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James Madison

James Madison Jr. (March 16, 1751[b] – June 28, 1836) was an American statesman, diplomat, and Founding Father who served as the fourth president of the United States from 1809 to 1817. Madison was popularly acclaimed the "Father of the Constitution" for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the Constitution of the United States and the Bill of Rights.

James Madison
1816 portrait
4th President of the United States
In office
March 4, 1809 – March 4, 1817[1]
Vice President
Preceded byThomas Jefferson
Succeeded byJames Monroe
5th United States Secretary of State
In office
May 2, 1801 – March 3, 1809[3]
PresidentThomas Jefferson
Preceded byJohn Marshall
Succeeded byRobert Smith
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Virginia
In office
March 4, 1789 – March 4, 1797[4]
Preceded byConstituency established
Succeeded byJohn Dawson
Constituency
Delegate from Virginia to the Congress of the Confederation
In office
November 6, 1786 – October 30, 1787[5]
In office
March 1, 1781 – November 1, 1783
Personal details
Born
James Madison Jr.

(1751-03-16)March 16, 1751
Port Conway, Virginia, British America
DiedJune 28, 1836(1836-06-28) (aged 85)
Montpelier, Virginia, U.S.
Political partyDemocratic–Republican
Height5 ft 4 in (163 cm)[6]
Spouse
(m. 1794)
Parents
EducationCollege of New Jersey (BA)
Signature
Military service
AllegianceUnited States
Branch/serviceVirginia militia
Years of service1775 - 1776
1814
RankColonel
Commander in Chief
UnitOrange County Militia
Battles/warsAmerican Revolutionary War

War of 1812

Madison was born into a prominent slave-owning planter family in Virginia. He served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates and the Continental Congress during and after the American Revolutionary War. Dissatisfied with the weak national government established by the Articles of Confederation, he helped organize the Constitutional Convention, which produced a new constitution designed to strengthen republican government against democratic assembly. Madison's Virginia Plan was the basis for the convention's deliberations, and he was an influential voice at the convention. He became one of the leaders in the movement to ratify the Constitution and joined Alexander Hamilton and John Jay in writing The Federalist Papers, a series of pro-ratification essays that remains prominent among works of political science in American history. Madison emerged as an important leader in the House of Representatives and was a close adviser to President George Washington.

During the early 1790s, Madison opposed the economic program and the accompanying centralization of power favored by Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton. Alongside Thomas Jefferson, he organized the Democratic–Republican Party in opposition to Hamilton's Federalist Party. After Jefferson was elected president in 1800, Madison served as his Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809 and supported Jefferson in the case of Marbury v. Madison. While Madison was Secretary of State, Jefferson made the Louisiana Purchase, and later, as President, Madison oversaw related disputes in the Northwest Territories.

Madison was elected president in 1808. Motivated by desire to acquire land held by Britain, Spain, and Native Americans, and after diplomatic protests with a trade embargo failed to end British seizures of American shipped goods, Madison led the United States into the War of 1812. Although the war ended inconclusively, many Americans viewed the war's outcome as a successful "second war of independence" against Britain. Madison was re-elected in 1812, albeit by a smaller margin. The war convinced Madison of the necessity of a stronger federal government. He presided over the creation of the Second Bank of the United States and the enactment of the protective Tariff of 1816. By treaty or through war, Native American tribes ceded 26,000,000 acres (11,000,000 ha) of land to the United States under Madison's presidency.

Retiring from public office at the end of his presidency in 1817, Madison returned to his plantation, Montpelier, and died there in 1836. During his lifetime, Madison was a slave owner. In 1783, to prevent a slave rebellion at Montpelier, Madison freed one of his slaves. He did not free any slaves in his will. Among historians, Madison is considered one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States. Leading historians have generally ranked him as an above-average president, although they are critical of his endorsement of slavery and his leadership during the War of 1812. Madison's name is commemorated in many landmarks across the nation, both publicly and privately, with prominent examples including Madison Square Garden, James Madison University, the James Madison Memorial Building, and the USS James Madison.

