Erol nbsp InterContinental Hotel formerly Sheraton Istanbul was designed in 1959 by AHE and Rolf Gutbrod nbsp Middle East Technical University Rectorate Building nbsp Middle East Technical University Pedestrian Way nbsp Middle East Technical University Library nbsp Middle East Technical University Library nbsp Middle East Technical University Faculty of Architecture nbsp Middle East Technical University Rectorate Building nbsp Middle East Technical University Faculty of Architecture nbsp Middle East Technical University Faculty of Architecture nbsp Middle East Technical University Faculty of Architecture nbsp Riza Dervis House also known as Dervis Manizade Mansion built 1956 1957 is one of two buildings designed by Sedad Hakki Eldem that was realized on Buyukada nbsp Riza Dervis House Architect Sedad Hakki Eldem was inspired by modernist architecture which is evident not only in the architecture of the house but also in the simplicity of the garden and its furniture nbsp Riza Dervis House is considered an experimental project in rationalism a trend that became popular after World War II nbsp Riza Dervis House built in 1956 1957 nbsp Riza Dervis House built in 1956 1957 nbsp Riza Dervis House built in 1956 1957 nbsp Riza Dervis House built in 1956 19571960s and 1970s editFollowing the 1960 coup d etat Turkey endured various kinds of political and economic crises which affected the construction industry as well as the architectural sector Despite these hardships architects were able to design some important buildings Abandoning Rationalism Turkish architects tried to design their buildings in more flexible and fragmented forms Important works from this period are the Vakiflar Hotel in Istanbul 1968 today the Ceylan Intercontinental Hotel Middle East Technical University Campuses 1961 in Ankara Istanbul Manufacturers Market 1959 Turkish Historical Society Building 1967 Grand Ankara Hotel 1960 today the Rixos Grand Ankara Hotel and Ataturk Cultural Center 1969 in Istanbul 22 23 As a result of economic and social turbulence architecture in Turkey suffered also in the 1970s There were no significant breakthroughs during this period Some important designs from the 1970s are the Turkish Language Association Building 1972 Ataturk Library 1973 and Abdi Ipekci Arena 1979 24 nbsp Radisson Blu Hotel in Ankara originally built as Stad Oteli 1970 was designed in 1964 by Dogan Tekeli Sami Sisa and Metin Hepguler nbsp Ataturk Cultural Center 1969 on Taksim Square in Istanbul designed by Hayati Tabanlioglu nbsp The Bosphorus Bridge 1973 in Istanbul was designed in 1968 1970 by Gilbert Roberts and William Brown nbsp The Marmara Hotel 1976 at Taksim Square was designed in 1972 by Fatin Uran nbsp BDDK Building 1975 in Ankara originally the Turkiye Is Bankasi headquarters designed by Ayhan Boke and Yilmaz Sargin 1980s and 1990s editIn January 1980 the government of Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel began implementing a far reaching reform program designed by then Undersecretary of the Prime Ministry Turgut Ozal to shift Turkey s economy toward export led growth These reforms had a positive effect on the construction industry and architecture 4 New methods such as prefabrication and curtain wall systems were introduced to Turkish architects and contractors in the 1980s In addition steel aluminum plastic and glass production increased which allowed architects to free themselves from rigid forms nbsp Panoramic view of Istanbul Until the 1980s the government sector was the leading client when it came to architecture and construction However the liberalization of the economy paved the way for the private sector to become the leading influence Notable architects from this period include Behruz Cinici Merih Karaaslan Sevinc Hadi Sandor Hadi Ersen Gursel Mehmet Cubuk Dogan Tekeli Sami Sisa Emre Arolat Murat Tabanlioglu Melkan Tabanlioglu Husrev Tayla Dogan Hasol Atilla Yucel Sema Soygenis Murat Soygenis and Kaya Arikoglu among others 23 24 25 21st century edit nbsp A view of Maslak business district in Istanbul 2007 Istanbul s skyline has changed significantly since the 1990s 26 27 When architects and structural engineers collaborate they can design buildings which are more sustainable 28 Earthquakes edit In earthquake prone areas all buildings built to 20th century standards may be dangerous 29 but shortly after the 1999 Izmit earthquake which killed