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Andrew Jackson

December 18, 2023

This article is about the seventh president of the United States. For other uses, see Andrew Jackson (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Andrew Johnson.

Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, planter, general, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before his presidency, he gained fame as a general in the U.S. Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress. Often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states, Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies, particularly his treatment of Native Americans.

Andrew Jackson
Portrait, c. 1835
7th President of the United States
In office
March 4, 1829 – March 4, 1837
Vice President
Preceded byJohn Quincy Adams
Succeeded byMartin Van Buren
United States Senator
from Tennessee
In office
March 4, 1823 – October 14, 1825
Preceded byJohn Williams
Succeeded byHugh Lawson White
In office
September 26, 1797 – April 1, 1798
Preceded byWilliam Cocke
Succeeded byDaniel Smith
Federal Military Commissioner of Florida
In office
March 10, 1821 – December 31, 1821
Appointed byJames Monroe
Preceded by
Succeeded byWilliam Pope Duval (as Territorial Governor)
Justice of the Tennessee Superior Court
In office
June 1798 – June 1804
Preceded byHowell Tatum
Succeeded byJohn Overton
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Tennessee's at-large district
In office
December 4, 1796 – September 26, 1797
Preceded byJames White (Delegate from the Southwest Territory)
Succeeded byWilliam C. C. Claiborne
Personal details
Born(1767-03-15)March 15, 1767
Waxhaw Settlement between North Carolina and South Carolina, British America
DiedJune 8, 1845(1845-06-08) (aged 78)
Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.
Resting placeThe Hermitage
Political partyDemocratic (1828–1845)
Other political
affiliations
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1794; died 1828)​
Children2, including Lyncoya
Occupation
  • Politician
  • lawyer
  • general
Awards
Signature
Military service
Branch/serviceUnited States Army
Rank
UnitSouth Carolina Militia (1780–81)
Tennessee Militia (1792–1821)
United States Army (1814-1821)
Battles/wars
See list

Jackson was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War. He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards. He briefly served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate, representing Tennessee. After resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Superior Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage, becoming a wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African American slaves during his lifetime. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia, and was elected its commander. He led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and negotiating the Treaty of Fort Jackson that required the indigenous Creek population to surrender vast tracts of present-day Alabama and Georgia. In the concurrent war against the British, Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero. He later commanded U.S. forces in the First Seminole War, which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824. He won a plurality of the popular and electoral vote, but no candidate won the electoral majority. With the help of Henry Clay, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election. Jackson's supporters alleged that there was a "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party.

Jackson ran again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. In 1830, he signed the Indian Removal Act. This act, which has been described as ethnic cleansing, displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths. Jackson faced a challenge to the integrity of the federal union when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government. He threatened the use of military force to enforce the tariff, but the crisis was defused when it was amended. In 1832, he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States, arguing that it was a corrupt institution. After a lengthy struggle, the Bank was dismantled. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt. He survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president. In one of his final presidential acts, he recognized the Republic of Texas.

After leaving office, Jackson supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk, as well as the annexation of Texas. Jackson's legacy remains controversial, and opinions are frequently polarized. Supporters characterize him as a defender of democracy and the Constitution, while critics point to his reputation as a demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him. Jackson's presidency has consistently been ranked as above average, although his reputation has declined since the late 20th century.

Early life and education

Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaws region of the Carolinas. His parents were Scots-Irish colonists Andrew Jackson and Elizabeth Hutchinson, Presbyterians who had emigrated from Ulster, Ireland, in 1765.[1] Jackson's father was born in Carrickfergus, County Antrim, around 1738,[2] and his ancestors had crossed into Northern Ireland from Scotland after the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.[3] Jackson had two older brothers who came with his parents from Ireland, Hugh (born 1763) and Robert (born 1764).[4][3] Elizabeth had a strong hatred of the British that she passed on to her sons.[5]

Jackson's exact birthplace is unclear. Jackson's father died at the age of 29 in a logging accident while clearing land in February 1767, three weeks before his son Andrew was born.[4] Afterwards, Elizabeth and her three sons moved in with her sister and brother-in-law, Jane and James Crawford.[6] Jackson later stated that he was born on the Crawford plantation,[7] which is in Lancaster County, South Carolina, but second-hand evidence suggests that he might have been born at another uncle's home in North Carolina.[6]

When Jackson was young, Elizabeth thought he might become a minister and paid to have him schooled by a local clergyman.[8] He learned to read, write, work with numbers, and was exposed to Greek and Latin,[9] but he was too strong-willed and hot-tempered for the ministry.[6]

Revolutionary War

 
The Brave Boy of the Waxhaws, an 1876 Currier and Ives lithograph depicting a young Andrew Jackson defending himself against a British officer during the American Revolutionary War

Jackson and his older brothers, Hugh and Robert, served on the Patriot side against British forces during the American Revolutionary War. Hugh served under Colonel William Richardson Davie, dying from heat exhaustion after the Battle of Stono Ferry in June 1779.[10] After anti-British sentiment intensified in the Southern Colonies following the Battle of Waxhaws in May 1780, Elizabeth encouraged Andrew and Robert to participate in militia drills.[11] They served as couriers,[12] and were present at the Battle of Hanging Rock in August 1780.[13]

Andrew and Robert were captured in April 1781 when the British occupied the home of a Crawford relative. A British officer demanded to have his boots polished. Andrew refused, and the officer slashed him with a sword, leaving him with scars on his left hand and head. Robert also refused and was struck a blow on the head.[14] The brothers were taken to a prisoner-of-war camp in Camden, South Carolina, where they became malnourished and contracted smallpox.[15] In late spring, the brothers were released to their mother in a prisoner exchange.[16] Robert died two days after arriving home, but Elizabeth was able to nurse Andrew back to health.[17] Once he recovered, Elizabeth volunteered to nurse American prisoners of war housed in British prison ships in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.[18] She contracted cholera and died soon afterwards.[19] The war made Jackson an orphan at age 14[20] and increased his hatred for the values he associated with Britain, in particular aristocracy and political privilege.[21]

Early career

Legal career and marriage

 
An 1823 portrait of Jackson's wife Rachel by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl, now housed at The Hermitage in Nashville

After the American Revolutionary War, Jackson worked as a saddler,[22] briefly returned to school, and taught reading and writing to children.[23] In 1784, he left the Waxhaws region for Salisbury, North Carolina, where he studied law under attorney Spruce Macay.[24] He completed his training under John Stokes,[25] and was admitted to the North Carolina bar in September 1787.[26] Shortly thereafter, his friend John McNairy helped him get appointed as a prosecuting attorney in the Western District of North Carolina,[27] which would later become the state of Tennessee. While traveling to assume his new position, Jackson stopped in Jonesborough. While there, he bought his first slave, a woman who was around his age.[28] He also fought his first duel, accusing another lawyer, Waightstill Avery, of impugning his character. The duel ended with both men firing in the air.[29]

Jackson began his new career in the frontier town of Nashville in 1788 and quickly moved up in social status.[30] He became a protégé of William Blount, one of the most powerful men in the territory.[31] Jackson was appointed attorney general of the Mero District in 1791 and judge-advocate for the militia the following year.[32] He also got involved in land speculation,[33] eventually forming a partnership with fellow lawyer John Overton.[34] Their partnership mainly dealt with claims made under a "land grab" act of 1783 that opened Cherokee and Chickasaw territory to North Carolina's white residents.[35]

While boarding at the home of Rachel Stockly Donelson, the widow of John Donelson, Jackson became acquainted with their daughter, Rachel Donelson Robards. The younger Rachel was in an unhappy marriage with Captain Lewis Robards, and the two were separated by 1789.[36] After the separation, Jackson and Rachel became romantically involved,[37] living together as husband and wife.[38] Robards petitioned for divorce, which was granted on the basis of Rachel's infidelity.[39] The couple legally married in January 1794.[40] In 1796, they acquired their first plantation, Hunter's Hill,[41] on 640 acres (260 ha) of land near Nashville.[42]

Early public career

Jackson became a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, the dominant party in Tennessee.[31] He was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796.[43] When Tennessee achieved statehood that year, he was elected to be its U.S. representative. In Congress, Jackson argued against the Jay Treaty, criticized George Washington for allegedly removing Democratic-Republicans from public office, and joined several other Democratic-Republican congressmen in voting against a resolution of thanks for Washington.[44] He advocated for the right of Tennesseans to militarily oppose Native American interests.[45] The state legislature elected him to be a U.S. senator in 1797, but he resigned after serving only six months.[46]

In the spring of 1798, Governor John Sevier appointed Jackson to be judge of the Tennessee Superior Court.[47] In 1802, he also became major general, or commander, of the Tennessee militia, a position that was determined by a vote of the militia's officers. The vote was tied between Jackson and Sevier, a popular Revolutionary War veteran and former governor, but the governor, Archibald Roane, broke the tie in Jackson's favor. Jackson later accused Sevier of fraud and bribery.[48] Sevier responded by impugning Rachel's honor, resulting in a shootout on a public street.[49] Soon afterwards, they met to duel, but parted without having fired at each other.[50]

Planting career and slavery

 
Aaron and Hannah Jackson, two slaves owned by Jackson, photographed by Theodore Schleier in 1865, now housed at The Hermitage in Nashville

Jackson resigned his judgeship in 1804.[51] He had almost gone bankrupt when the land and mercantile speculations he had made on the basis of promissory notes fell apart in the wake of an earlier financial panic.[52] He had to sell Hunter's Hill, as well as 25,000 acres (10,000 ha) of land he bought for speculation, and bought a smaller 420-acre (170 ha) plantation near Nashville that he would call the Hermitage.[53] He focused on recovering from his losses by becoming a successful planter and merchant.[53] The Hermitage would grow to 1,000 acres (400 ha),[54] making it one of the largest cotton-growing plantations in the state.[51]

Like most planters in the Southern United States, Jackson used slave labor. In 1804, Jackson had nine African American slaves; by 1820, he had over 100; and by his death in 1845, he had over 150.[55] Over his lifetime, he owned a total of 300 slaves.[56] Jackson subscribed to the paternalistic idea of slavery, which claimed that slave ownership was morally acceptable as long as slaves were treated with humanity and their basic needs were cared for.[57] In practice, slaves were treated as a form of wealth whose productivity needed to be protected.[58] Jackson directed harsh punishment for slaves who disobeyed or ran away.[59] For example, in an 1804 advertisement to recover a runaway slave, he offered "ten dollars extra, for every hundred lashes any person will give him" up to three hundred lashes—a number that would likely have been deadly.[59][60] Jackson also participated in the local slave trade.[61] Over time, his accumulation of wealth in both slaves and land placed him among the elite families of Tennessee.[62]

Duel with Dickinson and adventure with Burr

In May 1806, Jackson fought a duel with Charles Dickinson. They had gotten into an argument over a horse race, and Dickinson allegedly uttered a slur against Rachel.[49] During the duel, Dickinson fired first, and the bullet hit Jackson in the chest. The wound was not life-threatening because the bullet had shattered against his breastbone.[63] Jackson returned fire and killed Dickinson. The killing tarnished Jackson's reputation.[64]

Later that year, Jackson became involved in former vice president Aaron Burr's plan to conquer Spanish Florida and drive the Spanish from Texas. Burr, who was touring what was then the Western United States after mortally wounding Alexander Hamilton in a duel, stayed with the Jacksons at the Hermitage in 1805.[65] He eventually persuaded Jackson to join his adventure. In October 1806, Jackson wrote James Winchester that the United States "can conquer not only [Florida], but all Spanish North America".[66] He informed the Tennessee militia that it should be ready to march at a moment's notice "when the government and constituted authority of our country require it",[67] and agreed to provide boats and provisions for the expedition.[65] Jackson sent a letter to President Thomas Jefferson telling him that Tennessee was ready to defend the nation's honor.[68]

Jackson also expressed uncertainty about the enterprise. He warned the Governor of Louisiana William Claiborne and Tennessee Senator Daniel Smith that some of the people involved in the adventure might be intending to break away from the United States.[69] In December, Jefferson ordered Burr to be arrested for treason.[65] Jackson, safe from arrest because of his extensive paper trail, organized the militia to capture the conspirators.[70] He testified before a grand jury in 1807, implying that it was Burr's associate James Wilkinson who was guilty of treason, not Burr. Burr was acquitted of the charges.[71]

Military career

Military campaigns
of Andrew Jackson
 
General Andrew Jackson, an 1819 portrait by John Wesley Jarvis now housed at Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City
 
[Interactive fullscreen map + nearby articles]
  Creek War
  War of 1812
  First Seminole War

War of 1812

Creek War

Main article: Creek War

On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom, launching the War of 1812.[72] Though the war was primarily caused by maritime issues,[73] it provided white American settlers on the southern frontier the opportunity to overcome Native American resistance to settlement, undermine British support of the Native American tribes,[74] and pry Florida from the Spanish Empire.[75]

Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war, but he was not called to duty until after the United States military was repeatedly defeated in the American Northwest. After these defeats, in January 1813, Jackson enlisted over 2,000 volunteers,[76] who were ordered to head to New Orleans to defend against a British attack.[77][78][79][80] When his forces arrived at Natchez, they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson, the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure. A little later, Jackson received a letter from the Secretary of War, John Armstrong, stating that his volunteers were not needed,[81] and that they were to hand over any supplies to Wilkinson and disband.[82] Jackson refused to disband his troops; instead, he led them on the difficult march back to Nashville, earning the nickname "Hickory" (later "Old Hickory") for his toughness.[83]

After returning to Nashville, Jackson and one of his colonels, John Coffee, got into a street brawl over honor with the brothers Jesse and Thomas Hart Benton. Nobody was killed, but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him.[84]

Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor Willie Blount called out the militia in September 1813 following the August Fort Mims Massacre.[85] The Red Sticks, a confederate faction that had allied with Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief who was fighting with the British against the United States, killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at Burnt Corn Creek.[86]

Jackson's objective was to destroy the Red Sticks.[87] He headed south from Fayetteville, Tennessee, in October with 2,500 militia, establishing Fort Strother as his supply base.[88] He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force, destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies.[89][90] Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the Battle of Tallushatchee on November 3, and Jackson defeated another band later that month at the Battle of Talladega.[91]

By January 1814, the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson's force by about 1,000 volunteers,[92] but he continued the offensive.[93] The Red Sticks counterattacked at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek. Jackson repelled them but was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother.[94] Jackson's army was reinforced by further recruitment and the addition of a regular army unit, the 39th U.S. Infantry Regiment. The combined force of 3,000 men—including Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek allies—attacked a Red Stick fort at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River, which was manned by about 1,000 men.[95] The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred.[96] Almost all their warriors were killed, and nearly 300 women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson's Native American allies.[96] The victory broke the power of the Red Sticks.[97] Jackson continued his scorched-earth campaign of burning villages, destroying supplies,[97] and starving Red Stick women and children.[98] The campaign ended when William Weatherford, the Red Stick leader, surrendered,[99] although some Red Sticks fled to East Florida.[100]

On June 8, Jackson was appointed a brigadier general in the United States Army, and 10 days later was made a brevet major general with command of the Seventh Military District, which included Tennessee, Louisiana, the Mississippi Territory, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy.[101] With President James Madison's approval, Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson. The treaty required all Creek, including those who had remained allies, to surrender 23,000,000 acres (9,300,000 ha) of land to the United States.[102]

Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish. He moved his forces to Mobile, Alabama, in August, accused the Spanish governor of West Florida, Mateo González Manrique, of arming the Red Sticks, and threatened to attack. The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it, which violated Spanish neutrality.[103] The British attempted to capture Mobile, but their invasion fleet was repulsed at Fort Bowyer.[104] Jackson then invaded Florida, defeating the Spanish and British forces at the Battle of Pensacola on November 7.[105] Afterwards, the Spanish surrendered and the British withdrew. Weeks later, Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans, which was the gateway to the Lower Mississippi River and control of the American West.[106] He evacuated Pensacola, strengthened the garrison at Mobile,[107] and led his troops to New Orleans.[108]

Battle of New Orleans

Main article: Battle of New Orleans
 
Battle of New Orleans, an 1858 painting by Dennis Malone Carter, now housed at The Historic New Orleans Collection in New Orleans

Jackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1, 1814.[109] There he instituted martial law because he worried about the loyalty of the city's Creole and Spanish inhabitants. He augmented his force by forming an alliance with Jean Lafitte's smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek,[110] paying non-white volunteers the same salary as whites.[111] This gave Jackson a force of about 5,000 men when the British arrived.[112]

The British arrived in New Orleans in mid-December.[113] Admiral Alexander Cochrane was the overall commander of the operation;[114] General Edward Pakenham commanded the army of 10,000 soldiers, many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars.[115] As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River, Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them.[116] The climactic battle took place on January 8 when the British launched a frontal assault. Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their parapets, and the attack ended in disaster.[117] The British suffered over 2,000 casualties (including Pakenham) to the Americans' 60.[118]

The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January, but they still remained a threat.[119] Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms. He approved the execution of six militiamen for desertion.[120] Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality. Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days,[121] and had a member of the Louisiana legislature, Louis Louaillier, arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson's continuation of martial law. U.S. District Court Judge Dominic A. Hall signed a writ of habeas corpus for Louaillier's release. Jackson had Hall arrested too. A military court ordered Louaillier's release, but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city.[122] Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war with the British, had been signed,[123] his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans.[124]

Jackson's victory made him a national hero,[125] and on February 27, 1815, he was given the Thanks of Congress and awarded a Congressional Gold Medal.[126] Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought,[127] Jackson's victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers. This control allowed the American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty, which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson.[128]

First Seminole War

Main article: Seminole Wars § First Seminole War
 
A c. 1846 engraving of the trial of Robert Ambrister by William Croome in Pictorial Life of Andrew Jackson by John Frost

Following the war, Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage.[129] Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command. Despite resistance from Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford, he signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820 in which the Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States. These included the Treaty of Tuscaloosa and the Treaty of Doak's Stand.[130][131]

Jackson soon became embroiled in conflict in Florida. The former British post at Prospect Bluff, which became known to Americans as "the Negro fort", remained occupied by more than a thousand former soldiers of the British Royal and Colonial Marines, escaped slaves, and various indigenous peoples.[132] It had become a magnet for escapees[132] and was seen as a threat to the property rights of American enslavers,[133] even a potential source of insurrection by enslaved people.[134] Jackson ordered Colonel Duncan Clinch to capture the fort in July 1816. He destroyed it and killed many of the garrison. Some survivors were enslaved while others fled into the wilderness of Florida.[135]

White American settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the Seminoles, who straddled the border between the U.S. and Florida.[136] In December 1817, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun initiated the First Seminole War by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign "with full power to conduct the war as he may think best".[137] Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from Spain once and for all. Before departing, Jackson wrote to President James Monroe, "Let it be signified to me through any channel ... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished."[138]

Jackson invaded Florida, captured the Spanish fort of St. Marks, and occupied Pensacola. Seminole and Spanish resistance was effectively ended by May 1818. He also captured two British agents, Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot, who had been working with the Seminoles. After a brief trial, Jackson executed both of them, causing a diplomatic incident with the British. Jackson's actions polarized Monroe's cabinet. The occupied territories were returned to Spain.[139] Calhoun wanted him censured for violating the Constitution, since the United States had not declared war on Spain. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson's occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida, which Spain did in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819.[140] In February 1819, a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson,[141] and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign the Treaty of Moultrie Creek in 1823, which surrendered much of their land in Florida.[142]

Presidential aspirations

Election of 1824

Main article: 1824 United States presidential election
 
An 1824 portrait of Jackson by Thomas Sully
 
The 1824 U.S. presidential election results in which Jackson received a plurality of Electoral College votes. Subsequently John Quincy Adams was elected the sixth president of the United States in a contingent election.