Early life and education

James Madison Jr. was born on March 16, 1751 (March 5, 1750, Old Style), at Belle Grove Plantation near Port Conway in the Colony of Virginia, to James Madison Sr. and Eleanor Madison. His family had lived in Virginia since the mid-17th century.[7] Madison's maternal grandfather, Francis Conway, was a prominent planter and tobacco merchant.[8] His father was a tobacco planter who grew up on a plantation, then called Mount Pleasant, which he inherited upon reaching adulthood. With an estimated 100 slaves[7] and a 5,000-acre (2,000 ha) plantation, Madison's father was among the largest landowners in Virginia's Piedmont.[9]

In the early 1760s, the Madison family moved into a newly built house that they named Montpelier.[10] Madison grew up as the oldest of twelve children,[11] with seven brothers and four sisters, though only six lived to adulthood.[10] Of the surviving three brothers (Francis, Ambrose, and William) and three sisters (Nelly, Sarah, and Frances), it was Ambrose who would eventually help to manage Montpelier for both his father and older brother until his own death in 1793.[12] President Zachary Taylor was a descendant of Elder William Brewster, a Pilgrim leader of the Plymouth Colony, a Mayflower immigrant, and a signer of the Mayflower Compact; and Isaac Allerton Jr., a colonial merchant, colonel, and son of Mayflower Pilgrim Isaac Allerton and Fear Brewster. Taylor's second cousin through that line was Madison.[13]

 
Virginia historic marker for Birthplace of President James Madison in Port Conway, Virginia

From age 11 to 16, Madison studied under Donald Robertson, a Scottish instructor who served as a tutor for several prominent planter families in the South. Madison learned mathematics, geography, and modern and classical languages, becoming exceptionally proficient in Latin. [14][10] At age 16, Madison returned to Montpelier, where he studied under the Reverend Thomas Martin to prepare for college. Unlike most college-bound Virginians of his day, Madison did not attend the College of William and Mary, where the lowland Williamsburg climate—thought to be more likely to harbor infectious disease—might have strained his sensibilities concerning his own health.[15] Instead, in 1769, he enrolled at the College of New Jersey (later renamed Princeton University).[16]

 
Madison as a student at Princeton, portrait by James Sharples

His college studies included Latin, Greek, theology, and the works of the Enlightenment.[17] Emphasis was placed on both speech and debate; Madison was a leading member of the American Whig–Cliosophic Society, which competed on campus with a political counterpart, the Cliosophic Society.[18] During his time at Princeton, Madison's closest friend was future Attorney General William Bradford.[19] Along with classmate Aaron Burr, Madison undertook an intense program of study and completed the college's three-year Bachelor of Arts degree in two years, graduating in 1771.[20] Madison had contemplated either entering the clergy or practicing law after graduation but instead remained at Princeton to study Hebrew and political philosophy under the college's president, John Witherspoon.[7] He returned home to Montpelier in early 1772.[21]

Madison's ideas on philosophy and morality were strongly shaped by Witherspoon, who converted him to the philosophy, values, and modes of thinking of the Age of Enlightenment. Biographer Terence Ball wrote that at Princeton, Madison "was immersed in the liberalism of the Enlightenment, and converted to eighteenth-century political radicalism. From then on James Madison's theories would advance the rights of happiness of man, and his most active efforts would serve devotedly the cause of civil and political liberty."[22]

After returning to Montpelier, without a chosen career, Madison served as a tutor to his younger siblings.[23] He began to study law books in 1773, asking his friend Bradford, a law apprentice, to send him a written plan of study. Madison had acquired an understanding of legal publications by 1783. He saw himself as a law student but not a lawyer. Madison did not apprentice himself to a lawyer and never joined the bar.[24] Following the Revolutionary War, he spent time at Montpelier in Virginia studying ancient democracies of the world in preparation for the Constitutional Convention.[10][25] Madison suffered from episodes of mental exhaustion and illness with associated nervousness, which often caused temporary short-term incapacity after periods of stress. However, he enjoyed good physical health until his final years.[26]