over 17 thousand people a new seismic code was brought into force to protect against earthquakes in Turkey 30 31 Also following that earthquake a so called earthquake tax was raised during the government of Bulent Ecevit 32 Initially thought as a temporary tax it became permanent 30 The aim of the tax is to prepare for earthquake related damage 32 33 need quotation to verify In 2007 the seismic code was strengthened 34 35 However it is alleged that builders often ignored the rules due to corruption 36 After the 2011 Van earthquakes Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan said Municipalities constructors and supervisors should now see that their negligence amounts to murder 37 In 2018 a zoning law gave amnesties to some unlicensed buildings and some with unlicensed floors 37 Further resilience over the 2007 code was mandated in the 2018 Turkish Seismic Code which took effect on 1 January 2019 34 38 Improvements included design supervision and site specific hazard definitions 39 and for new buildings in vulnerable regions required rebar in high quality concrete 40 Beams and columns in those buildings must be in the right place to properly absorb shaking 40 The code is said by foreign experts to be very modern and similar to US codes 41 However these 21st century building codes were not very well enforced 29 In a bid to shore up support going into the 2018 Turkish presidential election the government offered amnesties for violations of the building code allowing non compliance to continue with the payment of a fee 42 This poor enforcement of seismic codes was a contributing factor to the devastation of the 2023 Turkey Syria earthquakes in which over 42 000 people died in Turkey 31 There were high incidences of support column failure leading to pancake collapses which complicated rescue efforts Experts lamented the practice would turn cities into graveyards 43 The 2023 Turkey Syria earthquake collapsed many older buildings and some recent ones 44 the Environment and Urbanization Ministry is assessing the damage 45 Unreinforced masonry buildings are vulnerable 46 Many older buildings in Istanbul are vulnerable to pancake collapses 47 Retrofitting old buildings is possible but expensive 47 Although over 3 million housing units nationwide were strengthened in the 2 decades before 2023 as of that year many apartment blocks do not meet 21st century standards 44 Building with wood has been suggested 48 Climate change edit This section is an excerpt from Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey Buildings edit Buildings are the largest energy consumers and there are substantial opportunities for energy savings in both new build and renovations 49 A typical residential building emits almost 50 kgCO2eq m2 year mostly due to the energy used by residents 50 The Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD has said that more could be done to improve the energy efficiency of buildings and that tax incentives offered for this would create jobs 51 62 Turkey was a co leader of the group discussing zero carbon buildings at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit and the city of Eskisehir has pledged to convert all existing buildings to zero emissions by 2050 52 53 Such energy efficiency improvements can be made in the same programme as increasing resilience to earthquakes in Turkey 54 However in 2020 gas was subsidized 55 18 Increasing the proportion of passive houses has been suggested 56 as has adopting some EU building standards 57 In rural areas without a piped gas supply heat pumps could be an alternative to wood coal and bottled gas but buying a heat pump is rare as it is very expensive for householders as there is no subsidy 58 29 However owners of larger properties such as shopping centres schools and government buildings have shown more interest 59 Direct geothermal heating not to be confused with heat pumps installed capacity totaled 3 5 GW thermal GWt in 2020 with the potential for 60 GWt but it is unclear how much is low carbon 60 According to a 2020 report commissioned by the environment ministry and the EBRD further research on Turkish geothermal is needed specifically how to limit carbon dioxide venting to the atmosphere 61 283 284 There is no data on the carbon intensity of cement 62 13 Emissions from cement production could be lessened by reducing its clinker content 63 for example by making