The Panic of 1819, the United States' first prolonged financial depression, caused Congress to reduce the military's size and abolish Jackson's generalship.[143] In compensation, Monroe made him the first territorial governor of Florida in 1821.[144] He served as the governor for two months, returning to the Hermitage in ill health.[145] During his convalescence, Jackson, who had been a Freemason since at least 1798, became the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee for 1822–1823.[146] Around this time, he also completed negotiations for Tennessee to purchase Chickasaw lands. This became known as the Jackson Purchase. Jackson, Overton, and another colleague had speculated in some of the land and used their portion to found the town of Memphis.[147]

In 1822, Jackson agreed to run in the 1824 presidential election, and he was nominated by the Tennessee legislature in July.[148] At the time, the Federalist Party had collapsed, and there were four major contenders for the Democratic-Republican Party nomination: William Crawford, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Jackson was intended to be a stalking horse candidate to prevent Tennessee's electoral votes from going to Crawford, who was seen as a Washington insider. Jackson unexpectedly garnered popular support outside of Tennessee and became a serious candidate.[143] He benefited from the expansion of suffrage among white males that followed the conclusion of the War of 1812.[149][150] He was a popular war hero whose reputation suggested he had the decisiveness and independence to bring reform to Washington.[151] He also was promoted as an outsider who stood for all the people, blaming banks for the country's depression.[152]

During his presidential candidacy, Jackson reluctantly ran for one of Tennessee's U.S. Senate seats. Jackson's political managers William Berkeley Lewis and John Eaton convinced him that he needed to defeat incumbent John Williams, who opposed him. The legislature elected Jackson in October 1823.[153][154] He was attentive to his senatorial duties. He was appointed chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs, but avoided debate or initiating legislation.[155] He used his time in the Senate to form alliances and make peace with old adversaries.[156] Eaton continued to campaign for Jackson's presidency, updating his biography and writing a series of widely circulated pseudonymous letters that portrayed Jackson as a champion of republican liberty.[157]

Democratic-Republican presidential nominees had historically been chosen by informal congressional nominating caucuses. In 1824, most of the Democratic-Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus,[158] and the power to choose nominees was shifting to state nominating committees and legislatures.[159] Jackson was nominated by a Pennsylvania convention, making him not merely a regional candidate but the leading national contender.[160] When Jackson won the Pennsylvania nomination, Calhoun dropped out of the presidential race.[161] Afterwards, Jackson won the nomination in six other states and had a strong second-place finish in three others.[162]

In the presidential election, Jackson won a 42-percent plurality of the popular vote. More importantly, he won a plurality of electoral votes, receiving 99 votes from states in the South, West, and Mid-Atlantic. He was the only candidate to win states outside of his regional base: Adams dominated New England, Crawford won Virginia and Georgia, and Clay took three western states. Because no candidate had a majority of 131 electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a contingent election under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment. The amendment specifies that only the top three electoral vote-winners are eligible to be elected by the House, so Clay was eliminated from contention.[163] Clay, who was also Speaker of the House and presided over the election's resolution, saw a Jackson presidency as a disaster for the country.[164] Clay threw his support behind Adams, who won the contingent election on the first ballot. Adams appointed Clay as his Secretary of State, leading supporters of Jackson to accuse Clay and Adams of having struck a "corrupt bargain".[165] After the Congressional session concluded, Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee.[166]

Election of 1828 and death of Rachel Jackson

Main articles: 1828 United States presidential election and Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign
 
The 1828 United States presidential election results

After the election, Jackson's supporters formed a new party to undermine Adams and ensure he served only one term. Adams's presidency went poorly, and Adams's behavior undermined it. He was perceived as an intellectual elite who ignored the needs of the populace. He was unable to accomplish anything because Congress blocked his proposals.[167] In his First Annual Message to Congress, Adams stated that "we are palsied by the will of our constituents", which was interpreted as his being against representative democracy.[168] Jackson responded by championing the needs of ordinary citizens and declaring that "the voice of the people ... must be heard".[169]

Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825, more than three years before the 1828 election.[170] He gained powerful supporters in both the South and North, including Calhoun, who became Jackson's vice presidential running mate, and New York Senator Martin Van Buren.[171] Meanwhile, Adams's support from the Southern states was eroded when he signed a tax on European imports, the Tariff of 1828, which was called the "Tariff of Abominations" by opponents, into law.[169] Jackson's victory in the presidential race was overwhelming. He won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote. The election ended the one-party system that had formed during the Era of Good Feelings as Jackson's supporters coalesced into the Democratic Party and the various groups who did not support him eventually formed the Whig Party.[172]

The political campaign was dominated by the personal abuse that partisans flung at both candidates.[173] Jackson was accused of being the son of an English prostitute and a mulatto,[174][175] and he was labeled a slave trader who trafficked in human flesh.[176] A series of pamphlets known as the Coffin Handbills[177] accused him of having murdered 18 white men, including the soldiers he had executed for desertion and alleging that he stabbed a man in the back with his cane.[178][179] They stated that he had intentionally massacred Native American women and children at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, ate the bodies of Native Americans he killed in battle,[180][181] and threatened to cut off the ears of congressmen who questioned his behavior during the First Seminole War.[182]

Jackson and Rachel were accused of adultery for living together before her divorce was finalized,[183] and Rachel heard about the accusation.[184] She had been under stress throughout the election, and just as Jackson was preparing to head to Washington for his inauguration, she fell ill.[185] She did not live to see her husband become president, dying of a stroke or heart attack a few days later.[184] Jackson believed that the abuse from Adams' supporters had hastened her death, stating at her funeral: "May God Almighty forgive her murderers, as I know she forgave them. I never can."[186]

Presidency (1829–1837)

Main article: Presidency of Andrew Jackson

Inauguration

Main article: First inauguration of Andrew Jackson
 
Engraving of President Jackson by A. H. Ritchie based on Dennis Malone Carter's portrait, c. 1860

Jackson arrived in Washington, D.C., on February 11, and began forming his cabinet.[187] He chose Van Buren as Secretary of State, John Eaton as Secretary of War, Samuel D. Ingham as Secretary of Treasury, John Branch as Secretary of Navy, John M. Berrien as Attorney General, and William T. Barry as Postmaster General.[188] Jackson was inaugurated on March 4, 1829; Adams, who was embittered by his defeat, refused to attend.[189] Jackson become the first president-elect to take the oath of office on the East Portico of the U.S. Capitol.[190] In his inaugural address, he promised to protect the sovereignty of the states, respect the limits of the presidency, reform the government by removing disloyal or incompetent appointees, and observe a fair policy toward Native Americans.[191] Jackson invited the public to the White House, which was promptly overrun by well-wishers who caused minor damage to its furnishings. The spectacle earned him the nickname "King Mob".[192]

Reforms and rotation in office

Further information: Spoils system

Jackson believed that Adams's administration had been corrupt and he initiated investigations into all executive departments.[193] These investigations revealed that $280,000 (equivalent to $7,700,000 in 2022) was stolen from the Treasury. They also resulted in a reduction in costs to the Department of the Navy, saving $1 million (equivalent to $27,500,000 in 2022).[194] Jackson asked Congress to tighten laws on embezzlement and tax evasion, and he pushed for an improved government accounting system.[195]

Jackson implemented a principle he called "rotation in office". The previous custom had been for the president to leave the existing appointees in office, replacing them through attrition. Jackson enforced the Tenure of Office Act, an 1820 law that limited office tenure, authorized the president to remove current office holders, and appoint new ones.[196] During his first year in office, he removed about 10% of all federal employees[196] and replaced them with loyal Democrats.[197] Jackson argued that rotation in office reduced corruption[198] by making officeholders responsible to the popular will,[199] but it functioned as political patronage and became known as the spoils system.[200][198]

Petticoat affair

Main article: Petticoat affair
 
A lithograph cartoon, The Celeste-al Cabinet, by Albert A. Hoffay, published by Henry R. Robinson in 1836, depicting Jackson's cabinet during the Petticoat Affair; "Celeste" is Margaret Eaton.

Jackson spent much of his time during his first two and a half years in office dealing with what came to be known as the "Petticoat Affair" or "Eaton Affair".[201][202] The affair focused on Secretary of War Eaton's wife, Margaret. She had a reputation for being promiscuous, and like Rachel Jackson, she was accused of adultery. She and Eaton had been close before her first husband John Timberlake died, and they married nine months after his death.[203] With the exception of Barry's wife Catherine,[204] the cabinet members' wives followed the lead of Vice-President Calhoun's wife Floride and refused to socialize with the Eatons.[205] Though Jackson defended Margaret, her presence split the cabinet, which had been so ineffective that he rarely called it into session,[188] and the ongoing disagreement led to its dissolution.[206]

In the spring of 1831, Jackson demanded the resignations of all the cabinet members except Barry,[207] who would resign in 1835 when a Congressional investigation revealed his mismanagement of the Post Office.[208] Jackson tried to compensate Van Buren by appointing him the Minister to Great Britain, but Calhoun blocked the nomination with a tie-breaking vote against it.[207] Van Buren—along with newspaper editors Amos Kendall[209] and Francis Preston Blair[210]—would become regular participants in Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet, an unofficial, varying group of advisors that Jackson turned to for decision making even after he had formed a new official cabinet.[211]

Indian Removal Act

Further information: Indian removal, Indian Removal Act, and Trail of Tears
 
The Indian Removal Act and treaties involving Jackson before his presidency displaced most of the major tribes of the Southeast from their traditional territories east of the Mississippi River.
 
An 1830 portrait of Jackson by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl, now housed at the North Carolina Museum of Art

Jackson's presidency marked the beginning of a national policy of Native American removal.[207] Before Jackson took office, the relationship between the southern states and the Native American tribes who lived within their boundaries was strained. The states felt that they had full jurisdiction over their territories; the native tribes saw themselves as autonomous nations that had a right to the land they lived on.[213] Significant portions of the five major tribes in the area then known as the Southwest—the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminoles— began to adopt white culture, including education, agricultural techniques, a road system, and rudimentary manufacturing.[214] In the case of the tensions between the state of Georgia and the Cherokee, Adams had tried to address the issue encouraging Cherokee emigration west of the Mississippi through financial incentives, but most refused.[215]

In the first days of Jackson's presidency, some southern states passed legislation extending state jurisdiction to Native American lands.[216] Jackson supported the states' right to do so.[217][218] His position was later made clear in the 1832 Supreme Court test case of this legislation, Worcester v. Georgia. Georgia had arrested a group of missionaries for entering Cherokee territory without a permit; the Cherokee declared these arrests illegal. The court under Chief Justice John Marshall decided in favor of the Cherokee: imposition of Georgia law on the Cherokee was unconstitutional.[219] Horace Greeley alleges that when Jackson heard the ruling, he said, "Well, John Marshall has made his decision, but now let him enforce it."[220] Although the quote may be apocryphal, Jackson made it clear he would not use the federal government to enforce the ruling.[221][222][223]

Jackson used the power of the federal government to enforce the separation of Indigenous tribes and whites.[224] In May 1830, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which Congress had narrowly passed.[225] It gave the president the right to negotiate treaties to buy tribal lands in the eastern part of the United States in exchange for lands set aside for Native Americans west of the Mississippi,[226] as well as broad discretion on how to use the federal funds allocated to the negotiations.[227] The law was supposed to be a voluntary relocation program, but it was not implemented as one. Jackson's administration often achieved agreement to relocate through bribes, fraud and intimidation,[228] and the leaders who signed the treaties often did not represent the entire tribe.[229] The relocations could be a source of misery too: the Choctaw relocation was rife with corruption, theft, and mismanagement that brought great suffering to that people.[230]

In 1830, Jackson personally negotiated with the Chickasaw, who quickly agreed to move.[231] In the same year, Choctaw leaders signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek; the majority did not want the treaty but complied with its terms.[232] In 1832, Seminole leaders signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing, which stipulated that the Seminoles would move west and become part of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy if they found the new land suitable.[233] Most Seminoles refused to move, leading to the Second Seminole War in 1835 that lasted six years.[229] Members of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy ceded their land to the state of Alabama in the Treaty of Cusseta of 1832. Their private ownership of the land was to be protected, but the federal government did not enforce this. The government did encourage voluntary removal until the Creek War of 1836, after which almost all Creek were removed to Oklahoma territory.[234] In 1836, Cherokee leaders ceded their land to the government by the Treaty of New Echota.[235] Their removal, known as the Trail of Tears, was enforced by Jackson's successor, Van Buren.[236]

Jackson also applied the removal policy in the Northwest. He was not successful in removing the Iroquois Confederacy in New York, but when some members of the Meskwaki (Fox) and the Sauk triggered the Black Hawk War by trying to cross back to the east side of the Mississippi, the peace treaties ratified after their defeat reduced their lands further.[237]

During his administration, he made about 70 treaties with American Indian tribes. He had removed almost all the Native Americans east of the Mississippi and south of Lake Michigan, about 70,000 people, from the United States;[238] though it was done at the cost of thousands of Native American lives lost because of the unsanitary conditions and epidemics arising from their dislocation, as well as their resistance to expulsion.[239] Jackson's implementation of the Indian Removal Act contributed to his popularity with his constituency. He added over 170,000 square miles of land to the public domain, which primarily benefited the United States' agricultural interests. The act also benefited small farmers, as Jackson allowed them to purchase moderate plots at low prices and offered squatters on land formerly belonging to Native Americans the option to purchase it before it was offered for sale to others.[240]

Nullification crisis

Main article: Nullification crisis
 
A Civil War-era lithograph cartoon of Calhoun bowing before Jackson during the nullification crisis by Pendleton's Lithography and published by L. Prang & Co. in 1864, the final year of the war

Jackson had to confront another challenge that had been building up since the beginning of his first term. The Tariff of 1828, which had been passed in the last year of Adams' administration, set a protective tariff at a very high rate to prevent the manufacturing industries in the Northern states from having to compete with lower-priced imports from Britain.[241] The tariff reduced the income of southern cotton planters: it propped up consumer prices, but not the price of cotton which had severely declined in the previous decade.[242] Immediately after the tariff's passage, the South Carolina Exposition and Protest was sent to the U.S. Senate.[243] This document, which had been anonymously written by John C. Calhoun, asserted that the constitution was a compact of individual states[244] and when the federal government went beyond its delegated duties, such as enacting a protective tariff, a state had a right to declare this action unconstitutional and make the act null and void within the borders of that state.[245]

Jackson suspected Calhoun of writing the Exposition and Protest, and opposed his interpretation. Jackson argued that Congress had full authority to enact tariffs and that a dissenting state was denying the will of the majority.[246] He also needed the tariff, which generated 90% of the federal revenue,[247] to achieve another of his presidential goals, eliminating the national debt.[248] The issue developed into a personal rivalry between the two men. For example, during a celebration of Thomas Jefferson's birthday on April 13, 1830, the attendees gave after-dinner toasts. Jackson toasted: "Our federal Union: It must be preserved!" – a clear challenge to nullification. Calhoun, whose toast immediately followed, rebutted: "The Union: Next to our Liberty, the most dear!"[249]

As a compromise, Jackson supported the Tariff of 1832, which reduced the duties from the Tariff of 1828 by almost half. The bill was signed on July 9, but failed to satisfy extremists on either side.[250] On November 24, South Carolina had passed the Ordinance of Nullification,[251] declaring both tariffs null and void and threatening to secede from the United States if the federal government tried to use force to collect the duties.[252][253] In response, Jackson sent warships to Charleston harbor, and threatened to hang any man who worked to support nullification or secession.[254] On December 10, he issued a proclamation against the "nullifiers",[255] condemning nullification as contrary to the Constitution's letter and spirit, rejecting the right of secession, and declaring that South Carolina stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason".[256] On December 28, Calhoun, who had been elected to the U.S. Senate, resigned as vice president.[257]

Jackson asked Congress to pass a "Force Bill" authorizing the military to enforce the tariff. It was attacked by Calhoun as despotism.[258] Meanwhile, Calhoun and Clay began to work on a new compromise tariff. Jackson saw it as an effective way to end the confrontation, but insisted on the passage of the Force Bill before he signed.[259] On March 2, he signed into law the Force Bill and the Tariff of 1833. The South Carolina Convention then met and rescinded its nullification ordinance, but nullified the Force Bill in a final act of defiance.[260] Two months later, Jackson reflected on South Carolina's nullification: "the tariff was only the pretext, and disunion and southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question".[261]

Bank War and Election of 1832

Main articles: Bank War and Banking in the Jacksonian Era

Bank Veto

 
An 1833 lithograph cartoon of Jackson destroying the Second Bank of the United States with his "Removal Notice" by Zachariah Downing, published by Henry R. Robinson; Nicholas Biddle is portrayed as the devil.

A few weeks after his inauguration, Jackson started looking into how he could replace the Second Bank of the United States.[262] The Bank had been chartered by President Madison in 1816 to restore the United States economy after the War of 1812. Monroe had appointed Nicholas Biddle as the Bank's executive.[263] The Bank was a repository for the country's public monies which also serviced the national debt; it was formed as a for-profit entity that looked after the concerns of its shareholders.[264] In 1828, the country was prosperous [265] and the currency was stable,[266] but Jackson saw the Bank as a fourth branch of government run by an elite,[262] what he called the "money power" that sought to control the labor and earnings of the "real people", who depend on their own efforts to succeed: the planters, farmers, mechanics, and laborers.[267] Additionally, Jackson's own near bankruptcy in 1804 due to credit-fuelled land speculation had biased him against paper money and toward a policy favorable to hard money.[268]

In his First Annual Address in December 1829, Jackson openly challenged the Bank by questioning its constitutionality and the soundness of its money.[269] Jackson's supporters further alleged that it gave preferential loans to speculators and merchants over artisans and farmers, that it used its money to bribe congressmen and the press, and that it had ties with foreign creditors. Biddle responded to Jackson's challenge in early 1830 by using the Bank's vast financial holding to ensure the Bank's reputation, and his supporters argued that the Bank was the key to prosperity and stable commerce. By the time of the 1832 election, Biddle had spent over $250,000 (equivalent to $7,328,300 in 2022) in printing pamphlets, lobbying for pro-Bank legislation, hiring agents and giving loans to editors and congressmen.[270]

On the surface, Jackson's and Biddle's positions did not appear irreconcilable. Jackson seemed open to keeping the Bank if it could include some degree of Federal oversight, limit its real estate holdings, and have its property subject to taxation by the states.[271] Many of Jackson's cabinet members thought a compromise was possible. In 1831, Treasury Secretary Louis McLane told Biddle that Jackson was open to chartering a modified version of the Bank, but Biddle did not consult Jackson directly. Privately, Jackson expressed opposition to the Bank;[272] publicly, he announced that he would leave the decision concerning the Bank in the hands of the people.[273] Biddle was finally convinced to take open action by Henry Clay, who had decided to run for president against Jackson in the 1832 election. Biddle would agree to seek renewal of the charter two years earlier than scheduled. Clay argued that Jackson was in a bind. If he vetoed the charter, he would lose the votes of his pro-Bank constituents in Pennsylvania; but if he signed the charter, he would lose his anti-Bank constituents. After the recharter bill was passed, Jackson vetoed it on July 10, 1832, arguing that the country should not surrender the will of the majority to the desires of the wealthy.[274]

Election of 1832

Main article: 1832 United States presidential election
 
1832 presidential election results

The 1832 presidential election demonstrated the rapid development of political parties during Jackson's presidency. The Democratic Party's first national convention, held in Baltimore, nominated Jackson's choice for vice president, Martin Van Buren. The National Republican Party, which had held its first convention in Baltimore earlier in December 1831, nominated Clay, now a senator from Kentucky, and John Sergeant of Pennsylvania.[275] An Anti-Masonic Party, with a platform built around opposition to Freemasonry,[276] supported neither Jackson nor Clay, who both were Masons. The party nominated William Wirt of Maryland and Amos Ellmaker of Pennsylvania.[277]

In addition to the votes Jackson would lose because of the bank veto, Clay hoped that Jackson's Indian Removal Act would alienate voters in the East; but Jackson's losses were offset by the Act's popularity in the West and Southwest. Clay had also expected that Jackson would lose votes because of his stand on internal improvements.[278] Jackson had vetoed the Maysville Road bill, which funded an upgrade of a section of the National Road in Clay's state of Kentucky; Jackson had argued it was unconstitutional to fund internal improvements using national funds for local projects.[279]

Clay's strategy failed. Jackson was able to mobilize the Democratic Party's strong political networks.[280] The Northeast supported Jackson because he was in favor of maintaining a stiff tariff; the West supported him because the Indian Removal Act reduced the number of Native Americans in the region and made available more public land.[281] Except for South Carolina, which passed the Ordinance of Nullification during the election month and refused to support any party by giving its votes to the future Governor of Virginia John B. Floyd,[282] the South supported Jackson for implementing the Indian Removal Act, as well as for his willingness to compromise by signing the Tariff of 1832.[283] Jackson won the election by a landslide, receiving 55 percent of the popular vote and 219 electoral votes.[280]

Removal of deposits and censure

See also: Censure of Andrew Jackson
 
An 1832 lithograph cartoon, "King Andrew the First" by an anonymous artist, depicting Jackson

Jackson saw his victory as a mandate to continue his war on the Bank's control over the national economy.[284] In 1833, Jackson signed an executive order ending the deposit of Treasury receipts in the bank.[285] When Secretary of the Treasury McLane refused to execute the order, Jackson replaced him with William J. Duane, who also refused. Jackson then appointed Roger B. Taney as acting secretary, who implemented Jackson's policy.[286] With the loss of federal deposits, the Bank had to contract its credit.[287] Biddle used this contraction to create an economic downturn in an attempt to get Jackson to compromise. Biddle wrote, "Nothing but the evidence of suffering abroad will produce any effect in Congress."[288] The attempt did not succeed: the economy recovered and Biddle was blamed for the recession.[289]

Jackson's actions led those who disagreed with him to form the Whig Party. They claimed to oppose Jackson's expansion of executive power, calling him "King Andrew the First", and naming their party after the English Whigs who opposed the British monarchy in the 17th century.[290] In March 1834, the Senate censured Jackson for inappropriately taking authority for the Treasury Department when it was the responsibility of Congress and refused to confirm Taney's appointment as secretary of the treasury.[291] In April, however, the House declared that the bank should not be rechartered. By July 1836, the Bank no longer held any federal deposits.[292]

Jackson had Federal funds deposited into state banks friendly to the administration's policies, which critics called pet banks.[293] The number of these state banks more than doubled during Jackson's administration,[286] and investment patterns changed. The Bank, which had been the federal government's fiscal agent, invested heavily in trade and financed interregional and international trade. State banks were more responsive to state governments, and invested heavily in land development, land speculation, and state public works projects.[294] In spite of the efforts of Taney's successor, Levi Woodbury, to control them, the pet banks expanded their loans, helping to create a speculative boom in the final years of Jackson's administration.[295]

In January 1835, Jackson paid off the national debt, the only time in U.S. history that it had been accomplished.[296][297] It was paid down through tariff revenues,[280] carefully managing federal funding of internal improvements like roads and canals,[298] and the sale of public lands.[299] Between 1834 and 1836, the government had an unprecedented spike in land sales:[300] At its peak in 1836, the profits from land sales were eight to twelve times higher than a typical year.[301] During Jackson's presidency, 63 million acres of public land—about the size of the state of Oklahoma—was sold.[302] After Jackson's term expired in 1837, a Democrat-majority Senate expunged Jackson's censure.[303][304]

Panic of 1837

Main article: Panic of 1837
 
A lithograph cartoon of the Panic of 1837 published by Henry R. Robinson in 1837; Jackson is symbolized by "glory" in the sky with top hat, spectacles, and pipe.