Limestone Calcined Clay Cement which is only half clinker The second largest reduction could be made by switching half the fuel from hard coal and petroleum coke petcoke to a mixture of rubber from waste tires refuse derived fuel and biomass 64 Although the country has enough of these materials most cement kilns there are 54 65 156 use coal petcoke or lignite as their primary energy source 65 154 More cross laminated timber could be used for building instead of concrete 66 Further decarbonisation of cement production would depend heavily on carbon capture and storage CCS 67 68 109 Despite Turkey s earthquake risk CCS may be technically feasible in a salt dome near Lake Tuz 69 or in Diyarbakir Province 70 nbsp Finansbank Tower and Istanbul Sapphire on Buyukdere Avenue nbsp Zorlu Center nbsp Avrupa Office in Atasehir nbsp Kanyon Shopping Mall nbsp Turkiye Is Bankasi Tower 1 1995 2000 in Levent Istanbul nbsp Istanbul Sapphire in Levent 2006 2011 is currently the tallest building in Istanbul and Turkey and the 4th tallest in Europe 71 nbsp Skyline of Ankara nbsp Skyline of Istanbul nbsp Skyline of Bursa nbsp Minicity Theme Park Antalya 2004 nbsp Raif Dinckok Yalova Cultural Center Yalova 2011 nbsp Maslak No 1 Office Building Istanbul 2014 nbsp Zorlu Center Istanbul 2013 nbsp St Regis Istanbul Istanbul 2015 nbsp Yalikavak Palmarina Bodrum 2014 nbsp Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport nbsp Sakirin Mosque The mosque s architect is believed to be the first woman to design a mosque 2009 nbsp Ahmed Hamdi Akseki Mosque nbsp Ahmed Hamdi Akseki Mosque nbsp Izmir Folkart Towers nbsp Kucuk Camlica TV Radio Tower nbsp Skyland Istanbul nbsp Le Meridien in Etiler Istanbul nbsp Mistral Office Tower in Izmir nbsp Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge 2016 nbsp Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge 2016 See also edit nbsp Architecture portalArchitecture of Istanbul Seljuk architecture Ottoman architecture List of Turkish architects List of tallest buildings in TurkeyNotes edit a b Deutschsprachige Architekten in der fruhen Republik in German Goethe Institut Retrieved 20 January 2012 a b c Michael Meeker Review of Bozdogan Sibel Modernism and Nation Building Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic H Net Reviews Humanities amp Social Sciences Online April 2003 Retrieved 2 February 2012 a b c The 1950s and Modernism ArchMuseum org Archived from the original on 13 September 2011 Retrieved 21 January 2012 a b Mapping Turkey Short History of Architecture www culturalexchange tr Archived from the original on 11 December 2011 Retrieved 22 January 2012 The Search for Identity 1st National Architecture Movement ArchMuseum org Archived from the original on 13 September 2011 Retrieved 20 January 2012 Architecture of the 30s in Turkey Dogan Hasol Arhitext Magazine June 2007 Archived from the original on 25 January 2014 Retrieved 20 January 2012 Tayyare Apartment Building AtelyeMim com Archived from the original on 17 June 2013 Retrieved 2 February 2012 XIX Yuzyis ve XX Yuzyil Basi Eminonu nde Osmanli Buro Hanlari PDF in Turkish Yildiz Teknik Universitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitusu Archived from the original PDF on 16 June 2012 Retrieved 27 February 2013 Ankara State Museum of Painting and Sculpture Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture Retrieved 2 February 2012 Ankara Ethnographical Museum Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture Retrieved 2 February 2012 Bebek Mosque ArchNet org Archived from the original on 3 January 2014 Retrieved 2 February 2012 Kemer Hatun Mosque Beyoglu Istanbul in Turkish MimarlikMuzesi org Archived from the original on 21 July 2012 Retrieved 2 February 2012 a b Mass Housing Development by a Government Agency and the Politics of Urbanization PDF 14th International Planning History Conference submission by Nilufer Baturayoglu Yoney and Yildiz Salman Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture Turkey Retrieved 2 February 2012 Manfredi Nicoletti Raimondo D Aronco Milano 1955 a b Cengizkan Ali 2010 The production of a mise en scene for a nation and its subjects Clemens Holzmeister et al in the Ministries Quarter for Ankara Turkey The Journal of Architecture 15 6 731 770 doi 10 1080 13602365 2011 533539 S2CID 144989288 Florya Ataturk Marine Mansion National Palaces of Turkey official web site Archived from the original