Despite the economic boom following Jackson's victory in the Bank War, land speculation in the west caused the Panic of 1837.[305] Jackson's transfer of federal monies to state banks in 1833 caused western banks to relax their lending standards;[306] the Indian Removal Act made large amounts of former Native American lands available for purchase and speculation.[307] Two of Jackson's acts in 1836 contributed to the Panic of 1837. One was the Specie Circular, which mandated western lands only be purchased by money backed by specie. The act was intended to stabilize the economy by reducing speculation on credit, but it caused a drain of gold and silver from the Eastern banks to the Western banks to address the needs of financing land transactions.[308] The other was the Deposit and Distribution Act, which transferred federal monies from eastern to western state banks. Together, they left Eastern banks unable to pay specie to the British when they recalled their loans to address their economic problems in international trade.[309] The panic drove the U.S. economy into a depression that lasted until 1841.[305]

Physical assault and assassination attempt

 
An 1835 lithograph of the attempted assassination of Andrew Jackson, published by Endicott & Co.

Jackson was the first president to be subjected to both a physical assault and an assassination attempt.[310] On May 6, 1833, Robert B. Randolph struck Jackson in the face with his hand because Jackson had ordered Randolph's dismissal from the navy for embezzlement. Jackson declined to press charges.[311] While Jackson was leaving the United States Capitol on January 30, 1835, Richard Lawrence, an unemployed house painter from England, aimed a pistol at him, which misfired. Lawrence pulled out a second pistol, which also misfired. Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane until others intervened to restrain Lawrence, who was later found not guilty by reason of insanity and institutionalized.[312][313]

Slavery

During Jackson's presidency, slavery remained a minor political issue.[314] Though federal troops were used to crush Nat Turner's slave rebellion in 1831,[315] Jackson ordered them withdrawn immediately afterwards despite the petition of local citizens for them to remain for protection.[316] Jackson considered the issue too divisive to the nation and to the delicate alliances of the Democratic Party.[317]

Jackson's view was challenged when the American Anti-Slavery Society agitated for abolition[318] by sending anti-slavery tracts through the postal system into the South in 1835.[317] Jackson condemned these agitators as "monsters"[319] who should atone with their lives[320] because they were attempting to destroy the Union by encouraging sectionalism.[321] The act provoked riots in Charleston, and pro-slavery Southerners demanded that the postal service ban distribution of the materials. To address the issue, Jackson authorized that the tracts could be sent only to subscribers, whose names could be made publicly accountable.[322] That December, Jackson called on Congress to prohibit the circulation through the South of "incendiary publications intended to instigate the slaves to insurrection".[323]

Foreign affairs

 
Engraved portrait of Jackson as president by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. This portrait has appeared on the $20 bill since 1929.[324]

The Jackson administration successfully negotiated a trade agreement with Siam, the first East Asian country to form a trade agreement with the U.S. The administration also made trade agreements with Great Britain, Spain, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire.[325]

In his First Annual Message to Congress, Jackson addressed the issues of spoliation claims, demands of compensation for the capture of American ships and sailors by foreign nations during the Napoleonic Wars.[326] Using a combination of bluster and tact, he successfully settled these claims with Denmark, Portugal, and Spain,[325] but he had difficulty collecting spoliation claims from France, which was unwilling to pay an indemnity agreed to in an earlier treaty. Jackson asked Congress in 1834 to authorize reprisals against French property if the country failed to make payment, as well as to arm for defense.[326] In response, France put its Caribbean fleet on a wartime footing.[327] Both sides wanted to avoid a conflict, but the French wanted an apology for Jackson's belligerence. In his 1835 Annual Message to the Congress, Jackson asserted that he refused to apologize, but stated that he did not intend to "menace or insult the Government of France".[328] The French were assuaged and agreed to pay $5,000,000 (equivalent to $141,838,700 in 2022) to settle the claims.[329]

Since the early 1820s, large numbers of Americans had been immigrating into Texas, a territory of the newly independent nation of Mexico.[330] As early as 1824, Jackson had supported acquiring the region for the United States.[331] In 1829, he attempted to purchase it, but Mexico did not want to sell. By 1830, there were twice as many settlers from the United States as from Mexico, leading to tensions with the Mexican government that started the Texas Revolution. During the conflict, Jackson covertly allowed the settlers to obtain weapons and money from the United States.[332] They defeated the Mexican military in April 1836 and declared the region an independent country, the Republic of Texas. The new Republic asked Jackson to recognize and annex it. Although Jackson wanted to do so, he was hesitant because he was unsure it could maintain independence from Mexico.[325] He also was concerned because Texas had legalized slavery, which was an issue that could divide the Democrats during the 1836 election. Jackson recognized the Republic of Texas on the last full day of his presidency, March 3, 1837.[333]

Judiciary

Further information: List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson

Jackson appointed six justices to the Supreme Court.[334] Most were undistinguished. Jackson nominated Roger B. Taney in January 1835 to the Court in reward for his services, but the nomination failed to win Senate approval.[335]

When Chief Justice Marshall died in 1835, Jackson again nominated Taney for Chief Justice; he was confirmed by the new Senate,[336] serving as Chief Justice until 1864.[337] He was regarded with respect during his career on the bench, but he is most remembered for his widely condemned decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford.[338] On the last day of his presidency, Jackson signed the Judiciary Act of 1837,[339] which created two new Supreme Court seats and reorganized the federal circuit courts.[340]

States admitted to the Union

Two new states were admitted into the Union during Jackson's presidency: Arkansas (June 15, 1836) and Michigan (January 26, 1837). Both states increased Democratic power in Congress and helped Van Buren win the presidency in 1836, as new states tended to support the party that had done the most to admit them.[341]

Later life and death (1837–1845)

 
A mezzotint of Jackson in 1845

Jackson's Presidency ended on March 4, 1837. Jackson left Washington, D.C., three days later, retiring to the Hermitage in Nashville, where he remained influential in national and state politics.[342] To reduce the inflation caused by the Panic of 1837, Jackson supported an Independent Treasury system that would restrict the government from printing paper money and require it to hold its money in silver and gold.[343]

During the 1840 presidential election,[344] Jackson campaigned for Van Buren in Tennessee, but Van Buren had become unpopular during the continuing depression. The Whig Party nominee, William Henry Harrison, won the election using a campaign style similar to that of the Democrats: Van Buren was depicted as an uncaring aristocrat, while Harrison's war record was glorified, and he was portrayed as a man of the people.[345] Harrison won the 1840 election and the Whigs captured majorities in both houses of Congress,[346] but Harrison died a month into his term, and was replaced by his vice president, former Democrat John Tyler. Jackson was encouraged because Tyler was not bound to party loyalties and praised him when he vetoed two Whig-sponsored bills to establish a new national bank in 1841.[347]

Jackson lobbied for the annexation of Texas. He was concerned that the British could use it as a base to threaten the United States[348] and insisted that it was part of the Louisiana Purchase.[349] Tyler signed a treaty of annexation in April 1844, but it became associated with the expansion of slavery and was not ratified. Van Buren, who had been Jackson's preferred candidate for the Democratic Party in the 1844 presidential election, had opposed annexation. Disappointed by Van Buren, Jackson convinced fellow Tennessean James K. Polk, who was then set to be Van Buren's running mate, to run as the Democratic Party's presidential nominee instead. Polk defeated Van Buren for the nomination and won the general election against Jackson's old enemy, Henry Clay. Meanwhile, the Senate passed a bill to annex Texas, and it was signed on March 1, 1845.[350]

Jackson died of dropsy, tuberculosis and heart failure[351] at 78 years of age on June 8, 1845. He was surrounded by family and friends at his deathbed, and his last words were to them, "Oh, do not cry. Be good children and we will all meet in Heaven."[352] He was buried in the same tomb as his wife Rachel.[353]

Personal life

Family

 
Jackson depicted in 1831 as a Tennessee Gentleman by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl, now housed at Hermitage in Nashville

Jackson and Rachel had no children together but adopted Andrew Jackson Jr., the son of Rachel's deceased brother Severn Donelson. The Jacksons acted as guardians for Donelson's other children: John Samuel, Daniel Smith, and Andrew Jackson. They were also guardians for Andrew Jackson Hutchings, Rachel's orphaned grand nephew, and the orphaned children of a friend, Edward Butler – Caroline, Eliza, Edward, and Anthony – who lived with the Jacksons after their father died.[354] Jackson also had three Creek children living with them: Lyncoya, a Creek orphan Jackson had adopted after the Battle of Tallushatchee,[355] and two boys they called Theodore[356] and Charley.[357]

For the only time in U.S. history, two women acted simultaneously as unofficial first lady for the widower Jackson. Rachel's niece Emily Donelson was married to Andrew Jackson Donelson (who acted as Jackson's private secretary) and served as hostess at the White House. The president and Emily became estranged for over a year during the Petticoat affair, but they eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. Sarah Yorke Jackson, the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834, and took over all hostess duties after Emily died from tuberculosis in 1836.[358]

Temperament

Jackson had a reputation for being short-tempered and violent,[359] which terrified his opponents.[360] He was able to use his temper strategically to accomplish what he wanted.[361] He could keep it in check when necessary: his behavior was friendly and urbane when he went to Washington as senator during the campaign leading up to the 1824 election. According to Van Buren, he remained calm in times of difficulty and made his decisions deliberatively.[362]

He had the tendency to take things personally. If someone crossed him, he would often become obsessed with crushing them.[363] For example, on the last day of his presidency, Jackson declared he had only two regrets: that he had not hanged Henry Clay or shot John C. Calhoun.[364] He also had a strong sense of loyalty. He considered threats to his friends as threats to himself, but he demanded unquestioning loyalty in return.[365]

Jackson was self-confident,[366] without projecting a sense of self-importance.[367] This self-confidence gave him the ability to persevere in the face of adversity.[368] Once he decided on a plan of action, he would adhere to it.[369] His reputation for being both quick-tempered and confident worked to his advantage;[370] it misled opponents to see him as simple and direct, leading them to often understimate his political shrewdness.[371]

Religious faith

In 1838, Jackson became an official member of the First Presbyterian Church in Nashville.[372] Both his mother and his wife had been devout Presbyterians all their lives, but Jackson stated that he had postponed officially entering the church until after his retirement to avoid accusations that he had done so for political reasons.[373]

Legacy

Further information: List of memorials to Andrew Jackson
 
The equestrian statue of Jackson commissioned by Judge Harry S. Truman and developed by Charles Keck in 1934 on display in front of the Jackson County Courthouse in Kansas City, Missouri

Jackson's legacy is controversial and polarizing.[374][375][376] His contemporary, Alexis de Tocqueville, depicted him as the spokesperson of the majority and their passions.[377] He has been variously described as a frontiersman personifying the independence of the American West,[378] a slave-owning member of the Southern gentry,[379] and a populist who promoted faith in the wisdom of the ordinary citizen.[380] He has been represented as a statesman who substantially advanced the spirit of democracy[381] and upheld the foundations of American constitutionalism,[382] as well as an autocratic demagogue who crushed political opposition and trampled the law.[383][384]

In the 1920s, Jackson's rise to power became associated with the idea of the "common man".[385] This idea defined the age as a populist rejection of social elites and a vindication of every person's value independent of class and status.[386] Jackson was seen as its personification,[387] an individual free of societal constraints who can achieve great things.[388] In 1945, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.'s influential Age of Jackson redefined Jackson's legacy through the lens of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal,[389] describing the common man as a member of the working class struggling against exploitation by business concerns.[390]

In the twenty-first century, Jackson's Indian Removal Act has been described as ethnic cleansing:[391] the use of force, terror and violence to make an area ethnically homogeneous.[392] To achieve the goal of separating Native Americans from the whites,[393] coercive force such as threats and bribes were used to effect removal[394] and unauthorized military force was used when there was resistance,[228] as in the case of the Second Seminole War.[395] The act has been discussed in the context of genocide,[396] and its role in the long-term destruction of Native American societies and their cultures continues to be debated.[397]

Jackson's legacy has been variously used by later presidents. Abraham Lincoln referenced Jackson's ideas when negotiating the challenges to the Union that he faced during 1861, including Jackson's understanding of the constitution during the nullification crisis and the president's right to interpret the constitution.[398] Franklin D. Roosevelt used Jackson to redefine the Democratic Party, describing him as a defender of the exploited and downtrodden and as a fighter for social justice and human rights.[399][400] Donald Trump used Jackson's legacy to present himself as the president of the common man,[401] praising Jackson for saving the country from a rising aristocracy and protecting American workers with a tariff.[402] In 2016, President Barack Obama's administration announced it was removing Jackson's portrait from the $20 bill and replacing it with one of Harriet Tubman.[403] Though the plan was put on hold during Trump's presidency, President Joe Biden's administration resumed it in 2021.[404]

Jackson is usually rated highly as a president, but his reputation began to decline in the 1960s.[405][406] His contradictory legacy is shown in opinion polls. A 2014 survey of political scientists rated Jackson as the ninth-highest rated president but the third-most polarizing. He was also ranked the third-most overrated president.[407] In a C-SPAN poll of historians, Jackson was ranked the 13th in 2009, 18th in 2017, and 22nd in 2021.[408]

Writings

  • Feller, Daniel; Coens, Thomas; Moss, Laura-Eve; Moser, Harold D.; Alexander, Erik B.; Smith, Sam B.; Owsley, Harriet C.; Hoth, David R; Hoemann, George H.; McPherson, Sharon; Clift, J. Clint; Wells, Wyatt C., eds. (1980–2019). The Papers of Andrew Jackson. University of Tennessee. (11 volumes to date; 17 volumes projected). Ongoing project to print all of Jackson's papers.
  • Vol. I, (1770–1803); Vol. II, (1804–1813); Vol. III, (1814–1815); Vol. IV, (1816–1820); Vol. V, (1821–1824); Vol. VI, (1825–1828); Vol. VII, (1829); Vol. VIII, (1830); Vol. IX, (1831); Vol. X, (1832); Vol. XI, (1833)
  • Bassett, John S., ed. (1926–1935). Correspondence of Andrew Jackson. Carnegie Institution. (7 volumes; 2 available online).
  • Richardson, James D., ed. (1897). "Andrew Jackson". Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents. Vol. III. Bureau of National Literature and Art. pp. 996–1359. Reprints Jackson's major messages and reports.

Notes

  1. ^ Vice President Calhoun resigned from office. As this was prior to the adoption of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next ensuing election and inauguration.

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Bibliography

Further information: Bibliography of Andrew Jackson

Biographies

  • Brands, H. W. (2005). Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times. New York, NY: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4000-3072-9. OCLC 1285478081.
  • Brown, David S. (2022). The First Populist: The Defiant Life of Andrew Jackson. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-9821-9109-2. OCLC 1303813425.
  • Latner, Richard B. (2002). "Andrew Jackson". In Graff, Henry (ed.). The Presidents: A Reference History (3 ed.). New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 106–127. ISBN 978-0-684-31226-2. OCLC 49029341.
  • Meacham, Jon (2008). American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House. New York, NY: Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8129-7346-4. OCLC 1145796050.
  • Remini, Robert V. (1977). Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8018-5912-0. OCLC 1145801830.
  • Remini, Robert V. (1981). Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8018-5913-7. OCLC 1145807972.
  • Remini, Robert V. (1984). Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833–1845. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8018-5913-7. OCLC 1285459723.
  • Wilentz, Sean (2005). Andrew Jackson. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0-8050-6925-9. OCLC 863515036.

Books

  • Adams, Sean P. (2013). "Introduction: The President and his Era". In Adams, Sean P. (ed.). A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson. Wiley. pp. 1–11. ISBN 9781444335415. OCLC 1152040405.
  • Aptheker, Herbert (1974) [1943]. "The Turner Cataclysm and Some Repercussions". American Negro Slave Revolts. International Publishers. pp. 293–394. ISBN 9780717800032. OCLC 1028031914.
  • Baptist, Edward E. (2016). The Half has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism. New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00296-2. OCLC 1302085747.
  • Booraem, Hendrik (2001). Young Hickory: The Making of Andrew Jackson. Lanham, MD: Taylor Trade Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8783-3263-2.
  • Boller, Paul F. Jr. (2004). Presidential Campaigns: From George Washington to George W. Bush. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19516-716-0. OCLC 1285570008.
  • Borneman, Walter R. (2008). Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America. New York, NY: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6560-8. OCLC 1150943134.
  • Brands, Henry W. (2008). Traitor to his Class: The Privileged Life and radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Doubleday. ISBN 9780385519588. OCLC 759509803.
  • Breen, Patrick H. (2015). The Land Shall be Deluged in Blood : A New History of the Nat Turner Revolt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199828005. OCLC 929856251.
  • Burstein, Andrew (2003). The Passions of Andrew Jackson. Knopf. ISBN 0375714049. OCLC 1225864865.
  • Cheathem, Mark R. (2013). ""The Shape of Democracy": Historical Interpretations of Jacksonian Democracy". In McKnight, Brian D.; Humphreys, James S. (eds.). Interpreting American History: The Age of Andrew Jackson. Kent State University Press. pp. 1–21. ISBN 9781606350980. OCLC 700709151.
  • Cheathem, Mark R. (2014a). Andrew Jackson: Southerner (Ebook). LSU Press. ISBN 9780807151006. OCLC 858995561.
  • Clark, Thomas D.; Guice, John D. W. (1996). The Old Southwest, 1765–1830: Frontiers in conflict. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806128368. OCLC 1285743152.
  • Durham, Walter T. (1990). Before Tennessee: the Southwest Territory, 1790–1796: a narrative history of the Territory of the United States South of the River Ohio. Piney Flats, TN: Rocky Mount Historical Association. ISBN 978-0-9678-3071-1.
  • Ellis, Richard E. (1974). "Andrew Jackson:1829-1837". In Woodward, C. Vann (ed.). Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct. Dell. pp. 51–656. OCLC 1036817744.
  • Ellis, Richard E. (1989). The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights, and the Nullification Crisis. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195345155. OCLC 655900280.
  • Feerick, John D. (1965). From Failing Hands: the Story of Presidential Succession. New York City: Fordham University Press.
  • Fish, Carl R. (1927). The Rise of the Common Man 1830–1850. MacMillian. OCLC 1151151619.
  • Freehling, William (1966). Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816–1836. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195076813. OCLC 1151067281.
  • Garrison, Tim Allen (2002). The Legal Ideology of Removal: The Southern Judiciary and the Sovereignty of Native American Nations. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-3417-2. OCLC 53956489.
  • Gatell, Frank Otto (1967). The Jacksonians and the Money Power. Chicago, Rand McNally. OCLC 651767466.
  • Gilo-Whitaker, Dina (2019). As Long as Grass Grows: The Indigenous Fight for Environmental Justice, from Colonization to Standing Rock. Beacon Press. ISBN 9780807073780. OCLC 1044542033.
  • Greeley, Horace (1864). The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of America, 1860-64. Its Causes, Incidents and Results. O. D. Case and Company.
  • Gullan, Harold I. (2004). "Dramatic Departure: Andrew Jackson Sr., Abraham Van Buren". First fathers: the men who inspired our Presidents. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-46597-3. OCLC 53090968.
  • Hammond, Bray (1957). Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. OCLC 1147712456.
  • Hickey, Donald R. (1989). The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252060598. OCLC 1036973138.
  • Howe, Daniel Walker (2007). What Hath God Wrought: the Transformation of America, 1815–1848. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974379-7. OCLC 646814186.
  • Kakel, Carroll (2011). The American West and the Nazi East: A Comparative and Interpretive Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230307063. OCLC 743799760.
  • Lane, Carl (2014). A Nation Wholly Free: The Elimination of the National Debt in the Age of Jackson. Westholme. ISBN 9781594162091. OCLC 1150853554.
  • Lansford, Tom; Woods, Thomas E., eds. (2008). Exploring American History: From Colonial Times to 1877. Vol. 10. New York: Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-7758-7.
  • Lynn, John A. (2019). Another Kind of War: The Nature and History of Terrorism. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300189988. OCLC 1107042059.
  • Mahon, John K. (1962). "The Treaty of Moultrie Creek, 1823". The Florida Historical Quarterly. 40 (4): 350–372. JSTOR 30139875.
  • Marszalek, John F. (1997). The Petticoat Affair: Manners, Mutiny, and Sex in Andrew Jackson's White House. Free Press. ISBN 0684828014. OCLC 36767691.
  • McGrane, Reginald C. (1965). The Panic of 1837. University of Chicago Press. OCLC 1150938709.
  • Meyers, Marvin (1960). The Jacksonian Persuasion: Politics & Belief. Vintage Books. OCLC 1035884705.
  • Missall, John; Missall, Mary Lou (2004). The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0813027152. OCLC 1256504949.
  • Moser, Harold D.; Macpherson, Sharon, eds. (1984). The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Volume II, 1804–1813. University of Tennessee Press. Retrieved May 25, 2022.
  • Moser, Harold D.; Hoth, David R.; Macpherson, Sharon; Reinbold, John H., eds. (1991). The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Volume III, 1814–1815. University of Tennessee Press. p. 35. Retrieved May 25, 2022. I have not heard whether Genl Coffee has taken on to him little Lyncoya-I have got another Pett-given to me by the chief Jame Fife, ... [The Indian children were probably Theodore and Charley.]*
  • Murphy, Sharon A. (2013). "The Myth and Reality of andrew Jackson's Rise in the Election of 1824". In Adams, Sean P. (ed.). A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson. Wiley. pp. 260–279. ISBN 9781444335415. OCLC 1152040405.
  • Nester, William R. (2013). The Age of Jackson and the Art of Power. Potomac Books. ISBN 9781612346052. OCLC 857769985.
  • Niven, John (1988). John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union: A Biography. Baton Rouge, LA: LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-1858-0. OCLC 1035889000.
  • Nowlan, Robert A. (2012). The American Presidents, Washington to Tyler. Jefferson, NC: McFarland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7864-6336-7. OCLC 692291434.
  • Ogg, Frederic Austin (1919). The Reign of Andrew Jackson; Vol. 20, Chronicles of America Series. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. OCLC 928924919.
  • Olson, James Stuart (2002). Robert L. Shadle (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30830-7. OCLC 1033573148.
  • Owsley, Frank Lawrence Jr. (1981). Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812-1815. University Presses of Florida. ISBN 0813006627. OCLC 1151350587.
  • Ostler, Jeffrey (2019). Surviving Genocide. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-24526-4. OCLC 1099434736.
  • Parins, James W.; Littlefield, Daniel F. (2011). "Introduction". In Parins, James W.; Littlefield, Daniel F. (eds.). Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal [2 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313360428. OCLC 720586004.
  • Remini, Robert V. (1990). The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 9780807116425. OCLC 1200479832.
  • Rogin, Michael P. (1975). Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian. Knopf. ISBN 0394482042. OCLC 1034678255.
  • Sabato, Larry; O'Connor, Karen (2002). American Government: Continuity and Change. New York: Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-31711-7. OCLC 1028046888.
  • Satz, Ronald N. (1974). American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era. University of Nebraska. ISBN 9780803208230.
  • Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. (1945). The Age of Jackson. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 9780316773430. OCLC 1024176654.
  • Schwartz, Bernard (1993). A History of the Supreme Court. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509387-2. OCLC 1035668728.
  • Temin, Peter (1969). Jacksonian Economy. Norton. OCLC 1150111725.
  • Turner, Frederick Jackson (1920). The Frontier in American History. Henry Holt. OCLC 1045610195.
  • Unger, Harlow G. (2012). John Quincy Adams. De Capo. ISBN 9780306822650. OCLC 1035758771.
  • Van Deusen, Glyndon G. (1963). The Jacksonian Era, 1828-1848. Harper & Row. ISBN 9780061330285. OCLC 1176180758.
  • Wallace, Anthony F. C. (1993). The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians. Hill and Wang. ISBN 9780809066315. OCLC 1150209732.
  • Ward, John. W. (1962). "The Age of the Common Man". In Higham, John (ed.). The Reconstruction of American History. Hutchison. pp. 82–97. OCLC 1151080132.