on 10 November 2011 Retrieved 2 February 2012 Turkish Architectural Periodicals during the Republican Period 1923 1980 by Ilker Ozdel at Dokuz Eylul University Page 526 PDF Cankaya University Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 7 2 November 2010 Archived from the original PDF on 3 June 2013 Retrieved 5 February 2012 The Ethos of Architects Towards an Analysis of Architectural Practice in Turkey Thesis by Nilgun Fehim Kennedy September 2005 Page 23 PDF Middle East Technical University Turkey Retrieved 5 February 2012 Image of Ekrem Hakki Ayverdi dunyabizim com 25 April 2016 Retrieved 4 June 2023 a b A New Perspective on National Architecture 2nd National Architecture Movement ArchMuseum org Archived from the original on 13 September 2011 Retrieved 21 January 2012 Architectural Profession Around the World Turkey The International Union of Architects Retrieved 21 January 2012 permanent dead link 1960 s Turkish Architecture in the Republican Period ArchMuseum org Archived from the original on 13 September 2011 Retrieved 22 January 2012 a b Holod Renata January 2007 Modern Turkish Architecture Renata Holod Collections of Essays Academia edu University of Pennsylvania Retrieved 2 February 2012 a b 1970 s up to the Present Turkish Architecture in the Republican Period ArchMuseum org Archived from the original on 13 September 2011 Retrieved 22 January 2012 Women Architects Ustun Alsac Archived from the original on 21 February 2014 Retrieved 10 December 2013 Istanbul s Unprecedented Property Boom Causes Concern About Citizens Rights Voice of America Retrieved 2 February 2012 Albayrak Ayla 11 January 2012 New Tower to Dwarf Istanbul s Minarets Wall Street Journal Retrieved 2 February 2012 OZMEN Cengiz UNAY Ali Ihsan Architect Structural Engineer Collaboration In Sustainable Structural System Design a b In Turkey and Syria outdated building methods all but assured disaster from a quake NPR a b Baysan Lauren Said Moorhouse Isil Sariyuce Zeena Saifi Reyhan 8 February 2023 Emotions run high in Turkey amid questions over state response to deadly quake CNN Retrieved 11 February 2023 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Turkey s earthquakes show the deadly extent of construction scams The Economist ISSN 0013 0613 Retrieved 13 February 2023 a b Turkey quakes to cost nation 6 2 billion Minister Turkiye ReliefWeb reliefweb int Retrieved 11 February 2023 Erdogan zwackte Steuergeld ab statt Hauser gegen Erdbeben zu sichern Focus 8 February 2023 a b Turkey New building code for earthquake resilience www preventionweb net Retrieved 6 February 2023 2007 Turkish Earthquake Code PDF What made the earthquake in Turkey and Syria so deadly The Economist ISSN 0013 0613 Retrieved 8 February 2023 a b Beaumont Peter 7 February 2023 Turkey earthquake death toll prompts questions over building standards The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 8 February 2023 International Workshop on Advanced Materials and Innovative Systems in Structural Engineering Seismic Practices New Improvements in the 2018 Turkish Seismic Code Sucuoglu Haluk New Improvements in the 2019 Building Earthquake Code of Turkey a b Turkey earthquake Anger at building standards grows BBC News 8 February 2023 Retrieved 8 February 2023 Pettersson Lauren Said Moorhouse Christian Edwards Krystina Shveda Henrik 7 February 2023 The earthquake in Turkey is one of the deadliest this century Here s why CNN Retrieved 9 February 2023 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Turkey s lax policing of building codes known before quake AP NEWS 10 February 2023 Retrieved 12 February 2023 Turkey earthquake failures leave Erdogan looking vulnerable BBC News 11 February 2023 Retrieved 12 February 2023 a b The earthquakes in Turkey and Syria have shaken both countries The Economist ISSN 0013 0613 Retrieved 10 February 2023 Turkey earthquake Anger at building standards grows BBC News 8 February 2023 Retrieved 9 February 2023 Practices of Brick Masonry Construction in Turkey and their Seismic Behaviors during Earthquakes a b Earthquake in Turkey a warning for Istanbul which faces much larger death toll if quake strikes Hollanda ya depreme dayanikli konut yapmayi ogreten Turkiye neden bu kadar fazla yikim yasiyor BBC News Turkce in Turkish 10 February 2023 Retrieved 13 February 2023 Ayas Ceren August 2020 Decarbonization of Turkey s economy long term strategies and immediate