Journal articles and dissertations

  • Anderson, Gary Clayton (2016). "The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing?". Western Historical Quarterly. Oxford University Press. 47 (4): 416. doi:10.1093/whq/whw126. ISSN 0043-3810. JSTOR 26782720.
  • Bergeron, Paul H. (1976). "The nullification controversy revisited". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 35 (3): 263–275. JSTOR 42623589.
  • Berutti, Ronald A. (1992). "The Cherokee Cases: The Fight to Save the Supreme Court and the Cherokee Indians". American Indian Law Review. 17 (1): 291–308. doi:10.2307/20068726. JSTOR 20068726.
  • Brogdon, Matthew S. (2011). "Defending the Union: Andrew Jackson's Nullifaction Proclamation and American federalism". Review of Politics. 73 (2): 245–273. doi:10.1017/S0034670511000064. JSTOR 42623589. S2CID 145679939.
  • Campbell, Stephen W. (2016). "Funding the Bank War: Nicholas Biddle and the public relations campaign to recharter the second bank of the U.S., 1828–1832". American Nineteenth Century History. 17 (3): 279–299. doi:10.1080/14664658.2016.1230930. S2CID 152280055.
  • Cave, Alfred A. (2003). "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830". The Historian. 65 (6): 1330–1353. doi:10.2307/2205966. JSTOR 2205966.
  • Cheathem, Mark R. (2011). (PDF). History Compass. 9 (4): 326–338. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2011.00763.x. ISSN 1478-0542. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 12, 2022.
  • Cheathem, Mark (2014). "Frontiersman or Southern Gentleman? Newspaper Coverage of Andrew Jackson during the 1828 Presidential Campaign". The Readex Report. 9 (3). from the original on January 12, 2015.
  • Carson, James T. (2008). ""The obituary of nations": Ethnic cleansing, memory, and the origins of the Old South". Southern Culture. 14 (4): 6–31. doi:10.1353/scu.0.0026. JSTOR 26391777. S2CID 144154298.
  • Clifton, Frances (1952). "John Overton as Andrew Jackson's friend". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 11 (1): 23–40. JSTOR 42621095.
  • Cole, Donald B. (1986). "Review: The Age of Jackson: After Forty Years". Reviews in American History. 14 (1): 149–159. doi:10.2307/2702131. JSTOR 2702131.
  • Cole, Donald P. (1997). "A yankee in Kentucky: The early years of Amos Kendall, 1789–1828". Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Third Series. 109 (1): 24–36. JSTOR 25081127.
  • Davis, Ethan (2010). "An administrative Trail of Tears: Indian removal". The American Journal of Legal History. 50 (1): 1330–1353. doi:10.2307/2205966. JSTOR 2205966.
  • Davis, Karl (2002). ""Remember Fort Mims": Reinterpreting the origins of the Creek War". Journal of the Early Republic. 22 (4): 611–636. doi:10.2307/3124760. JSTOR 3124760.
  • Ely, James W, Jr. (1981). "Andrew Jackson as Tennessee state court judge, 1798–1804". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 40 (2). JSTOR 42626180.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Ericson, David F. (1995). "The nullification crisis, American republicanism, and the Force Bill debate". Journal of Southern History. 81 (2): 249–270. doi:10.2307/2211577. JSTOR 2211577.
  • Friedrich, Carl Joachim (1937). "The rise and decline of the spoils tradition". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 189: 10–16. doi:10.1177/000271623718900103. JSTOR 1019439. S2CID 144735397.
  • Gammon, Samuel G. (1922). The Presidential Campaign of 1832 (Thesis). Johns Hopkins University. OCLC 1050835838.
  • Gatell, Frank O. (1964). "Spoils of the Bank War: Political Bias in the Selection of Pet Banks". The American Historical Review. 70 (1): 35–58. doi:10.2307/1842097. JSTOR 1842097.
  • Gilman, Stuart C. (1995). "Presidential Ethics and the Ethics of the Presidency". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 537: 58–75. doi:10.1177/0002716295537000006. JSTOR 1047754. S2CID 143876977.
  • Hall, Kermit (1992). "Judiciary Act of 1837". The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford University Press. p. 475. ISBN 0195058356. OCLC 1036760206.
  • Haveman, Christopher D. (2009). (PDF) (PhD). Auburn University. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 26, 2022.
  • Heidler, David S. (1993). "The politics of national aggression: Congress and the First Seminole War". Journal of the Early Republic. 13 (4): 501–530. doi:10.2307/3124558. JSTOR 3124558.
  • Henig, Gerald S. (1969). "The Jacksonian attitude toward Abolitionism". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 28 (1): 42–56. JSTOR 1901307.
  • Howell, William Huntting (2010). ""Read, Pause, and Reflect!!"". Journal of the Early Republic. 30 (2): 293–300. doi:10.1353/jer.0.0149. JSTOR 40662272. S2CID 144448483.
  • Jackson, Carlton (1966). "The internal improvement vetoes of Andrew Jackson". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 25 (3): 531–550. doi:10.2307/3115344. JSTOR 3115344. S2CID 55379727.
  • Jackson, Carlton (1967). "--Another Time, Another Place--: The attempted assassination of President Andrew Jackson". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 26 (2): 184–190. JSTOR 42622937.
  • Kanon, Thomas (1999). ""A slow, laborious slaughter": The battle of Horseshoe Bend". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 58 (1): 2–15. JSTOR 42627446.
  • Koenig, Louis W. (1964). "American Politics: The First Half-Century". Current History. 47 (278): 193–198. doi:10.1525/curh.1964.47.278.193. JSTOR 45311183.
  • Knodell, Jane (2006). "Rethinking the Jacksonian economy: The impact of the 1832 bank veto on commercial banking". Journal of Economic History. 66 (3): 641–574. doi:10.1017/S0022050706000258. JSTOR 3874852. S2CID 155084029.
  • Mahon, John K. (1998). "The First Seminole War: November 21, 1817-May24,1818". Florida Historical Quarterly. 77 (1): 62–67. JSTOR 30149093.
  • Latner, Richard B. (1978). "The Kitchen Cabinet and Andrew Jackson's advisory system". The Journal of American History. 65 (2): 367–388. doi:10.2307/1894085. JSTOR 1894085.
  • McFaul, John M. (1975). "Expediency vs. morality: Jacksonian politics and slavery". The Journal of American History. 82 (1): 24–39. doi:10.2307/1901307. JSTOR 1901307.
  • McLoughlin, William G. (1986). "Georgia's role in instigating compulsory Indian removal". The Georgia Historical Quarterly. 70 (4): 605–632. JSTOR 40581582.
  • Morgan, William G. (1969). "The origin and development of the congressional nominating caucus". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 113 (2): 184–196. JSTOR 985965.
  • Miles, Edwin A. (1992). "After John Marshall's Decision: Worcester v. Georgia and the Nullification Crisis". Journal of Southern History. 39 (4): 519–544. doi:10.2307/2205966. JSTOR 2205966.
  • Nettels, Curtis (1925). "The Mississippi Valley and the federal judiciary, 1807-1837". The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 12 (2): 202–226. doi:10.2307/1886513. JSTOR 1886513.
  • Owsley, Harriet Chappel (1977). "The marriages of Rachel Donelson". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 36 (4): 479–492. JSTOR 42625784.
  • Parsons, Lynn Hudson (1973). ""A perpetual harrow upon my feelings": John Quincy Adams and the American indian". The New England Quarterly. 46 (3): 339–379. doi:10.2307/364198. JSTOR 364198.
  • Perdue, Theda (2012). "The Legacy of Indian Removal". Journal of Southern History. 78 (1): 3–36. JSTOR 23247455.
  • Perkins, Edwin J. (1987). "Lost opportunities for compromise in the Bank War: A reassessment of jackson's veto message". Business History Review. 61 (4): 531–550. doi:10.2307/3115344. JSTOR 3115344. S2CID 55379727.
  • Phillips, Kim T. (1976). "The Pennsylvania origins of the Jackson movement". Political Science Quarterly. 91 (3): 489–501. doi:10.2307/2148938. JSTOR 2148938.
  • Porter, Kenneth Wiggins (1951). "Negroes and the Seminole War, 1817-1818". Journal of Negro History. 36 (3): 249–280. doi:10.2307/2715671. JSTOR 2715671. S2CID 150360181.
  • Ratcliffe, Donald J. (2000). "The Nullification Crisis, Southern discontents, and the American political process". American Nineteenth Century History. 1 (2): 1–30. doi:10.1080/14664650008567014. S2CID 144242176.
  • Rousseau, Peter L. (2002). "Jacksonian money policy, specie flows, and the panic of 1837". The Journal of Economic History. 82 (2): 457–488. JSTOR 2698187.
  • Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (2017). "Presidential Greatness and Political Science: Assessing the 2014 APSA Presidents and Executive Politics Section Presidential Greatness Survey". PS: Political Science & Politics. 50 (3): 824–830. doi:10.1017/S1049096517000671. S2CID 157101605.
  • Schmidt, Louis Bernard (1955). "Andrew Jackson and the Agrarian West". Current History. 28 (166): 321–330. doi:10.1525/curh.1955.28.166.321. JSTOR 45308841. S2CID 249685683.
  • Sellers, Charles G. Jr. (1958). "Andrew Jackson versus the Historians". Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 44 (4): 615–634. doi:10.2307/1886599. JSTOR 1886599.
  • Sellers, Charles G. Jr. (1954). "Banking and politics in Jackson's Tennessee, 1817–1827". Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 41 (1): 61–84. doi:10.2307/1898150. JSTOR 1898150.
  • Somit, Albert (1948). "Andrew Jackson: Legend and Reality". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 7 (4): 291–313. JSTOR 42620991.
  • Stenberg, Richard R. (1934). "The Texas schemes of Jackson and Houston, 1829–1836". The Southwestern Social Science Quarterly. 15 (3): 229–250. JSTOR 42879202.
  • Thomas, Robert C. (1976). "Andrew Jackson versus France: American policy towards France, 1834–1836". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 35 (1): 457–488. JSTOR 42623553.
  • Thompson, Sheneese; Barchiesi, Franco (2018). "Harriet Tubman and Andrew Jackson on the Twnety-Dollar Bill: A Monstrous Intimacy". Open Cultural Studies. 2: 417–429. doi:10.1515/culture-2018-0038. S2CID 166210849.
  • Timberlake, Richard H. (1965). "The Specie Circular and Sales of public land". The American Historical Review. 25 (3): 414–416. JSTOR 2116177.
  • Tregle, Joseph G. Jr. (1981). "Andrew Jackson and the continuing Battle of New Orleans". Journal of the Early Republic. 1 (4): 373–393. doi:10.2307/3122827. JSTOR 3122827.
  • Watson, Harry L. (2017). "Andrew Jackson's Populism". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 76 (3): 236–237. JSTOR 26540290.
  • Warshauer, Matthew (2006). "Andrew Jackson: Chivalric slave master". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 65 (3): 203–229. JSTOR 42627964.
  • Whapples, Robert (2014). "Were Andrew Jackson's policies "Good for the Economy"?". The Independent Review. 18 (4): 545–558. JSTOR 24563169.
  • Wood, Kirsten E. (1997). ""One woman so dangerous to public morals": Gender and power in the Eaton Affair". Journal of the Early Republic. 17 (2): 237–275. doi:10.2307/3124447. JSTOR 3124447.
  • Wright, J. Leitch Jr. (1968). "A note on the First Seminole War as seen by the Indians, negroes, and their British advisors". The Journal of Southern History. 34 (4): 565–576. doi:10.2307/2204387. JSTOR 2204387.

Primary sources

  • Binns, John (1828). "Some account of some of the bloody deeds of General Jackson". Library of Congress. from the original on January 16, 2014. Retrieved January 15, 2014.
  • "Expunged Senate censure motion against President Andrew Jackson, January 16, 1837". Andrew Jackson – National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the U.S. Senate. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. from the original on November 3, 2014. Retrieved February 21, 2014.
  • Jackson, Andrew (1829). "Andrew Jackson's First Annual Message to Congress". The American Presidency Project. from the original on February 26, 2008. Retrieved March 14, 2008.
  • Jackson, Andrew (1832). . The Avalon Project. Archived from the original on August 24, 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
  • "South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification, November 24, 1832". The Avalon Project. from the original on August 19, 2016. Retrieved August 22, 2016.
  • Taliaferro, John (1828). "Supplemental account of some of the bloody deeds of General Jackson, being a supplement to the "Coffin handbill"". Library of Congress. from the original on June 28, 2017.
  • de Tocqueville, Alexis (1969) [1840]. Democracy in America. Translated by Lawrence, George. Harper & Row. ISBN 9780385081702. OCLC 1148815334.

External links

  • Scholarly coverage of Jackson at Miller Center, U of Virginia
  • Works by Andrew Jackson at Project Gutenberg
  • Works by or about Andrew Jackson at Internet Archive
  • Works by Andrew Jackson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)  
  • The Papers of Andrew Jackson at the Avalon Project
  • The Hermitage, home of President Andrew Jackson
  • "Andrew Jackson Papers". Library of Congress. A digital archive providing access to manuscript images of many of Jackson's documents.

December 18, 2023
andrew, jackson, this, article, about, seventh, president, united, states, other, uses, disambiguation, confused, with, andrew, johnson, march, 1767, june, 1845, american, lawyer, planter, general, statesman, served, seventh, president, united, states, from, 1. This article is about the seventh president of the United States For other uses see Andrew Jackson disambiguation Not to be confused with Andrew Johnson Andrew Jackson March 15 1767 June 8 1845 was an American lawyer planter general and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837 Before his presidency he gained fame as a general in the U S Army and served in both houses of the U S Congress Often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies particularly his treatment of Native Americans Andrew JacksonPortrait c 18357th President of the United StatesIn office March 4 1829 March 4 1837Vice PresidentJohn C Calhoun 1829 1832 None 1832 1833 a Martin Van Buren 1833 1837 Preceded byJohn Quincy AdamsSucceeded byMartin Van BurenUnited States Senatorfrom TennesseeIn office March 4 1823 October 14 1825Preceded byJohn WilliamsSucceeded byHugh Lawson WhiteIn office September 26 1797 April 1 1798Preceded byWilliam CockeSucceeded byDaniel SmithFederal Military Commissioner of FloridaIn office March 10 1821 December 31 1821Appointed byJames MonroePreceded byJose Maria Coppinger Spanish East Florida Jose Maria Callava Spanish West Florida Succeeded byWilliam Pope Duval as Territorial Governor Justice of the Tennessee Superior CourtIn office June 1798 June 1804Preceded byHowell TatumSucceeded byJohn OvertonMember of the U S House of Representatives from Tennessee s at large districtIn office December 4 1796 September 26 1797Preceded byJames White Delegate from the Southwest Territory Succeeded byWilliam C C ClaibornePersonal detailsBorn 1767 03 15 March 15 1767Waxhaw Settlement between North Carolina and South Carolina British AmericaDiedJune 8 1845 1845 06 08 aged 78 Nashville Tennessee U S Resting placeThe HermitagePolitical partyDemocratic 1828 1845 Other politicalaffiliationsDemocratic Republican before 1825 Jacksonian 1825 1828 SpouseRachel Donelson m 1794 died 1828 wbr Children2 including LyncoyaOccupationPoliticianlawyergeneralAwardsCongressional Gold Medal Thanks of CongressSignatureMilitary serviceBranch serviceUnited States ArmyRankMajor general U S Army Major general U S Volunteers Major general Tennessee militia UnitSouth Carolina Militia 1780 81 Tennessee Militia 1792 1821 United States Army 1814 1821 Battles warsSee list American Revolutionary War Battle of Hanging Rock Creek War Battle of Talladega Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek Battle of Horseshoe Bend War of 1812 Battle of Pensacola Battle of New Orleans First Seminole War Capture of St Marks Siege of Fort BarrancasJackson was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards He briefly served in the U S House of Representatives and the U S Senate representing Tennessee After resigning he served as a justice on the Tennessee Superior Court from 1798 until 1804 Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage becoming a wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African American slaves during his lifetime In 1801 he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander He led troops during the Creek War of 1813 1814 winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and negotiating the Treaty of Fort Jackson that required the indigenous Creek population to surrender vast tracts of present day Alabama and Georgia In the concurrent war against the British Jackson s victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero He later commanded U S forces in the First Seminole War which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain Jackson briefly served as Florida s first territorial governor before returning to the Senate He ran for president in 1824 He won a plurality of the popular and electoral vote but no candidate won the electoral majority With the help of Henry Clay the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election Jackson s supporters alleged that there was a corrupt bargain between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party Jackson ran again in 1828 defeating Adams in a landslide In 1830 he signed the Indian Removal Act This act which has been described as ethnic cleansing displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths Jackson faced a challenge to the integrity of the federal union when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government He threatened the use of military force to enforce the tariff but the crisis was defused when it was amended In 1832 he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States arguing that it was a corrupt institution After a lengthy struggle the Bank was dismantled In 1835 Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt He survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president In one of his final presidential acts he recognized the Republic of Texas After leaving office Jackson supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K Polk as well as the annexation of Texas Jackson s legacy remains controversial and opinions are frequently polarized Supporters characterize him as a defender of democracy and the Constitution while critics point to his reputation as a demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him Jackson s presidency has consistently been ranked as above average although his reputation has declined since the late 20th century Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Revolutionary War 3 Early career 3 1 Legal career and marriage 3 2 Early public career 3 3 Planting career and slavery 3 4 Duel with Dickinson and adventure with Burr 4 Military career 4 1 War of 1812 4 1 1 Creek War 4 1 2 Battle of New Orleans 4 2 First Seminole War 5 Presidential aspirations 5 1 Election of 1824 5 2 Election of 1828 and death of Rachel Jackson 6 Presidency 1829 1837 6 1 Inauguration 6 2 Reforms and rotation in office 6 3 Petticoat affair 6 4 Indian Removal Act 6 5 Nullification crisis 6 6 Bank War and Election of 1832 6 6 1 Bank Veto 6 6 2 Election of 1832 6 6 3 Removal of deposits and censure 6 6 4 Panic of 1837 6 7 Physical assault and assassination attempt 6 8 Slavery 6 9 Foreign affairs 6 10 Judiciary 6 11 States admitted to the Union 7 Later life and death 1837 1845 8 Personal life 8 1 Family 8 2 Temperament 8 3 Religious faith 9 Legacy 10 Writings 11 Notes 12 References 13 Bibliography 13 1 Biographies 13 2 Books 13 3 Journal articles and dissertations 13 4 Primary sources 14 External linksEarly life and educationAndrew Jackson was born on March 15 1767 in the Waxhaws region of the Carolinas His parents were Scots Irish colonists Andrew Jackson and Elizabeth Hutchinson Presbyterians who had emigrated from Ulster Ireland in 1765 1 Jackson s father was born in Carrickfergus County Antrim around 1738 2 and his ancestors had crossed into Northern Ireland from Scotland after the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 3 Jackson had two older brothers who came with his parents from Ireland Hugh born 1763 and Robert born 1764 4 3 Elizabeth had a strong hatred of the British that she passed on to her sons 5 Jackson s exact birthplace is unclear Jackson s father died at the age of 29 in a logging accident while clearing land in February 1767 three weeks before his son Andrew was born 4 Afterwards Elizabeth and her three sons moved in with her sister and brother in law Jane and James Crawford 6 Jackson later stated that he was born on the Crawford plantation 7 which is in Lancaster County South Carolina but second hand evidence suggests that he might have been born at another uncle s home in North Carolina 6 When Jackson was young Elizabeth thought he might become a minister and paid to have him schooled by a local clergyman 8 He learned to read write work with numbers and was exposed to Greek and Latin 9 but he was too strong willed and hot tempered for the ministry 6 Revolutionary War nbsp The Brave Boy of the Waxhaws an 1876 Currier and Ives lithograph depicting a young Andrew Jackson defending himself against a British officer during the American Revolutionary WarJackson and his older brothers Hugh and Robert served on the Patriot side against British forces during the American Revolutionary War Hugh served under Colonel William Richardson Davie dying from heat exhaustion after the Battle of Stono Ferry in June 1779 10 After anti British sentiment intensified in the Southern Colonies following the Battle of Waxhaws in May 1780 Elizabeth encouraged Andrew and Robert to participate in militia drills 11 They served as couriers 12 and were present at the Battle of Hanging Rock in August 1780 13 Andrew and Robert were captured in April 1781 when the British occupied the home of a Crawford relative A British officer demanded to have his boots polished Andrew refused and the officer slashed him with a sword leaving him with scars on his left hand and head Robert also refused and was struck a blow on the head 14 The brothers were taken to a prisoner of war camp in Camden South Carolina where they became malnourished and contracted smallpox 15 In late spring the brothers were released to their mother in a prisoner exchange 16 Robert died two days after arriving home but Elizabeth was able to nurse Andrew back to health 17 Once he recovered Elizabeth volunteered to nurse American prisoners of war housed in British prison ships in the harbor of Charleston South Carolina 18 She contracted cholera and died soon afterwards 19 The war made Jackson an orphan at age 14 20 and increased his hatred for the values he associated with Britain in particular aristocracy and political privilege 21 Early careerLegal career and marriage nbsp An 1823 portrait of Jackson s wife Rachel by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl now housed at The Hermitage in NashvilleAfter the American Revolutionary War Jackson worked as a saddler 22 briefly returned to school and taught reading and writing to children 23 In 1784 he left the Waxhaws region for Salisbury North Carolina where he studied law under attorney Spruce Macay 24 He completed his training under John Stokes 25 and was admitted to the North Carolina bar in September 1787 26 Shortly thereafter his friend John McNairy helped him get appointed as a prosecuting attorney in the Western District of North Carolina 27 which would later become the state of Tennessee While traveling to assume his new position Jackson stopped in Jonesborough While there he bought his first slave a woman who was around his age 28 He also fought his first duel accusing another lawyer Waightstill Avery of impugning his character The duel ended with both men firing in the air 29 Jackson began his new career in the frontier town of Nashville in 1788 and quickly moved up in social status 30 He became a protege of William Blount one of the most powerful men in the territory 31 Jackson was appointed attorney general of the Mero District in 1791 and judge advocate for the militia the following year 32 He also got involved in land speculation 33 eventually forming a partnership with fellow lawyer John Overton 34 Their partnership mainly dealt with claims made under a land grab act of 1783 that opened Cherokee and Chickasaw territory to North Carolina s white residents 35 While boarding at the home of Rachel Stockly Donelson the widow of John Donelson Jackson became acquainted with their daughter Rachel Donelson Robards The younger Rachel was in an unhappy marriage with Captain Lewis Robards and the two were separated by 1789 36 After the separation Jackson and Rachel became romantically involved 37 living together as husband and wife 38 Robards petitioned for divorce which was granted on the basis of Rachel s infidelity 39 The couple legally married in January 1794 40 In 1796 they acquired their first plantation Hunter s Hill 41 on 640 acres 260 ha of land near Nashville 42 Early public career Jackson became a member of the Democratic Republican Party the dominant party in Tennessee 31 He was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796 43 When Tennessee achieved statehood that year he was elected to be its U S representative In Congress Jackson argued against the Jay Treaty criticized George Washington for allegedly removing Democratic Republicans from public office and joined several other Democratic Republican congressmen in voting against a resolution of thanks for Washington 44 He advocated for the right of Tennesseans to militarily oppose Native American interests 45 The state legislature elected him to be a U S senator in 1797 but he resigned after serving only six months 46 In the spring of 1798 Governor John Sevier appointed Jackson to be judge of the Tennessee Superior Court 47 In 1802 he also became major general or commander of the Tennessee militia a position that was determined by a vote of the militia s officers The vote was tied between Jackson and Sevier a popular Revolutionary War veteran and former governor but the governor Archibald Roane broke the tie in Jackson s favor Jackson later accused Sevier of fraud and bribery 48 Sevier responded by impugning Rachel s honor resulting in a shootout on a public street 49 Soon afterwards they met to duel but parted without having fired at each other 50 Planting career and slavery nbsp Aaron and Hannah Jackson two slaves owned by Jackson photographed by Theodore Schleier in 1865 now housed at The Hermitage in NashvilleJackson resigned his judgeship in 1804 51 He had almost gone bankrupt when the land and mercantile speculations he had made on the basis of promissory notes fell apart in the wake of an earlier financial panic 52 He had to sell Hunter s Hill as well as 25 000 acres 10 000 ha of land he bought for speculation and bought a smaller 420 acre 170 ha plantation near Nashville that he would call the Hermitage 53 He focused on recovering from his losses by becoming a successful planter and merchant 53 The Hermitage would grow to 1 000 acres 400 ha 54 making it one of the largest cotton growing plantations in the state 51 Like most planters in the Southern United States Jackson used slave labor In 1804 Jackson had nine African American slaves by 1820 he had over 100 and by his death in 1845 he had over 150 55 Over his lifetime he owned a total of 300 slaves 56 Jackson subscribed to the paternalistic idea of slavery which claimed that slave ownership was morally acceptable as long as slaves were treated with humanity and their basic needs were cared for 57 In practice slaves were treated as a form of wealth whose productivity needed to be protected 58 Jackson directed harsh punishment for slaves who disobeyed or ran away 59 For example in an 1804 advertisement to recover a runaway slave he offered ten dollars extra for every hundred lashes any person will give him up to three hundred lashes a number that would likely have been deadly 59 60 Jackson also participated in the local slave trade 61 Over time his accumulation of wealth in both slaves and land placed him among the elite families of Tennessee 62 Duel with Dickinson and adventure with Burr In May 1806 Jackson fought a duel with Charles Dickinson They had gotten into an argument over a horse race and Dickinson allegedly uttered a slur against Rachel 49 During the duel Dickinson fired first and the bullet hit Jackson in the chest The wound was not life threatening because the bullet had shattered against his breastbone 63 Jackson returned fire and killed Dickinson The killing tarnished Jackson s reputation 64 Later that year Jackson became involved in former vice president Aaron Burr s plan to conquer Spanish Florida and drive the Spanish from Texas Burr who was touring what was then the Western United States after mortally wounding Alexander Hamilton in a duel stayed with the Jacksons at the Hermitage in 1805 65 He eventually persuaded Jackson to join his adventure In October 1806 Jackson wrote James Winchester that the United States can conquer not only Florida but all Spanish North America 66 He informed the Tennessee militia that it should be ready to march at a moment s notice when the government and constituted authority of our country require it 67 and agreed to provide boats and provisions for the expedition 65 Jackson sent a letter to President Thomas Jefferson telling him that Tennessee was ready to defend the nation s honor 68 Jackson also expressed uncertainty about the enterprise He warned the Governor of Louisiana William Claiborne and Tennessee Senator Daniel Smith that some of the people involved in the adventure might be intending to break away from the United States 69 In December Jefferson ordered Burr to be arrested for treason 65 Jackson safe from arrest because of his extensive paper trail organized the militia to capture the conspirators 70 He testified before a grand jury in 1807 implying that it was Burr s associate James Wilkinson who was guilty of treason not Burr Burr was acquitted of the charges 71 Military careerMilitary campaigns of Andrew Jackson nbsp General Andrew Jackson an 1819 portrait by John Wesley Jarvis now housed at Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City nbsp Interactive fullscreen map nearby articles Creek War War of 1812 First Seminole WarWar of 1812 Creek War Main article Creek War On June 18 1812 the United States declared war on the United Kingdom launching the War of 1812 72 Though the war was primarily caused by maritime issues 73 it provided white American settlers on the southern frontier the opportunity to overcome Native American resistance to settlement undermine British support of the Native American tribes 74 and pry Florida from the Spanish Empire 75 Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war but he was not called to duty until after the United States military was repeatedly defeated in the American Northwest After these defeats in January 1813 Jackson enlisted over 2 000 volunteers 76 who were ordered to head to New Orleans to defend against a British attack 77 78 79 80 When his forces arrived at Natchez they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure A little later Jackson received a letter from the Secretary of War John Armstrong stating that his volunteers were not needed 81 and that they were to hand over any supplies to Wilkinson and disband 82 Jackson refused to disband his troops instead he led them on the difficult march back to Nashville earning the nickname Hickory later Old Hickory for his toughness 83 After returning to Nashville Jackson and one of his colonels John Coffee got into a street brawl over honor with the brothers Jesse and Thomas Hart Benton Nobody was killed but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him 84 Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor Willie Blount called out the militia in September 1813 following the August Fort Mims Massacre 85 The Red Sticks a confederate faction that had allied with Tecumseh a Shawnee chief who was fighting with the British against the United States killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at Burnt Corn Creek 86 Jackson s objective was to destroy the Red Sticks 87 He headed south from Fayetteville Tennessee in October with 2 500 militia establishing Fort Strother as his supply base 88 He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies 89 90 Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the Battle of Tallushatchee on November 3 and Jackson defeated another band later that month at the Battle of Talladega 91 By January 1814 the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson s force by about 1 000 volunteers 92 but he continued the offensive 93 The Red Sticks counterattacked at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek Jackson repelled them but was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother 94 Jackson s army was reinforced by further recruitment and the addition of a regular army unit the 39th U S Infantry Regiment The combined force of 3 000 men including Cherokee Choctaw and Creek allies attacked a Red Stick fort at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River which was manned by about 1 000 men 95 The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred 96 Almost all their warriors were killed and nearly 300 women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson s Native American allies 96 The victory broke the power of the Red Sticks 97 Jackson continued his scorched earth campaign of burning villages destroying supplies 97 and starving Red Stick women and children 98 The campaign ended when William Weatherford the Red Stick leader surrendered 99 although some Red Sticks fled to East Florida 100 On June 8 Jackson was appointed a brigadier general in the United States Army and 10 days later was made a brevet major general with command of the Seventh Military District which included Tennessee Louisiana the Mississippi Territory and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy 101 With President James Madison s approval Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson The treaty required all Creek including those who had remained allies to surrender 23 000 000 acres 9 300 000 ha of land to the United States 102 Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish He moved his forces to Mobile Alabama in August accused the Spanish governor of West Florida Mateo Gonzalez Manrique of arming the Red Sticks and threatened to attack The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it which violated Spanish neutrality 103 The British attempted to capture Mobile but their invasion fleet was repulsed at Fort Bowyer 104 Jackson then invaded Florida defeating the Spanish and British forces at the Battle of Pensacola on November 7 105 Afterwards the Spanish surrendered and the British withdrew Weeks later Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans which was the gateway to the Lower Mississippi River and control of the American West 106 He evacuated Pensacola strengthened the garrison at Mobile 107 and led his troops to New Orleans 108 Battle of New Orleans Main article Battle of New Orleans nbsp Battle of New Orleans an 1858 painting by Dennis Malone Carter now housed at The Historic New Orleans Collection in New OrleansJackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1 1814 109 There he instituted martial law because he worried about the loyalty of the city s Creole and Spanish inhabitants He augmented his force by forming an alliance with Jean Lafitte s smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek 110 paying non white volunteers the same salary as whites 111 This gave Jackson a force of about 5 000 men when the British arrived 112 The British arrived in New Orleans in mid December 113 Admiral Alexander Cochrane was the overall commander of the operation 114 General Edward Pakenham commanded the army of 10 000 soldiers many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars 115 As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them 116 The climactic battle took place on January 8 when the British launched a frontal assault Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their parapets and the attack ended in disaster 117 The British suffered over 2 000 casualties including Pakenham to the Americans 60 118 The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January but they still remained a threat 119 Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms He approved the execution of six militiamen for desertion 120 Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days 121 and had a member of the Louisiana legislature Louis Louaillier arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson s continuation of martial law U S District Court Judge Dominic A Hall signed a writ of habeas corpus for Louaillier s release Jackson had Hall arrested too A military court ordered Louaillier s release but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city 122 Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the Treaty of Ghent which ended the war with the British had been signed 123 his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans 124 Jackson s victory made him a national hero 125 and on February 27 1815 he was given the Thanks of Congress and awarded a Congressional Gold Medal 126 Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought 127 Jackson s victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers This control allowed the American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson 128 First Seminole War Main article Seminole Wars First Seminole War nbsp A c 1846 engraving of the trial of Robert Ambrister by William Croome in Pictorial Life of Andrew Jackson by John FrostFollowing the war Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage 129 Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command Despite resistance from Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford he signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820 in which the Creek Choctaw Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States These included the Treaty of Tuscaloosa and the Treaty of Doak s Stand 130 131 Jackson soon became embroiled in conflict in Florida The former British post at Prospect Bluff which became known to Americans as the Negro fort remained occupied by more than a thousand former soldiers of the British Royal and Colonial Marines escaped slaves and various indigenous peoples 132 It had become a magnet for escapees 132 and was seen as a threat to the property rights of American enslavers 133 even a potential source of insurrection by enslaved people 134 Jackson ordered Colonel Duncan Clinch to capture the fort in July 1816 He destroyed it and killed many of the garrison Some survivors were enslaved while others fled into the wilderness of Florida 135 White American settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the Seminoles who straddled the border between the U S and Florida 136 In December 1817 Secretary of War John C Calhoun initiated the First Seminole War by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign with full power to conduct the war as he may think best 137 Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from Spain once and for all Before departing Jackson wrote to President James Monroe Let it be signified to me through any channel that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States and in sixty days it will be accomplished 138 Jackson invaded Florida captured the