challenges Report Climate Action Network Europe SEE Change Net TEPAV TR2015 DG 01 A5 02 147A Atmaca Adem Atmaca Nihat 15 March 2022 Carbon footprint assessment of residential buildings a review and a case study in Turkey Journal of Cleaner Production 340 130691 doi 10 1016 j jclepro 2022 130691 ISSN 0959 6526 S2CID 246561830 OECD Economic Surveys Turkey 2021 Report OECD 2021 ISSN 1999 0480 12 global initiatives to beat back climate threats Reuters 23 September 2019 Archived from the original on 27 September 2019 Retrieved 27 September 2019 Renewables 2020 Global Status Report REN21 Report p 62 ISBN 978 3 948393 00 7 Archived from the original on 24 May 2019 Retrieved 30 September 2020 World Bank Provides 265 million Boost to Improve Earthquake Resilience and Energy Efficiency of Public Buildings in Turkey World Bank Retrieved 10 June 2021 Still Not Getting Energy Prices Right A Global and Country Update of Fossil Fuel Subsidies IMF Retrieved 6 October 2021 Sifir Enerji ve Pasif Ev Dernegi Zero energy and passive house association Sifir Enerji ve Pasif Ev Dernegi SEPEV in Turkish Archived from the original on 3 December 2020 Retrieved 7 March 2021 Hatipoglu Hatice Kalfaoglu Cetin Rukiye Hatipoglu Atilla 21 September 2022 Sustainable housing Analysis of energy performance potential in Turkey with translation of building standards of Austria Građevinar in Croatian 74 8 647 659 doi 10 14256 JCE 3332 2021 ISSN 0350 2465 S2CID 252447067 Turkey s Strategic Energy Efficiency Plan an Ex Ante Impact Assessment of the Residential Sector ResearchGate Retrieved 25 August 2021 Cetin Aysegul Kadioglu Yusuf Kagan Paksoy Halime 1 April 2020 Underground thermal heat storage and ground source heat pump activities in Turkey Solar Energy 200 22 28 Bibcode 2020SoEn 200 22C doi 10 1016 j solener 2018 12 055 ISSN 0038 092X S2CID 127200801 Turkey only outranked by China in direct utilization of geothermal energy Think GeoEnergy Geothermal Energy News 4 April 2020 Archived from the original on 27 April 2020 Retrieved 29 April 2020 Stantec Muhendislik ve Musavirlik Ltd Sti December 2020 Cumulative Impact Assessment of Geothermal Resources in Turkey www jeotermaletki com Report Ministry of Environment and Urbanization of the Republic of Turkey and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development Turkey 2020 PDF Climate Transparency Cement Fuels amp Technologies International Energy Agency Retrieved 23 August 2021 Abstract on the potential GHG emissions reduction in Turkey through the cement industry PDF Cementis GmbH Archived PDF from the original on 21 March 2019 Retrieved 21 March 2019 a b Turkish Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990 2021 TurkStat report Turkish Statistical Institute Technical report 14 April 2023 Promoting Low Cost Energy Efficient Wooden Buildings in Turkey PDF Global Environment Facility Archived PDF from the original on 1 August 2020 Retrieved 15 September 2019 Decarbonization of industrial sectors the next frontier McKinsey Archived from the original on 28 July 2018 Retrieved 17 September 2018 Bill Gates 2021 How to Avoid a Climate Disaster Penguin Random House Glomazic Rade Raptsun Mykola EU Carbon Capture and Storage Directive Preliminary Regulatory Impact Assessment Pre RIA PDF Archived PDF from the original on 30 April 2019 Retrieved 30 April 2019 Firtina Ertis Irem Application of Multi criteria Decision Making for Geological Carbon Dioxide Storage Area in Turkey Anadolu University Journal of Science and Technology A Applied Sciences and Engineering Archived from the original on 30 April 2019 Retrieved 17 June 2019 Istanbul Sapphire E Architect co uk 10 November 2011 Retrieved 2 February 2012 References editHolod Renata 2005 Modern Turkish architecture Ankara Chamber of Architects of Turkey Bozdogan Sibel 2002 Modernism and Nation Building Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic University of Washington Press Further reading editSibel Bozdogan and Esra Akcan Turkey modern architectures in history Reaktion Books 2012 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Architecture of Turkey Turkish Architecture in the Republican Period English Cumhuriyet donemi mimarligindan bir panorama Turkish Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Architecture of Turkey amp oldid 1183864750, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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