Spanish fort of St Marks and occupied Pensacola Seminole and Spanish resistance was effectively ended by May 1818 He also captured two British agents Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot who had been working with the Seminoles After a brief trial Jackson executed both of them causing a diplomatic incident with the British Jackson s actions polarized Monroe s cabinet The occupied territories were returned to Spain 139 Calhoun wanted him censured for violating the Constitution since the United States had not declared war on Spain Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson s occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida which Spain did in the Adams Onis Treaty of 1819 140 In February 1819 a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson 141 and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign the Treaty of Moultrie Creek in 1823 which surrendered much of their land in Florida 142 Presidential aspirationsElection of 1824 Main article 1824 United States presidential election nbsp An 1824 portrait of Jackson by Thomas Sully nbsp The 1824 U S presidential election results in which Jackson received a plurality of Electoral College votes Subsequently John Quincy Adams was elected the sixth president of the United States in a contingent election The Panic of 1819 the United States first prolonged financial depression caused Congress to reduce the military s size and abolish Jackson s generalship 143 In compensation Monroe made him the first territorial governor of Florida in 1821 144 He served as the governor for two months returning to the Hermitage in ill health 145 During his convalescence Jackson who had been a Freemason since at least 1798 became the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee for 1822 1823 146 Around this time he also completed negotiations for Tennessee to purchase Chickasaw lands This became known as the Jackson Purchase Jackson Overton and another colleague had speculated in some of the land and used their portion to found the town of Memphis 147 In 1822 Jackson agreed to run in the 1824 presidential election and he was nominated by the Tennessee legislature in July 148 At the time the Federalist Party had collapsed and there were four major contenders for the Democratic Republican Party nomination William Crawford John Quincy Adams Henry Clay and John C Calhoun Jackson was intended to be a stalking horse candidate to prevent Tennessee s electoral votes from going to Crawford who was seen as a Washington insider Jackson unexpectedly garnered popular support outside of Tennessee and became a serious candidate 143 He benefited from the expansion of suffrage among white males that followed the conclusion of the War of 1812 149 150 He was a popular war hero whose reputation suggested he had the decisiveness and independence to bring reform to Washington 151 He also was promoted as an outsider who stood for all the people blaming banks for the country s depression 152 During his presidential candidacy Jackson reluctantly ran for one of Tennessee s U S Senate seats Jackson s political managers William Berkeley Lewis and John Eaton convinced him that he needed to defeat incumbent John Williams who opposed him The legislature elected Jackson in October 1823 153 154 He was attentive to his senatorial duties He was appointed chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs but avoided debate or initiating legislation 155 He used his time in the Senate to form alliances and make peace with old adversaries 156 Eaton continued to campaign for Jackson s presidency updating his biography and writing a series of widely circulated pseudonymous letters that portrayed Jackson as a champion of republican liberty 157 Democratic Republican presidential nominees had historically been chosen by informal congressional nominating caucuses In 1824 most of the Democratic Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus 158 and the power to choose nominees was shifting to state nominating committees and legislatures 159 Jackson was nominated by a Pennsylvania convention making him not merely a regional candidate but the leading national contender 160 When Jackson won the Pennsylvania nomination Calhoun dropped out of the presidential race 161 Afterwards Jackson won the nomination in six other states and had a strong second place finish in three others 162 In the presidential election Jackson won a 42 percent plurality of the popular vote More importantly he won a plurality of electoral votes receiving 99 votes from states in the South West and Mid Atlantic He was the only candidate to win states outside of his regional base Adams dominated New England Crawford won Virginia and Georgia and Clay took three western states Because no candidate had a majority of 131 electoral votes the House of Representatives held a contingent election under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment The amendment specifies that only the top three electoral vote winners are eligible to be elected by the House so Clay was eliminated from contention 163 Clay who was also Speaker of the House and presided over the election s resolution saw a Jackson presidency as a disaster for the country 164 Clay threw his support behind Adams who won the contingent election on the first ballot Adams appointed Clay as his Secretary of State leading supporters of Jackson to accuse Clay and Adams of having struck a corrupt bargain 165 After the Congressional session concluded Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee 166 Election of 1828 and death of Rachel Jackson Main articles 1828 United States presidential election and Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign nbsp The 1828 United States presidential election resultsAfter the election Jackson s supporters formed a new party to undermine Adams and ensure he served only one term Adams s presidency went poorly and Adams s behavior undermined it He was perceived as an intellectual elite who ignored the needs of the populace He was unable to accomplish anything because Congress blocked his proposals 167 In his First Annual Message to Congress Adams stated that we are palsied by the will of our constituents which was interpreted as his being against representative democracy 168 Jackson responded by championing the needs of ordinary citizens and declaring that the voice of the people must be heard 169 Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825 more than three years before the 1828 election 170 He gained powerful supporters in both the South and North including Calhoun who became Jackson s vice presidential running mate and New York Senator Martin Van Buren 171 Meanwhile Adams s support from the Southern states was eroded when he signed a tax on European imports the Tariff of 1828 which was called the Tariff of Abominations by opponents into law 169 Jackson s victory in the presidential race was overwhelming He won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote The election ended the one party system that had formed during the Era of Good Feelings as Jackson s supporters coalesced into the Democratic Party and the various groups who did not support him eventually formed the Whig Party 172 The political campaign was dominated by the personal abuse that partisans flung at both candidates 173 Jackson was accused of being the son of an English prostitute and a mulatto 174 175 and he was labeled a slave trader who trafficked in human flesh 176 A series of pamphlets known as the Coffin Handbills 177 accused him of having murdered 18 white men including the soldiers he had executed for desertion and alleging that he stabbed a man in the back with his cane 178 179 They stated that he had intentionally massacred Native American women and children at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend ate the bodies of Native Americans he killed in battle 180 181 and threatened to cut off the ears of congressmen who questioned his behavior during the First Seminole War 182 Jackson and Rachel were accused of adultery for living together before her divorce was finalized 183 and Rachel heard about the accusation 184 She had been under stress throughout the election and just as Jackson was preparing to head to Washington for his inauguration she fell ill 185 She did not live to see her husband become president dying of a stroke or heart attack a few days later 184 Jackson believed that the abuse from Adams supporters had hastened her death stating at her funeral May God Almighty forgive her murderers as I know she forgave them I never can 186 Presidency 1829 1837 Main article Presidency of Andrew Jackson Inauguration Main article First inauguration of Andrew Jackson nbsp Engraving of President Jackson by A H Ritchie based on Dennis Malone Carter s portrait c 1860Jackson arrived in Washington D C on February 11 and began forming his cabinet 187 He chose Van Buren as Secretary of State John Eaton as Secretary of War Samuel D Ingham as Secretary of Treasury John Branch as Secretary of Navy John M Berrien as Attorney General and William T Barry as Postmaster General 188 Jackson was inaugurated on March 4 1829 Adams who was embittered by his defeat refused to attend 189 Jackson become the first president elect to take the oath of office on the East Portico of the U S Capitol 190 In his inaugural address he promised to protect the sovereignty of the states respect the limits of the presidency reform the government by removing disloyal or incompetent appointees and observe a fair policy toward Native Americans 191 Jackson invited the public to the White House which was promptly overrun by well wishers who caused minor damage to its furnishings The spectacle earned him the nickname King Mob 192 Reforms and rotation in office Further information Spoils system Jackson believed that Adams s administration had been corrupt and he initiated investigations into all executive departments 193 These investigations revealed that 280 000 equivalent to 7 700 000 in 2022 was stolen from the Treasury They also resulted in a reduction in costs to the Department of the Navy saving 1 million equivalent to 27 500 000 in 2022 194 Jackson asked Congress to tighten laws on embezzlement and tax evasion and he pushed for an improved government accounting system 195 Jackson implemented a principle he called rotation in office The previous custom had been for the president to leave the existing appointees in office replacing them through attrition Jackson enforced the Tenure of Office Act an 1820 law that limited office tenure authorized the president to remove current office holders and appoint new ones 196 During his first year in office he removed about 10 of all federal employees 196 and replaced them with loyal Democrats 197 Jackson argued that rotation in office reduced corruption 198 by making officeholders responsible to the popular will 199 but it functioned as political patronage and became known as the spoils system 200 198 Petticoat affair Main article Petticoat affair nbsp A lithograph cartoon The Celeste al Cabinet by Albert A Hoffay published by Henry R Robinson in 1836 depicting Jackson s cabinet during the Petticoat Affair Celeste is Margaret Eaton Jackson spent much of his time during his first two and a half years in office dealing with what came to be known as the Petticoat Affair or Eaton Affair 201 202 The affair focused on Secretary of War Eaton s wife Margaret She had a reputation for being promiscuous and like Rachel Jackson she was accused of adultery She and Eaton had been close before her first husband John Timberlake died and they married nine months after his death 203 With the exception of Barry s wife Catherine 204 the cabinet members wives followed the lead of Vice President Calhoun s wife Floride and refused to socialize with the Eatons 205 Though Jackson defended Margaret her presence split the cabinet which had been so ineffective that he rarely called it into session 188 and the ongoing disagreement led to its dissolution 206 In the spring of 1831 Jackson demanded the resignations of all the cabinet members except Barry 207 who would resign in 1835 when a Congressional investigation revealed his mismanagement of the Post Office 208 Jackson tried to compensate Van Buren by appointing him the Minister to Great Britain but Calhoun blocked the nomination with a tie breaking vote against it 207 Van Buren along with newspaper editors Amos Kendall 209 and Francis Preston Blair 210 would become regular participants in Jackson s Kitchen Cabinet an unofficial varying group of advisors that Jackson turned to for decision making even after he had formed a new official cabinet 211 Indian Removal Act Further information Indian removal Indian Removal Act and Trail of Tears nbsp The Indian Removal Act and treaties involving Jackson before his presidency displaced most of the major tribes of the Southeast from their traditional territories east of the Mississippi River nbsp An 1830 portrait of Jackson by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl now housed at the North Carolina Museum of ArtJackson s presidency marked the beginning of a national policy of Native American removal 207 Before Jackson took office the relationship between the southern states and the Native American tribes who lived within their boundaries was strained The states felt that they had full jurisdiction over their territories the native tribes saw themselves as autonomous nations that had a right to the land they lived on 213 Significant portions of the five major tribes in the area then known as the Southwest the Cherokee Choctaw Chickasaw Creek and Seminoles began to adopt white culture including education agricultural techniques a road system and rudimentary manufacturing 214 In the case of the tensions between the state of Georgia and the Cherokee Adams had tried to address the issue encouraging Cherokee emigration west of the Mississippi through financial incentives but most refused 215 In the first days of Jackson s presidency some southern states passed legislation extending state jurisdiction to Native American lands 216 Jackson supported the states right to do so 217 218 His position was later made clear in the 1832 Supreme Court test case of this legislation Worcester v Georgia Georgia had arrested a group of missionaries for entering Cherokee territory without a permit the Cherokee declared these arrests illegal The court under Chief Justice John Marshall decided in favor of the Cherokee imposition of Georgia law on the Cherokee was unconstitutional 219 Horace Greeley alleges that when Jackson heard the ruling he said Well John Marshall has made his decision but now let him enforce it 220 Although the quote may be apocryphal Jackson made it clear he would not use the federal government to enforce the ruling 221 222 223 Jackson used the power of the federal government to enforce the separation of Indigenous tribes and whites 224 In May 1830 Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act which Congress had narrowly passed 225 It gave the president the right to negotiate treaties to buy tribal lands in the eastern part of the United States in exchange for lands set aside for Native Americans west of the Mississippi 226 as well as broad discretion on how to use the federal funds allocated to the negotiations 227 The law was supposed to be a voluntary relocation program but it was not implemented as one Jackson s administration often achieved agreement to relocate through bribes fraud and intimidation 228 and the leaders who signed the treaties often did not represent the entire tribe 229 The relocations could be a source of misery too the Choctaw relocation was rife with corruption theft and mismanagement that brought great suffering to that people 230 In 1830 Jackson personally negotiated with the Chickasaw who quickly agreed to move 231 In the same year Choctaw leaders signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek the majority did not want the treaty but complied with its terms 232 In 1832 Seminole leaders signed the Treaty of Payne s Landing which stipulated that the Seminoles would move west and become part of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy if they found the new land suitable 233 Most Seminoles refused to move leading to the Second Seminole War in 1835 that lasted six years 229 Members of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy ceded their land to the state of Alabama in the Treaty of Cusseta of 1832 Their private ownership of the land was to be protected but the federal government did not enforce this The government did encourage voluntary removal until the Creek War of 1836 after which almost all Creek were removed to Oklahoma territory 234 In 1836 Cherokee leaders ceded their land to the government by the Treaty of New Echota 235 Their removal known as the Trail of Tears was enforced by Jackson s successor Van Buren 236 Jackson also applied the removal policy in the Northwest He was not successful in removing the Iroquois Confederacy in New York but when some members of the Meskwaki Fox and the Sauk triggered the Black Hawk War by trying to cross back to the east side of the Mississippi the peace treaties ratified after their defeat reduced their lands further 237 During his administration he made about 70 treaties with American Indian tribes He had removed almost all the Native Americans east of the Mississippi and south of Lake Michigan about 70 000 people from the United States 238 though it was done at the cost of thousands of Native American lives lost because of the unsanitary conditions and epidemics arising from their dislocation as well as their resistance to expulsion 239 Jackson s implementation of the Indian Removal Act contributed to his popularity with his constituency He added over 170 000 square miles of land to the public domain which primarily benefited the United States agricultural interests The act also benefited small farmers as Jackson allowed them to purchase moderate plots at low prices and offered squatters on land formerly belonging to Native Americans the option to purchase it before it was offered for sale to others 240 Nullification crisis Main article Nullification crisis nbsp A Civil War era lithograph cartoon of Calhoun bowing before Jackson during the nullification crisis by Pendleton s Lithography and published by L Prang amp Co in 1864 the final year of the warJackson had to confront another challenge that had been building up since the beginning of his first term The Tariff of 1828 which had been passed in the last year of Adams administration set a protective tariff at a very high rate to prevent the manufacturing industries in the Northern states from having to compete with lower priced imports from Britain 241 The tariff reduced the income of southern cotton planters it propped up consumer prices but not the price of cotton which had severely declined in the previous decade 242 Immediately after the tariff s passage the South Carolina Exposition and Protest was sent to the U S Senate 243 This document which had been anonymously written by John C Calhoun asserted that the constitution was a compact of individual states 244 and when the federal government went beyond its delegated duties such as enacting a protective tariff a state had a right to declare this action unconstitutional and make the act null and void within the borders of that state 245 Jackson suspected Calhoun of writing the Exposition and Protest and opposed his interpretation Jackson argued that Congress had full authority to enact tariffs and that a dissenting state was denying the will of the majority 246 He also needed the tariff which generated 90 of the federal revenue 247 to achieve another of his presidential goals eliminating the national debt 248 The issue developed into a personal rivalry between the two men For example during a celebration of Thomas Jefferson s birthday on April 13 1830 the attendees gave after dinner toasts Jackson toasted Our federal Union It must be preserved a clear challenge to nullification Calhoun whose toast immediately followed rebutted The Union Next to our Liberty the most dear 249 As a compromise Jackson supported the Tariff of 1832 which reduced the duties from the Tariff of 1828 by almost half The bill was signed on July 9 but failed to satisfy extremists on either side 250 On November 24 South Carolina had passed the Ordinance of Nullification 251 declaring both tariffs null and void and threatening to secede from the United States if the federal government tried to use force to collect the duties 252 253 In response Jackson sent warships to Charleston harbor and threatened to hang any man who worked to support nullification or secession 254 On December 10 he issued a proclamation against the nullifiers 255 condemning nullification as contrary to the Constitution s letter and spirit rejecting the right of secession and declaring that South Carolina stood on the brink of insurrection and treason 256 On December 28 Calhoun who had been elected to the U S Senate resigned as vice president 257 Jackson asked Congress to pass a Force Bill authorizing the military to enforce the tariff It was attacked by Calhoun as despotism 258 Meanwhile Calhoun and Clay began to work on a new compromise tariff Jackson saw it as an effective way to end the confrontation but insisted on the passage of the Force Bill before he signed 259 On March 2 he signed into law the Force Bill and the Tariff of 1833 The South Carolina Convention then met and rescinded its nullification ordinance but nullified the Force Bill in a final act of defiance 260 Two months later Jackson reflected on South Carolina s nullification the tariff was only the pretext and disunion and southern confederacy the real object The next pretext will be the negro or slavery question 261 Bank War and Election of 1832 Main articles Bank War and Banking in the Jacksonian Era Bank Veto nbsp An 1833 lithograph cartoon of Jackson destroying the Second Bank of the United States with his Removal Notice by Zachariah Downing published by Henry R Robinson Nicholas Biddle is portrayed as the devil A few weeks after his inauguration Jackson started looking into how he could replace the Second Bank of the United States 262 The Bank had been chartered by President Madison in 1816 to restore the United States economy after the War of 1812 Monroe had appointed Nicholas Biddle as the Bank s executive 263 The Bank was a repository for the country s public monies which also serviced the national debt it was formed as a for profit entity that looked after the concerns of its shareholders 264 In 1828 the country was prosperous 265 and the currency was stable 266 but Jackson saw the Bank as a fourth branch of government run by an elite 262 what he called the money power that sought to control the labor and earnings of the real people who depend on their own efforts to succeed the planters farmers mechanics and laborers 267 Additionally Jackson s own near bankruptcy in 1804 due to credit fuelled land speculation had biased him against paper money and toward a policy favorable to hard money 268 In his First Annual Address in December 1829 Jackson openly challenged the Bank by questioning its constitutionality and the soundness of its money 269 Jackson s supporters further alleged that it gave preferential loans to speculators and merchants over artisans and farmers that it used its money to bribe congressmen and the press and that it had ties with foreign creditors Biddle responded to Jackson s challenge in early 1830 by using the Bank s vast financial holding to ensure the Bank s reputation and his supporters argued that the Bank was the key to prosperity and stable commerce By the time of the 1832 election Biddle had spent over 250 000 equivalent to 7 328 300 in 2022 in printing pamphlets lobbying for pro Bank legislation hiring agents and giving loans to editors and congressmen 270 On the surface Jackson s and Biddle s positions did not appear irreconcilable Jackson seemed open to keeping the Bank if it could include some degree of Federal oversight limit its real estate holdings and have its property subject to taxation by the states 271 Many of Jackson s cabinet members thought a compromise was possible In 1831 Treasury Secretary Louis McLane told Biddle that Jackson was open to chartering a modified version of the Bank but Biddle did not consult Jackson directly Privately Jackson expressed opposition to the Bank 272 publicly he announced that he would leave the decision concerning the Bank in the hands of the people 273 Biddle was finally convinced to take open action by Henry Clay who had decided to run for president against Jackson in the 1832 election Biddle would agree to seek renewal of the charter two years earlier than scheduled Clay argued that Jackson was in a bind If he vetoed the charter he would lose the votes of his pro Bank constituents in Pennsylvania but if he signed the charter he would lose his anti Bank constituents After the recharter bill was passed Jackson vetoed it on July 10 1832 arguing that the country should not surrender the will of the majority to the desires of the wealthy 274 Election of 1832 Main article 1832 United States presidential election nbsp 1832 presidential election resultsThe 1832 presidential election demonstrated the rapid development of political parties during Jackson s presidency The Democratic Party s first national convention held in Baltimore nominated Jackson s choice for vice president Martin Van Buren The National Republican Party which had held its first convention in Baltimore earlier in December 1831 nominated Clay now a senator from Kentucky and John Sergeant of Pennsylvania 275 An Anti Masonic Party with a platform built around opposition to Freemasonry 276 supported neither Jackson nor Clay who both were Masons The party nominated William Wirt of Maryland and Amos Ellmaker of Pennsylvania 277 In addition to the votes Jackson would lose because of the bank veto Clay hoped that Jackson s Indian Removal Act would alienate voters in the East but Jackson s losses were offset by the Act s popularity in the West and Southwest Clay had also expected that Jackson would lose votes because of his stand on internal improvements 278 Jackson had vetoed the Maysville Road bill which funded an upgrade of a section of the National Road in Clay s state of Kentucky Jackson had argued it was unconstitutional to fund internal improvements using national funds for local projects 279 Clay s strategy failed Jackson was able to mobilize the Democratic Party s strong political networks 280 The Northeast supported Jackson because he was in favor of maintaining a stiff tariff the West supported him because the Indian Removal Act reduced the number of Native Americans in the region and made available more public land 281 Except for South Carolina which passed the Ordinance of Nullification during the election month and refused to support any party by giving its votes to the future Governor of Virginia John B Floyd 282 the South supported Jackson for implementing the Indian Removal Act as well as for his willingness to compromise by signing the Tariff of 1832 283 Jackson won the election by a landslide receiving 55 percent of the popular vote and 219 electoral votes 280 Removal of deposits and censure See also Censure of Andrew Jackson nbsp An 1832 lithograph cartoon King Andrew the First by an anonymous artist depicting JacksonJackson saw his victory as a mandate to continue his war on the Bank s control over the national economy 284 In 1833 Jackson signed an executive order ending the deposit of Treasury receipts in the bank 285 When Secretary of the Treasury McLane refused to execute the order Jackson replaced him with William J Duane who also refused Jackson then appointed Roger B Taney as acting secretary who implemented Jackson s policy 286 With the loss of federal deposits the Bank had to contract its credit 287 Biddle used this contraction to create an economic downturn in an attempt to get Jackson to compromise Biddle wrote Nothing but the evidence of suffering abroad will produce any effect in Congress 288 The attempt did not succeed the economy recovered and Biddle was blamed for the recession 289 Jackson s actions led those who disagreed with him to form the Whig Party They claimed to oppose Jackson s expansion of executive power calling him King Andrew the First and naming their party after the English Whigs who opposed the British monarchy in the 17th century 290 In March 1834 the Senate censured Jackson for inappropriately taking authority for the Treasury Department when it was the responsibility of Congress and refused to confirm Taney s appointment as secretary of the treasury 291 In April however the House declared that the bank should not be rechartered By July 1836 the Bank no longer held any federal deposits 292 Jackson had Federal funds deposited into state banks friendly to the administration s policies which critics called pet banks 293 The number of these state banks more than doubled during Jackson s administration 286 and investment patterns changed The Bank which had been the federal government s fiscal agent invested heavily in trade and financed interregional and international trade State banks were more responsive to state governments and invested heavily in land development land speculation and state public works projects 294 In spite of the efforts of Taney s successor Levi Woodbury to control them the pet banks expanded their loans helping to create a speculative boom in the final years of Jackson s administration 295 In January 1835 Jackson paid off the national debt the only time in U S history that it had been accomplished 296 297 It was paid down through tariff revenues 280 carefully managing federal funding of internal improvements like roads and canals 298 and the sale of public lands 299 Between 1834 and 1836 the government had an unprecedented spike in land sales 300 At its peak in 1836 the profits from land sales were eight to twelve times higher than a typical year 301 During Jackson s presidency 63 million acres of public land about the size of the state of Oklahoma was sold 302 After Jackson s term expired in 1837 a Democrat majority Senate expunged Jackson s censure 303 304 Panic of 1837 Main article Panic of 1837 nbsp A lithograph cartoon of the Panic of 1837 published by Henry R Robinson in 1837 Jackson is symbolized by glory in the sky with top hat spectacles and pipe Despite the economic boom following Jackson s victory in the Bank War land speculation in the west caused the Panic of 1837 305 Jackson s transfer of federal monies to state banks in 1833 caused western banks to relax their lending standards 306 the Indian Removal Act made large amounts of former Native American lands available for purchase and speculation 307 Two of Jackson s acts in 1836 contributed to the Panic of 1837 One was the Specie Circular which mandated western lands only be purchased by money backed by specie The act was intended to stabilize the economy by reducing speculation on credit but it caused a drain of gold and silver from the Eastern banks to the Western banks to address the needs of financing land transactions 308 The other was the Deposit and Distribution Act which transferred federal monies from eastern to western state banks Together they left Eastern banks unable to pay specie to the British when they recalled their loans to address their economic problems in international trade 309 The panic drove the U S economy into a depression that lasted until 1841 305 Physical assault and assassination attempt nbsp An 1835 lithograph of the attempted assassination of Andrew Jackson published by Endicott amp Co Jackson was the first president to be subjected to both a physical assault and an assassination attempt 310 On May 6 1833 Robert B Randolph struck Jackson in the face with his hand because Jackson had ordered Randolph s dismissal from the navy for embezzlement Jackson declined to press charges 311 While Jackson was leaving the United States Capitol on January 30 1835 Richard Lawrence an unemployed house painter from England aimed a pistol at him which misfired Lawrence pulled out a second pistol which also misfired Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane until others intervened to restrain Lawrence who was later found not guilty by reason of insanity and institutionalized 312 313 Slavery During Jackson s presidency slavery remained a minor political issue 314 Though federal troops were used to crush Nat Turner s slave rebellion in 1831 315 Jackson ordered them withdrawn immediately afterwards despite the petition of local citizens for them to remain for protection 316 Jackson considered the issue too divisive to the nation and to the delicate alliances of the Democratic Party 317 Jackson s view was challenged when the American Anti Slavery Society agitated for abolition 318 by sending anti slavery tracts through the postal system into the South in 1835 317 Jackson condemned these agitators as monsters 319 who should atone with their lives 320 because they were attempting to destroy the Union by encouraging sectionalism 321 The act provoked riots in Charleston and pro slavery Southerners demanded that the postal service ban distribution of the materials To address the issue Jackson authorized that the tracts could be sent only to subscribers whose names could be made publicly accountable 322 That December Jackson called on Congress to prohibit the circulation through the South of incendiary publications intended to instigate the slaves to insurrection 323 Foreign affairs nbsp Engraved portrait of Jackson as president by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing This portrait has appeared on the 20 bill since 1929 324 The Jackson administration successfully negotiated a trade agreement with Siam the first East Asian country to form a trade agreement with the U S The administration also made trade agreements with Great Britain Spain Russia and the Ottoman Empire 325 In his First Annual Message to Congress Jackson addressed the issues of spoliation claims demands of compensation for the capture of American ships and sailors by foreign nations during the Napoleonic Wars 326 Using a combination of bluster and tact he successfully settled these claims with Denmark Portugal and Spain 325 but he had difficulty collecting spoliation claims from France which was unwilling to pay an indemnity agreed to in an earlier treaty Jackson asked Congress in 1834 to authorize reprisals against French property if the country failed to make payment as well as to arm for defense 326 In response France put its Caribbean fleet on a wartime footing 327 Both sides wanted to avoid a conflict but the French wanted an apology for Jackson s belligerence In his 1835 Annual Message to the Congress Jackson asserted that he refused to apologize but stated that he did not intend to menace or insult the Government of France 328 The French were assuaged and agreed to pay 5 000 000 equivalent to 141 838 700 in 2022 to settle the claims 329 Since the early 1820s large numbers of Americans had been immigrating into Texas a territory of the newly independent nation of Mexico 330 As early as 1824 Jackson had supported acquiring the region for the United States 331 In 1829 he attempted to purchase it but Mexico did not want to sell By 1830 there were twice as many settlers from the United States as from Mexico leading to tensions with the Mexican government that started the Texas Revolution During the conflict Jackson covertly allowed the settlers to obtain weapons and money from the United States 332 They defeated the Mexican military in April 1836 and declared the region an independent country the Republic of Texas The new Republic asked Jackson to recognize and annex it Although Jackson wanted to do so he was hesitant because he was unsure it could maintain independence from Mexico 325 He also was concerned because Texas had legalized slavery which was an issue that could divide the Democrats during the 1836 election Jackson recognized the Republic of Texas on the last full day of his presidency March 3 1837 333 Judiciary Further information List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson Jackson appointed six justices to the Supreme Court 334 Most were undistinguished Jackson nominated Roger B Taney in January 1835 to the Court in reward for his services but the nomination failed to win Senate approval 335 When Chief Justice Marshall died in 1835 Jackson again nominated Taney for Chief Justice he was confirmed by the new Senate 336 serving as Chief Justice until 1864 337 He was regarded with respect during his career on the bench but he is most remembered for his widely condemned decision in Dred Scott v Sandford 338 On the last day of his presidency Jackson signed the Judiciary Act of 1837 339 which created two new Supreme Court seats and reorganized the federal circuit courts 340 States admitted to the Union Two new states were admitted into the Union during Jackson s presidency Arkansas June 15 1836 and Michigan January 26 1837 Both states increased Democratic power in Congress and helped Van Buren win the presidency in 1836 as new states tended to support the party that had done the most to admit them 341 Later life and death 1837 1845 nbsp A mezzotint of Jackson in 1845Jackson s Presidency ended on March 4 1837 Jackson left Washington D C three days later retiring to the Hermitage in Nashville where he remained influential in national and state politics 342 To reduce the inflation caused by the Panic of 1837 Jackson supported an Independent Treasury system that would restrict the government from printing paper money and require it to hold its money in silver and gold 343 During the 1840 presidential election 344 Jackson campaigned for Van Buren in Tennessee but Van Buren had become unpopular during the continuing depression The Whig Party nominee William Henry Harrison won the election using a campaign style similar to that of the Democrats Van Buren was depicted as an uncaring aristocrat while Harrison s war record was glorified and he was portrayed as a man of the people 345 Harrison won the 1840 election and the Whigs captured majorities in both houses of Congress 346 but Harrison died a month into his term and was replaced by his vice president former Democrat John Tyler Jackson was encouraged because Tyler was not bound to party loyalties and praised him when he vetoed two Whig sponsored bills to establish a new national bank in 1841 347 Jackson lobbied for the annexation of Texas He was concerned that the British could use it as a base to threaten the United States 348 and insisted that it was part of the Louisiana Purchase 349 Tyler signed a treaty of annexation in April 1844 but it became associated with the expansion of slavery and was not ratified Van Buren who had been Jackson s preferred candidate for the Democratic Party in the 1844 presidential election had opposed annexation Disappointed by Van Buren Jackson convinced fellow Tennessean James K Polk who was then set to be Van Buren s running mate to run as the Democratic Party s presidential nominee instead Polk defeated Van Buren for the nomination and won the general election against Jackson s old enemy Henry Clay Meanwhile the Senate passed a bill to annex Texas and it was signed on March 1 1845 350 Jackson died of dropsy tuberculosis and heart failure 351 at 78 years of age on June 8 1845 He was surrounded by family and friends at his deathbed and his last words were to them Oh do not cry Be good children and we will all meet in Heaven 352 He was buried in the same tomb as his wife Rachel 353 Personal lifeFamily nbsp Jackson depicted in 1831 as a Tennessee Gentleman by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl now housed at Hermitage in NashvilleJackson and Rachel had no children together but adopted Andrew Jackson Jr the son of Rachel s deceased brother Severn Donelson The Jacksons acted as guardians for Donelson s other children John Samuel Daniel Smith and Andrew Jackson They were also guardians for Andrew Jackson Hutchings Rachel s orphaned grand nephew and the orphaned children of a friend Edward Butler Caroline Eliza Edward and Anthony who lived with the Jacksons after their father died 354 Jackson also had three Creek children living with them Lyncoya a Creek orphan Jackson had adopted after the Battle of Tallushatchee 355 and two boys they called Theodore 356 and Charley 357 For the only time in U S history two women acted simultaneously as unofficial first lady for the widower Jackson Rachel s niece Emily Donelson was married to Andrew Jackson Donelson who acted as Jackson s private secretary and served as hostess at the White House The president and Emily became estranged for over a year during the Petticoat affair but they eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess Sarah Yorke Jackson the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr became co hostess of the White House in 1834 and took over all hostess duties after Emily died from tuberculosis in 1836 358 Temperament Jackson had a reputation for being short tempered and violent 359 which terrified his opponents 360 He was able to use his temper strategically to accomplish what he wanted 361 He could keep it in check when necessary his behavior was friendly and urbane when he went to Washington as senator during the campaign leading up to the 1824 election According to Van Buren he remained calm in times of difficulty and made his decisions deliberatively 362 He had the tendency to take things personally If someone crossed him he would often become obsessed with crushing them 363 For example on the last day of his presidency Jackson declared he had only two regrets that he had not hanged Henry Clay or shot John C Calhoun 364 He also had a strong sense of loyalty He considered threats to his friends as threats to himself but he demanded unquestioning loyalty in return 365 Jackson was self confident 366 without projecting a sense of self importance 367 This self confidence gave him the ability to persevere in the face of adversity 368 Once he decided on a plan of action he would adhere to it 369 His reputation for being both quick tempered and confident worked to his advantage 370 it misled opponents to see him as simple and direct leading them to often understimate his political shrewdness 371 Religious faith In 1838 Jackson became an official member of the First Presbyterian Church in Nashville 372 Both his mother and his wife had been devout Presbyterians all their lives but Jackson stated that he had postponed officially entering the church until after his retirement to avoid accusations that he had done so for political reasons 373 LegacyFurther information List of memorials to Andrew Jackson nbsp The equestrian statue of Jackson commissioned by Judge Harry S Truman and developed by Charles Keck in 1934 on display in front of the Jackson County Courthouse in Kansas City MissouriJackson s legacy is controversial and polarizing 374 375 376 His contemporary Alexis de Tocqueville depicted him as the spokesperson of the majority and their passions 377 He has been variously described as a frontiersman personifying the independence of the American West 378 a slave owning member of the Southern gentry 379 and a populist who promoted faith in the wisdom of the ordinary citizen 380 He has been represented as a statesman who substantially advanced the spirit of democracy 381 and upheld the foundations of American constitutionalism 382 as well as an autocratic demagogue who crushed political opposition and trampled the law 383 384 In the 1920s Jackson s rise to power became associated with the idea of the common man 385 This idea defined the age as a populist rejection of social elites and a vindication of every person s value independent of class and status 386 Jackson was seen as its personification 387 an individual free of societal constraints who can achieve great things 388 In 1945 Arthur M Schlesinger Jr s influential Age of Jackson redefined Jackson s legacy through the lens of Franklin D Roosevelt s New Deal 389 describing the common man as a member of the working class struggling against exploitation by business concerns 390 In the twenty first century Jackson s Indian Removal Act has been described as ethnic cleansing 391 the use of force terror and violence to make an area ethnically homogeneous 392 To achieve the goal of separating Native Americans from the whites 393 coercive force such as threats and bribes were used to effect removal 394 and unauthorized military force was used when there was resistance 228 as in the case of the Second Seminole War 395 The act has been discussed in the context of genocide 396 and its role in the long term destruction of Native American societies and their cultures continues to be debated 397 Jackson s legacy has been variously used by later presidents Abraham Lincoln referenced Jackson s ideas when negotiating the challenges to the Union that he faced during 1861 including Jackson s understanding of the constitution during the nullification crisis and the president s right to interpret the constitution 398 Franklin D Roosevelt used Jackson to redefine the Democratic Party describing him as a defender of the exploited and downtrodden and as a fighter for social justice and human rights 399 400 Donald Trump used Jackson s legacy to present himself as the president of the common man 401 praising Jackson for saving the country from a rising aristocracy and protecting American workers with a tariff 402 In 2016 President Barack Obama s administration announced it was removing Jackson s portrait from the 20 bill and replacing it with one of Harriet Tubman 403 Though the plan was put on hold during Trump s presidency President Joe Biden s administration resumed it in 2021 404 Jackson is usually rated highly as a president but his reputation began to decline in the 1960s 405 406 His contradictory legacy is shown in opinion polls A 2014 survey of political scientists rated Jackson as the ninth highest rated president but the third most polarizing He was also ranked the third most overrated president 407 In a C SPAN poll of historians Jackson was ranked the 13th in 2009 18th in 2017 and 22nd in 2021 408 WritingsFeller Daniel Coens Thomas Moss Laura Eve Moser Harold D Alexander Erik B Smith Sam B Owsley Harriet C Hoth David R Hoemann George H McPherson Sharon Clift J Clint Wells Wyatt C eds 1980 2019 The Papers of Andrew Jackson University of Tennessee 11 volumes to date 17 volumes projected Ongoing project to print all of Jackson s papers Vol I 1770 1803 Vol II 1804 1813 Vol III 1814 1815 Vol IV 1816 1820 Vol V 1821 1824 Vol VI 1825 1828 Vol VII 1829 Vol VIII 1830 Vol IX 1831 Vol X 1832 Vol XI 1833 Bassett John S ed 1926 1935 Correspondence of Andrew Jackson Carnegie Institution 7 volumes 2 available online Vol III 1820 1828 registration required Vol IV 1829 1832 registration required Richardson James D ed 1897 Andrew Jackson Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents Vol III Bureau of National Literature and Art pp 996 1359 Reprints Jackson s major messages and reports Notes Vice President Calhoun resigned from office As this was prior to the adoption of the Twenty fifth Amendment in 1967 a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next ensuing election and inauguration References Brands 2005 pp 11 15 Gullan 2004 pp xii 308 a b Remini 1977 p 2 a b Nowlan 2012 p 257 Meacham 2008 p 11 a b c Brands 2005 p 16 Remini 1977 pp 4 5 Wilentz 2005 p 16 Remini 1977 p 6 Booraem 2001 p 47 Remini 1977 pp 15 Brands 2005 p 24 Remini 1977 p 17 Meacham 2008 p 12 Remini 1977 p 21 Wilentz 2005 p 15 Booraem 2001 p 104 Remini 1977 pp 23 24 Wilentz 2005 p 17 Remini 1977 pp 24 Brands 2005 pp 30 31 Wilentz 2005 p 9 Remini 1977 p 27 Booraem 2001 pp 133 136 Remini 1977 p 29 Brands 2005 p 37 Case Steven 2009 Andrew Jackson State Library of North Carolina Archived from the original on June 18 2017 Retrieved July 20 2017 Remini 1977 p 34 Remini 1977 p 37 Booraem 2001 pp 190 191 Wilentz 2005 p 18 a b Wilentz 2005 p 19 Remini 1977 p 53 Remini 1977 p 87 Clifton 1952 p 24 Durham 1990 pp 218 219 Owsley 1977 pp 481 482 Brands 2005 p 63 Meacham 2008 pp 22 23 Howe 2007 p 277 Brands 2005 p 65 Remini 1977 p 68 Brands 2005 p 73 Wilentz 2005 pp 18 19 Remini 1977 pp 92 94 Brands 2005 pp 79 81 Remini 1977 p 112 Ely 1981 pp 144 145 Brands 2005 pp 104 105 a b Meacham 2008 p 25 Remini 1977 p 123 a b Wilentz 2005 p 21 Howe 2007 p 375 Sellers 1954 pp 76 77 a b Remini 1977 pp 131 132 Remini 1977 p 379 Andrew Jackson s Enslaved Laborers The Hermitage Archived from the original on September 12 2014 Retrieved April 13 2017 Enslaved Families Understanding the Enslaved Families at the Hermitage thehermitage com Retrieved August 23 2022 Warshauer 2006 p 224 Cheathem 2011 p 328 329 a b Feller Daniel Mullin Marsha August 1 2019 The Enslaved Household of President Andrew Jackson White House Historical Association Brown DeNeen L May 1 2017 Hunting down runaway slaves The cruel ads of Andrew Jackson and the master class The Washington Post Archived from the original on April 11 2017 Remini 1977 p 55 Meacham 2008 p 35 Brands 2005 p 138 Remini 1977 p 143 a b c Meacham 2008 p 27 Remini 1977 p 149 Remini 1977 p 148 Brands 2005 p 120 Remini 1977 p 151 Remini 1977 p 153 Brands 2005 p 127 128 Hickey 1989 p 46 Hickey 1989 p 72 Brands 2005 p 175 Remini 1977 p 166 Remini 1977 p 173 Brands 2005 p 179 General orders Andrew Jackson Major General 2d Division Tennessee November 24 1812 Jackson Papers LOC Retrieved June 27 2017 Wilentz 2005 pp 23 25 Jackson Andrew Journal of trip down the Mississippi River January 1813 to March 1813 Jackson Papers LOC Retrieved July 3 2017 Wilentz 2005 pp 22 23 Brands 2005 p 184 Meacham 2008 p 23 Wilentz 2005 p 23 Owsley 1981 pp 61 62 Davis 2002 pp 631 632 Owsley 1981 pp 38 39 Owsley 1981 p 40 Remini 1977 pp 192 193 Brands 2005 p 197 Owsley 1981 pp 63 64 Remini 1977 pp 196 197 Owsley 1981 pp 72 73 Kanon 1999 p 4 Owsley 1981 pp 75 76 Owsley 1981 p 79 a b Kanon 1999 p 4 10 a b Owsley 1981 p 81 Brands 2005 p 220 Wilentz 2005 pp 27 Owsley 1981 p 87 Remini 1977 p 222 Wilentz 2005 p 26 Remini 1977 pp 236 237 Remini 1977 p 238 Owsley 1981 pp 116 117 Wilentz 2005 p 28 Owsley 1981 p 118 Remini 1977 pp 244 245 Remini 1977 p 247 Wilentz 2005 p 29 Remini 1977 p 254 Remini 1977 p 274 Owsley 1981 p 138 Owsley 1981 pp 134 136 Wilentz 2005 pp 29 30 Remini 1977 pp 268 269 Wilentz 2005 pp 31 32 Battle of New Orleans Facts amp Summary American Battlefield Trust Archived from the original on July 8 2018 Owsley 1981 p 169 Tregle 1981 p 337 Remini 1977 p 309 Tregle 1981 p 377 378 Remini 1977 p 312 Tregle 1981 p 378 379 Wilentz 2005 pp 29 33 Andrew Jackson Biographical Directory of the U S Congress Archived from the original on December 18 2013 Retrieved April 13 2017 Meacham 2008 p 32 Owsley 1981 pp 178 179 Remini 1977 p 321 Clark amp Guice 1996 pp 233 243 Wilentz 2005 p 36 a b Wright 1968 p 569 Porter 1951 pp 261 262 Missall amp Missall 2004 p 26 Missall amp Missall 2004 pp 28 30 Missall amp Missall 2004 pp 32 33 Mahon 1998 p 64 Ogg 1919 p 66 Mahon 1998 pp 65 67 Wilentz 2005 pp 38 39 Heidler 1993 p 518 Mahon 1962 pp 350 354 a b Wilentz 2005 p 40 Brands 2005 pp 356 357 Remini 1981 p 2 Burstein 2003 p 39 Semmer Blythe Jackson Purchase Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture Tennessee Historical Society Archived from the original on August 7 2016 Retrieved April 12 2017 Remini 1981 pp 48 49 Schlesinger 1945 pp 36 38 Howe 2007 pp 489 492 Phillips 1976 p 501 Wilentz 2005 pp 41 42 45 46 Remini 1981 pp 51 52 Brands 2005 pp 376 377 Remini 1981 p 67 Meacham 2008 p 38 Remini 1981 pp 75 77 Morgan 1969 p 195 Wilentz 2005 p 45 Phillips 1976 p 490 Niven 1988 p 101 Wilentz 2005 p 46 Remini 1981 pp 81 83 Wilentz 2005 p 47 Wilentz 2005 pp 45 48 Wilentz 2005 p 49 Unger 2012 pp 245 248 Remini 1981 p 110 a b Unger 2012 p 246 Wilentz 2005 pp 50 51 Niven 1988 p 126 Koenig 1964 pp 197 198 Koenig 1964 p 197 Remini 1977 p 134 Marszalek 1997 p 16 Cheathem 2014 3 Boller 2004 p 45 46 Howell 2010 pp 294 295 Binns 1828 Taliaferro 1828 The Tsunami of Slime Circa 1828 New York News amp Politics June 15 2012 Archived from the original on March 23 2016 Retrieved June 1 2017 Howell 2010 pp 295 297 Howe 2007 pp 277 278 a b Unger 2012 p 256 Brands 2005 pp 404 405 Boller 2004 p 46 Remini 1981 p 150 a b Latner 2002 p 105 Unger 2012 p 256 257 Inaugurals of Presidents of the United States Some Precedents and Notable Events Library of Congress Archived from the original on July 1 2016 Retrieved April 18 2017 Jackson 1829 Wilentz 2005 p 55 Gilman 1995 p 64 65 Remini 1981 pp 186 187 Ellis 1974 p 56 a b Howe 2007 pp 332 333 Sabato amp O Connor 2002 p 278 a b Friedrich 1937 p 14 Ellis 1974 p 51 Ellis 1974 p 61 Wood 1997 p 238 Marszalek 1997 p vii Meacham 2008 pp 66 67 Howe 2007 pp 336 Marszalek 1997 pp 53 55 Wood 1997 pp 239 241 a b c Latner 2002 p 108 Remini 1984 pp 240 243 Cole 1997 p 24 Meacham 2008 p 165 Latner 1978 pp 380 385 Clark amp Guice 1996 pp 233 243 Mahon 1962 pp 350 354 Parsons 1973 pp 353 358 Wallace 1993 pp 58 62 McLoughlin 1986 pp 611 612 Satz 1974 p 12 Cave 2003 p 1332 Rogin 1975 pp 212 213 Remini 1981 p 276 Greeley 1864 p 106 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pp 459 460 Parins amp Littlefield 2011 p xiv McGrane 1965 pp 60 62 Rousseau 2002 p 48 Nester 2013 p 2 Remini 1984 p 60 61 Jackson 1967 Grinspan Jon Trying to Assassinate Andrew Jackson American Heritage Project Archived from the original on October 24 2008 Retrieved November 11 2008 McFaul 1975 p 25 Aptheker 1943 p 300 Breen 2015 p 105 106 a b Latner 2002 p 117 Henig 1969 p 43 Henig 1969 p 43 44 Remini 1984 p 260 Brands 2005 p 554 Remini 1984 pp 258 260 Remini 1984 p 261 20 Note Issued 1914 1990 PDF U S Currency Education Program Archived from the original PDF on February 4 2020 a b c Latner 2002 p 120 a b Thomas 1976 p 51 Howe 2007 p 263 Thomas 1976 p 63 Remini 1984 p 288 Howe 2007 pp 658 659 Stenberg 1934 p 229 Howe 2007 pp 659 669 Howe 2007 pp 670 671 Jacobson John Gregory 2004 Jackson s judges Six appointments who shaped a nation PhD dissertation University of Nebraska Lincoln ISBN 978 0 496 13089 4 ProQuest 305160669 Archived from the original on March 30 2016 Retrieved July 18 2017 Remini 1984 p 266 Remini 1984 pp 266 268 Schwartz 1993 pp 73 74 Brown DeNeen L August 18 2017 Removing a slavery defender s statue Roger B Taney wrote one of Supreme Court s worst rulings The Washington Post Archived from the original on January 10 2018 Retrieved December 29 2017 Nettels 1925 pp 225 226 Hall 1992 p 475 Remini 1984 pp 375 376 Latner 2002 p 121 Lansford amp Woods 2008 p 1046 Remini 1984 pp 462 470 Brands 2005 p 475 Remini 1984 p 470 Remini 1984 p 475 476 Wilentz 2005 pp 161 163 Remini 1984 p 492 Wilentz 2005 pp 162 163 Marx Rudolph The Health Of The President Andrew Jackson healthguidance org Archived from the original on December 22 2017 Retrieved December 18 2017 Meacham 2008 p 345 Remini 1984 p 526 Remini 1977 p 180 161 Remini 1977 p 194 Moser amp Macpherson 1984 p 444 fn 5 Moser et al 1991 p 60 fn 3 Meacham 2008 pp 109 315 Somit 1948 p 295 Brands 2005 p 297 Meacham 2008 p 37 Remini 1977 p 7 Wilentz 2005 p 3 Somit 1948 p 302 Somit 1948 p 297 300 Borneman 2008 p 36 Somit 1948 p 306 Meacham 2008 p 19 Somit 1948 pp 299 300 Remini 1977 p 178 179 Somit 1948 p 312 Brown 2022 p 191 Somit 1948 p 304 Wilentz 2005 p 160 Remini 1984 p 444 Adams 2013 pp 1 2 Feller Daniel February 24 2012 Andrew Jackson s Shifting Legacy The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History Archived from the original on November 3 2014 Sellers 1958 p 615 Tocqueville 1840 pp 392 394 Turner 1920 p 252 254 Cheathem 2014a Introduction 9 Watson 2017 p 218 Remini 1990 p 6 Brogdon 2011 p 273 Nester 2013 p 2 3 Landis Michael Todd October 28 2016 The Case Against Andrew Jackson Society for US Intellectual History Retrieved September 5 2022 Adams 2013 p 8 Ward 1962 p 82 Ward 1962 pp 82 83 Murphy 2013 p 261 Fish 1927 p 337 338 Adams 2013 pp 3 4 Cheathem 2013 p 5 Cole 1986 p 151 Anderson 2016 p 416 Carson 2008 pp 9 10 Garrison 2002 pp 2 3 Howe 2007 p 423 Kakel 2011 p 158 Lynn 2019 p 78 Ethnic Cleansing United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Archived from the original on February 28 2019 Perdue 2012 p 6 Remini 1990 pp 56 59 Cave 2003 p 1337 Howe 2007 p 348 Missall amp Missall 2004 p xv xvii Gilo Whitaker 2019 pp 35 36 Ostler 2019 pp 365 366 Perdue 2012 p 3 Willentz Sean February 24 2012 Abraham Lincoln and Jacksonian Democracy The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History Archived from the original on May 11 2015 Brands 2008 p 449 450 Franklin Roosevelt Jackson Day Dinner Address Washington D C January 8 1936 The American Presidency Project Archived from the original on June 29 2019 Brown 2022 p 367 Remarks by the President on the 250th anniversary of the Birth of Andrew Jackson whitehouse gov March 15 2017 Archived from the original on December 19 2017 Thompson amp Barchiesi 2018 p 1 Crutsinger Martin January 25 2021 Effort to put Tubman on 20 bill restarted under Biden AP News Archived from the original on January 25 2021 Brands H W 2017 Andrew Jackson at 250 President s Legacy isn t Pretty but Neither is History The Tennessean Retrieved December 7 2023 Feller Daniel February 24 2012 Andrew Jackson s Shifting Legacy The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History Retrieved August 6 2022 Rottinghaus amp Vaughn 2017 Total Scores Overall Rankings C SPAN Survey on Presidents 2021 C SPAN org www c span org Retrieved July 1 2021 BibliographyFurther information Bibliography of Andrew Jackson Biographies Brands H W 2005 Andrew Jackson His Life and Times New York NY Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group ISBN 978 1 4000 3072 9 OCLC 1285478081 Brown David S 2022 The First Populist The Defiant Life of Andrew Jackson New York NY Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 1 9821 9109 2 OCLC 1303813425 Latner Richard B 2002 Andrew Jackson In Graff Henry ed The Presidents A Reference History 3 ed New York NY Charles Scribner s Sons pp 106 127 ISBN 978 0 684 31226 2 OCLC 49029341 Meacham Jon 2008 American Lion Andrew Jackson in the White House New York NY Random House Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8129 7346 4 OCLC 1145796050 Remini Robert V 1977 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire 1767 1821 New York NY Harper amp Row Publishers Inc ISBN 978 0 8018 5912 0 OCLC 1145801830 Remini Robert V 1981 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom 1822 1832 New York NY Harper amp Row Publishers Inc ISBN 978 0 8018 5913 7 OCLC 1145807972 Remini Robert V 1984 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy 1833 1845 New York NY Harper amp Row Publishers Inc ISBN 978 0 8018 5913 7 OCLC 1285459723 Wilentz Sean 2005 Andrew Jackson New York NY Henry Holt and Company ISBN 978 0 8050 6925 9 OCLC 863515036 Books Adams Sean P 2013 Introduction The President and his Era In Adams Sean P ed A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson Wiley pp 1 11 ISBN 9781444335415 OCLC 1152040405 Aptheker Herbert 1974 1943 The Turner Cataclysm and Some Repercussions American Negro Slave Revolts International Publishers pp 293 394 ISBN 9780717800032 OCLC 1028031914 Baptist Edward E 2016 The Half has Never Been Told Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism New York NY Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 00296 2 OCLC 1302085747 Booraem Hendrik 2001 Young Hickory The Making of Andrew Jackson Lanham MD Taylor Trade Publishing ISBN 978 0 8783 3263 2 Boller Paul F Jr 2004 Presidential Campaigns From George Washington to George W Bush New York NY Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19516 716 0 OCLC 1285570008 Borneman Walter R 2008 Polk The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America New York NY Random House ISBN 978 1 4000 6560 8 OCLC 1150943134 Brands Henry W 2008 Traitor to his Class The Privileged Life and radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt Doubleday ISBN 9780385519588 OCLC 759509803 Breen Patrick H 2015 The Land Shall be Deluged in Blood A New History of the Nat Turner Revolt Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199828005 OCLC 929856251 Burstein Andrew 2003 The Passions of Andrew Jackson Knopf ISBN 0375714049 OCLC 1225864865 Cheathem Mark R 2013 The Shape of Democracy Historical Interpretations of Jacksonian Democracy In McKnight Brian D Humphreys James S eds Interpreting American History The Age of Andrew Jackson Kent State University Press pp 1 21 ISBN 9781606350980 OCLC 700709151 Cheathem Mark R 2014a Andrew Jackson Southerner Ebook LSU Press ISBN 9780807151006 OCLC 858995561 Clark Thomas D Guice John D W 1996 The Old Southwest 1765 1830 Frontiers in conflict University of Oklahoma Press ISBN 9780806128368 OCLC 1285743152 Durham Walter T 1990 Before Tennessee the Southwest Territory 1790 1796 a narrative history of the Territory of the United States South of the River Ohio Piney Flats TN Rocky Mount Historical Association ISBN 978 0 9678 3071 1 Ellis Richard E 1974 Andrew Jackson 1829 1837 In Woodward C Vann ed Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct Dell pp 51 656 OCLC 1036817744 Ellis Richard E 1989 The Union at Risk Jacksonian Democracy States Rights and the Nullification Crisis Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195345155 OCLC 655900280 Feerick John D 1965 From Failing Hands the Story of Presidential Succession New York City Fordham University Press Fish Carl R 1927 The Rise of the Common Man 1830 1850 MacMillian OCLC 1151151619 Freehling William 1966 Prelude to Civil War The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina 1816 1836 Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195076813 OCLC 1151067281 Garrison Tim Allen 2002 The Legal Ideology of Removal The Southern Judiciary and the Sovereignty of Native American Nations Athens GA University of Georgia Press ISBN 978 0 8203 3417 2 OCLC 53956489 Gatell Frank Otto 1967 The Jacksonians and the Money Power Chicago Rand McNally OCLC 651767466 Gilo Whitaker Dina 2019 As Long as Grass Grows The Indigenous Fight for Environmental Justice from Colonization to Standing Rock Beacon Press ISBN 9780807073780 OCLC 1044542033 Greeley Horace 1864 The American Conflict A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of America 1860 64 Its Causes Incidents and Results O D Case and Company Gullan Harold I 2004 Dramatic Departure Andrew Jackson Sr Abraham Van Buren First fathers the men who inspired our Presidents Hoboken NJ John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 471 46597 3 OCLC 53090968 Hammond Bray 1957 Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War Princeton NJ Princeton University Press OCLC 1147712456 Hickey Donald R 1989 The War of 1812 A Forgotten Conflict University of Illinois Press ISBN 0252060598 OCLC 1036973138 Howe Daniel Walker 2007 What Hath God Wrought the Transformation of America 1815 1848 Oxford NY Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 974379 7 OCLC 646814186 Kakel Carroll 2011 The American West and the Nazi East A Comparative and Interpretive Perspective Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 9780230307063 OCLC 743799760 Lane Carl 2014 A Nation Wholly Free The Elimination of the National Debt in the Age of Jackson Westholme ISBN 9781594162091 OCLC 1150853554 Lansford Tom Woods Thomas E eds 2008 Exploring American History From Colonial Times to 1877 Vol 10 New York Marshall Cavendish ISBN 978 0 7614 7758 7 Lynn John A 2019 Another Kind of War The Nature and History of Terrorism Yale University Press ISBN 9780300189988 OCLC 1107042059 Mahon John K 1962 The Treaty of Moultrie Creek 1823 The Florida Historical Quarterly 40 4 350 372 JSTOR 30139875 Marszalek John F 1997 The Petticoat Affair Manners Mutiny and Sex in Andrew Jackson s White House Free Press ISBN 0684828014 OCLC 36767691 McGrane Reginald C 1965 The Panic of 1837 University of Chicago Press OCLC 1150938709 Meyers Marvin 1960 The Jacksonian Persuasion Politics amp Belief Vintage Books OCLC 1035884705 Missall John Missall Mary Lou 2004 The Seminole Wars America s Longest Indian Conflict University Press of Florida ISBN 0813027152 OCLC 1256504949 Moser Harold D Macpherson Sharon eds 1984 The Papers of Andrew Jackson Volume II 1804 1813 University of Tennessee Press Retrieved May 25 2022 Moser Harold D Hoth David R Macpherson Sharon Reinbold John H eds 1991 The Papers of Andrew Jackson Volume III 1814 1815 University of Tennessee Press p 35 Retrieved May 25 2022 I have not heard whether Genl Coffee has taken on to him little Lyncoya I have got another Pett given to me by the chief Jame Fife The Indian children were probably Theodore and Charley Murphy Sharon A 2013 The Myth and Reality of andrew Jackson s Rise in the Election of 1824 In Adams Sean P ed A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson Wiley pp 260 279 ISBN 9781444335415 OCLC 1152040405 Nester William R 2013 The Age of Jackson and the Art of Power Potomac Books ISBN 9781612346052 OCLC 857769985 Niven John 1988 John C Calhoun and the Price of Union A Biography Baton Rouge LA LSU Press ISBN 978 0 8071 1858 0 OCLC 1035889000 Nowlan Robert A 2012 The American Presidents Washington to Tyler Jefferson NC McFarland Publishing ISBN 978 0 7864 6336 7 OCLC 692291434 Ogg Frederic Austin 1919 The Reign of Andrew Jackson Vol 20 Chronicles of America Series New Haven CT Yale University Press OCLC 928924919 Olson James Stuart 2002 Robert L Shadle ed Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America Westport CT Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 30830 7 OCLC 1033573148 Owsley Frank Lawrence Jr 1981 Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans 1812 1815 University Presses of Florida ISBN 0813006627 OCLC 1151350587 Ostler Jeffrey 2019 Surviving Genocide Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 24526 4 OCLC 1099434736 Parins James W Littlefield Daniel F 2011 Introduction In Parins James W Littlefield Daniel F eds Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal 2 Volumes ABC CLIO ISBN 9780313360428 OCLC 720586004 Remini Robert V 1990 The Legacy of Andrew Jackson Essays on Democracy Indian Removal and Slavery Louisiana State University Press ISBN 9780807116425 OCLC 1200479832 Rogin Michael P 1975 Fathers and Children Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian Knopf ISBN 0394482042 OCLC 1034678255 Sabato Larry O Connor Karen 2002 American Government Continuity and Change New York Pearson Longman ISBN 978 0 321 31711 7 OCLC 1028046888 Satz Ronald N 1974 American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era University of Nebraska ISBN 9780803208230 Schlesinger Arthur M Jr 1945 The Age of Jackson Little Brown and Company ISBN 9780316773430 OCLC 1024176654 Schwartz Bernard 1993 A History of the Supreme Court New York NY Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 509387 2 OCLC 1035668728 Temin Peter 1969 Jacksonian Economy Norton OCLC 1150111725 Turner Frederick Jackson 1920 The Frontier in American History Henry Holt OCLC 1045610195 Unger Harlow G 2012 John Quincy Adams De Capo ISBN 9780306822650 OCLC 1035758771 Van Deusen Glyndon G 1963 The Jacksonian Era 1828 1848 Harper amp Row ISBN 9780061330285 OCLC 1176180758 Wallace Anthony F C 1993 The Long Bitter Trail Andrew Jackson and the Indians Hill and Wang ISBN 9780809066315 OCLC 1150209732 Ward John W 1962 The Age of the Common Man In Higham John ed The Reconstruction of American History Hutchison pp 82 97 OCLC 1151080132 Journal articles and dissertations Anderson Gary Clayton 2016 The Native Peoples of the American West Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing Western Historical Quarterly Oxford University Press 47 4 416 doi 10 1093 whq whw126 ISSN 0043 3810 JSTOR 26782720 Bergeron Paul H 1976 The nullification controversy revisited Tennessee Historical Quarterly 35 3 263 275 JSTOR 42623589 Berutti Ronald A 1992 The Cherokee Cases The Fight to Save the Supreme Court and the Cherokee Indians American Indian Law Review 17 1 291 308 doi 10 2307 20068726 JSTOR 20068726 Brogdon Matthew S 2011 Defending the Union Andrew Jackson s Nullifaction Proclamation and American federalism Review of Politics 73 2 245 273 doi 10 1017 S0034670511000064 JSTOR 42623589 S2CID 145679939 Campbell Stephen W 2016 Funding the Bank War Nicholas Biddle and the public relations campaign to recharter the second bank of the U S 1828 1832 American Nineteenth Century History 17 3 279 299 doi 10 1080 14664658 2016 1230930 S2CID 152280055 Cave Alfred A 2003 Abuse of Power Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830 The Historian 65 6 1330 1353 doi 10 2307 2205966 JSTOR 2205966 Cheathem Mark R 2011 Andrew Jackson Slavery and Historians PDF History Compass 9 4 326 338 doi 10 1111 j 1478 0542 2011 00763 x ISSN 1478 0542 Archived from the original PDF on October 12 2022 Cheathem Mark 2014 Frontiersman or Southern Gentleman Newspaper Coverage of Andrew Jackson during the 1828 Presidential Campaign The Readex Report 9 3 Archived from the original on January 12 2015 Carson James T 2008 The obituary of nations Ethnic cleansing memory and the origins of the Old South Southern Culture 14 4 6 31 doi 10 1353 scu 0 0026 JSTOR 26391777 S2CID 144154298 Clifton Frances 1952 John Overton as Andrew Jackson s friend Tennessee Historical Quarterly 11 1 23 40 JSTOR 42621095 Cole Donald B 1986 Review The Age of Jackson After Forty Years Reviews in American History 14 1 149 159 doi 10 2307 2702131 JSTOR 2702131 Cole Donald P 1997 A yankee in Kentucky The early years of Amos Kendall 1789 1828 Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society Third Series 109 1 24 36 JSTOR 25081127 Davis Ethan 2010 An administrative Trail of Tears Indian removal The American Journal of Legal History 50 1 1330 1353 doi 10 2307 2205966 JSTOR 2205966 Davis Karl 2002 Remember Fort Mims Reinterpreting the origins of the Creek War Journal of the Early Republic 22 4 611 636 doi 10 2307 3124760 JSTOR 3124760 Ely James W Jr 1981 Andrew Jackson as Tennessee state court judge 1798 1804 Tennessee Historical Quarterly 40 2 JSTOR 42626180 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Ericson David F 1995 The nullification crisis American republicanism and the Force Bill debate Journal of Southern History 81 2 249 270 doi 10 2307 2211577 JSTOR 2211577 Friedrich Carl Joachim 1937 The rise and decline of the spoils tradition The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 189 10 16 doi 10 1177 000271623718900103 JSTOR 1019439 S2CID 144735397 Gammon Samuel G 1922 The Presidential Campaign of 1832 Thesis Johns Hopkins University OCLC 1050835838 Gatell Frank O 1964 Spoils of the Bank War Political Bias in the Selection of Pet Banks The American Historical Review 70 1 35 58 doi 10 2307 1842097 JSTOR 1842097 Gilman Stuart C 1995 Presidential Ethics and the Ethics of the Presidency The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 537 58 75 doi 10 1177 0002716295537000006 JSTOR 1047754 S2CID 143876977 Hall Kermit 1992 Judiciary Act of 1837 The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States Oxford University Press p 475 ISBN 0195058356 OCLC 1036760206 Haveman Christopher D 2009 The Removal of the Creek Indians from the Southeast 1825 1838 PDF PhD Auburn University Archived from the original PDF on September 26 2022 Heidler David S 1993 The politics of national aggression Congress and the First Seminole War Journal of the Early Republic 13 4 501 530 doi 10 2307 3124558 JSTOR 3124558 Henig Gerald S 1969 The Jacksonian attitude toward Abolitionism Tennessee Historical Quarterly 28 1 42 56 JSTOR 1901307 Howell William Huntting 2010 Read Pause and Reflect Journal of the Early Republic 30 2 293 300 doi 10 1353 jer 0 0149 JSTOR 40662272 S2CID 144448483 Jackson Carlton 1966 The internal improvement vetoes of Andrew Jackson Tennessee Historical Quarterly 25 3 531 550 doi 10 2307 3115344 JSTOR 3115344 S2CID 55379727 Jackson Carlton 1967 Another Time Another Place The attempted assassination of President Andrew Jackson Tennessee Historical Quarterly 26 2 184 190 JSTOR 42622937 Kanon Thomas 1999 A slow laborious slaughter The battle of Horseshoe Bend Tennessee Historical Quarterly 58 1 2 15 JSTOR 42627446 Koenig Louis W 1964 American Politics The First Half Century Current History 47 278 193 198 doi 10 1525 curh 1964 47 278 193 JSTOR 45311183 Knodell Jane 2006 Rethinking the Jacksonian economy The impact of the 1832 bank veto on commercial banking Journal of Economic History 66 3 641 574 doi 10 1017 S0022050706000258 JSTOR 3874852 S2CID 155084029 Mahon John K 1998 The First Seminole War November 21 1817 May24 1818 Florida Historical Quarterly 77 1 62 67 JSTOR 30149093 Latner Richard B 1978 The Kitchen Cabinet and Andrew Jackson s advisory system The Journal of American History 65 2 367 388 doi 10 2307 1894085 JSTOR 1894085 McFaul John M 1975 Expediency vs morality Jacksonian politics and slavery The Journal of American History 82 1 24 39 doi 10 2307 1901307 JSTOR 1901307 McLoughlin William G 1986 Georgia s role in instigating compulsory Indian removal The Georgia Historical Quarterly 70 4 605 632 JSTOR 40581582 Morgan William G 1969 The origin and development of the congressional nominating caucus Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 113 2 184 196 JSTOR 985965 Miles Edwin A 1992 After John Marshall s Decision Worcester v Georgia and the Nullification Crisis Journal of Southern History 39 4 519 544 doi 10 2307 2205966 JSTOR 2205966 Nettels Curtis 1925 The Mississippi Valley and the federal judiciary 1807 1837 The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 12 2 202 226 doi 10 2307 1886513 JSTOR 1886513 Owsley Harriet Chappel 1977 The marriages of Rachel Donelson Tennessee Historical Quarterly 36 4 479 492 JSTOR 42625784 Parsons Lynn Hudson 1973 A perpetual harrow upon my feelings John Quincy Adams and the American indian The New England Quarterly 46 3 339 379 doi 10 2307 364198 JSTOR 364198 Perdue Theda 2012 The Legacy of Indian Removal Journal of Southern History 78 1 3 36 JSTOR 23247455 Perkins Edwin J 1987 Lost opportunities for compromise in the Bank War A reassessment of jackson s veto message Business History Review 61 4 531 550 doi 10 2307 3115344 JSTOR 3115344 S2CID 55379727 Phillips Kim T 1976 The Pennsylvania origins of the Jackson movement Political Science Quarterly 91 3 489 501 doi 10 2307 2148938 JSTOR 2148938 Porter Kenneth Wiggins 1951 Negroes and the Seminole War 1817 1818 Journal of Negro History 36 3 249 280 doi 10 2307 2715671 JSTOR 2715671 S2CID 150360181 Ratcliffe Donald J 2000 The Nullification Crisis Southern discontents and the American political process American Nineteenth Century History 1 2 1 30 doi 10 1080 14664650008567014 S2CID 144242176 Rousseau Peter L 2002 Jacksonian money policy specie flows and the panic of 1837 The Journal of Economic History 82 2 457 488 JSTOR 2698187 Rottinghaus Brandon Vaughn Justin S 2017 Presidential Greatness and Political Science Assessing the 2014 APSA Presidents and Executive Politics Section Presidential Greatness Survey PS Political Science amp Politics 50 3 824 830 doi 10 1017 S1049096517000671 S2CID 157101605 Schmidt Louis Bernard 1955 Andrew Jackson and the Agrarian West Current History 28 166 321 330 doi 10 1525 curh 1955 28 166 321 JSTOR 45308841 S2CID 249685683 Sellers Charles G Jr 1958 Andrew Jackson versus the Historians Mississippi Valley Historical Review 44 4 615 634 doi 10 2307 1886599 JSTOR 1886599 Sellers Charles G Jr 1954 Banking and politics in Jackson s Tennessee 1817 1827 Mississippi Valley Historical Review 41 1 61 84 doi 10 2307 1898150 JSTOR 1898150 Somit Albert 1948 Andrew Jackson Legend and Reality Tennessee Historical Quarterly 7 4 291 313 JSTOR 42620991 Stenberg Richard R 1934 The Texas schemes of Jackson and Houston 1829 1836 The Southwestern Social Science Quarterly 15 3 229 250 JSTOR 42879202 Thomas Robert C 1976 Andrew Jackson versus France American policy towards France 1834 1836 Tennessee Historical Quarterly 35 1 457 488 JSTOR 42623553 Thompson Sheneese Barchiesi Franco 2018 Harriet Tubman and Andrew Jackson on the Twnety Dollar Bill A Monstrous Intimacy Open Cultural Studies 2 417 429 doi 10 1515 culture 2018 0038 S2CID 166210849 Timberlake Richard H 1965 The Specie Circular and Sales of public land The American Historical Review 25 3 414 416 JSTOR 2116177 Tregle Joseph G Jr 1981 Andrew Jackson and the continuing Battle of New Orleans Journal of the Early Republic 1 4 373 393 doi 10 2307 3122827 JSTOR 3122827 Watson Harry L 2017 Andrew Jackson s Populism Tennessee Historical Quarterly 76 3 236 237 JSTOR 26540290 Warshauer Matthew 2006 Andrew Jackson Chivalric slave master Tennessee Historical Quarterly 65 3 203 229 JSTOR 42627964 Whapples Robert 2014 Were Andrew Jackson s policies Good for the Economy The Independent Review 18 4 545 558 JSTOR 24563169 Wood Kirsten E 1997 One woman so dangerous to public morals Gender and power in the Eaton Affair Journal of the Early Republic 17 2 237 275 doi 10 2307 3124447 JSTOR 3124447 Wright J Leitch Jr 1968 A note on the First Seminole War as seen by the Indians negroes and their British advisors The Journal of Southern History 34 4 565 576 doi 10 2307 2204387 JSTOR 2204387 Primary sources Binns John 1828 Some account of some of the bloody deeds of General Jackson Library of Congress Archived from the original on January 16 2014 Retrieved January 15 2014 Expunged Senate censure motion against President Andrew Jackson January 16 1837 Andrew Jackson National Archives and Records Administration Records of the U S Senate The U S National Archives and Records Administration Archived from the original on November 3 2014 Retrieved February 21 2014 Jackson Andrew 1829 Andrew Jackson s First Annual Message to Congress The American Presidency Project Archived from the original on February 26 2008 Retrieved March 14 2008 Jackson Andrew 1832 President Jackson s Proclamation Regarding Nullification December 10 1832 The Avalon Project Archived from the original on August 24 2006 Retrieved August 10 2006 South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification November 24 1832 The Avalon Project Archived from the original on August 19 2016 Retrieved August 22 2016 Taliaferro John 1828 Supplemental account of some of the bloody deeds of General Jackson being a supplement to the Coffin handbill Library of Congress Archived from the original on June 28 2017 de Tocqueville Alexis 1969 1840 Democracy in America Translated by Lawrence George Harper amp Row ISBN 9780385081702 OCLC 1148815334 External linksAndrew Jackson at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Media from Commons nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource nbsp Textbooks from Wikibooks nbsp Resources from Wikiversity Scholarly coverage of Jackson at Miller Center U of Virginia Works by Andrew Jackson at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Andrew Jackson at Internet Archive Works by Andrew Jackson at LibriVox public domain audiobooks nbsp The Papers of Andrew Jackson at the Avalon Project The Hermitage home of President Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson Papers Library of Congress A digital archive providing access to manuscript images of many of Jackson s documents Portals nbsp Biography nbsp Politics nbsp Law nbsp United States Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Andrew Jackson amp oldid 1190266730 Planting career and slavery, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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