American Revolution and Articles of Confederation

During the 1760s and 1770s, American Colonists protested tightened British tax, monetary, and military laws forced on them by Parliament.[27] In 1765, the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which caused strong opposition by the colonists and began a conflict that would culminate in the American Revolution.[28][29] The American Revolutionary War broke out on April 19, 1775, and was ended by the Treaty of Paris signed on September 3, 1783.[28][30][31] The colonists formed three prominent factions: Loyalists, who continued to back King George III of the United Kingdom; a significant neutral faction without firm commitments to either Loyalists or Patriots; and the Patriots, whom Madison joined, under the leadership of the Continental Congress.[32][33] Madison believed that Parliament had overstepped its bounds by attempting to tax the American colonies, and he sympathized with those who resisted British rule.[34] Historically, debate about the consecration of bishops was ongoing and eventual legislation was passed in the British Parliament (subsequently called the Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786) to allow bishops to be consecrated for an American church outside of allegiance to the British Crown.[35] Both in the United States and in Canada, the new Anglican churches began incorporating more active forms of polity in their own self-government, collective decision-making, and self-supported financing; these measures would be consistent with separation of religious and secular identities.[36] Madison believed these measures to be insufficient, and also favored disestablishing the Anglican Church in Virginia; Madison believed that tolerance of an established religion was detrimental not only to freedom of religion but also because it encouraged excessive deference to any authority which might be asserted by an established church.[37]

 
Madison's portrait as congressional delegate at age 32 when he was already recognized as a contributor to politics and government. Portrait by Charles Willson Peale

After returning to Montpelier in 1774, Madison took a seat on the local Committee of Safety, a pro-revolution group that oversaw the local Patriot militia.[38] In October 1775, he was commissioned as the colonel of the Orange County militia, serving as his father's second-in-command until he was elected as a delegate to the Fifth Virginia Convention, which was charged with producing Virginia's first constitution.[5] Although Madison never battled in the Revolutionary War, he did rise to prominence in Virginia politics as a wartime leader.[39] At the Virginia constitutional convention, he convinced delegates to alter the Virginia Declaration of Rights originally drafted on May 20, 1776, to provide for "equal entitlement", rather than mere "tolerance", in the exercise of religion.[40] With the enactment of the Virginia constitution, Madison became part of the Virginia House of Delegates, and he was subsequently elected to the Virginia governor's Council of State,[41] where he became a close ally of Governor Thomas Jefferson.[42] On July 4, 1776, the United States Declaration of Independence was formally printed, declaring the 13 American states an independent nation.[43][44]

Madison participated in the debates concerning the Articles of Confederation[45] in November 1777, contributing to the discussion of religious freedom affecting the drafting of the Articles, though his signature was not required for adopting the Articles of Confederation. Madison had proposed liberalizing the article on religious freedom, but the larger Virginia Convention stripped the proposed constitution of the more radical language of "free expression" of faith to the less controversial mention of highlighting "tolerance" within religion. Other amendments by the committee and the entire Convention included the addition of a section on the right to a uniform government.[46] Madison again served on the Council of State, from 1777 to 1779, when he was elected to the Second Continental Congress, the governing body of the United States.[c]

During Madison's term in Congress from 1780 to 1783, the U.S. faced a difficult war against Great Britain, as well as runaway inflation, financial troubles, and a lack of cooperation between the different levels of government. According to historian J. C. A. Stagg, Madison worked to become an expert on financial issues, becoming a legislative workhorse and a master of parliamentary coalition building.[48] Frustrated by the failure of the states to supply needed requisitions, Madison proposed to amend the Articles of Confederation to grant Congress the power to independently raise revenue through tariffs on imports.[49] Though General George Washington, Congressman Alexander Hamilton, and other leaders also favored the tariff amendment, it was defeated because it failed to win the ratification of all thirteen states.[50] While a member of Congress, Madison was an ardent supporter of a close alliance between the United States and France. As an advocate of westward expansion, he insisted that the new nation had to ensure its right to navigation on the Mississippi River and control of all lands east of it in the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War.[51] Following his term in Congress, Madison won election to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1784.[52]

Ratification of the Constitution

As a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, Madison continued to advocate for religious freedom, and, along with Jefferson, drafted the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. That amendment, which guaranteed freedom of religion and disestablished the Church of England, was passed in 1786.[53] Madison also became a land speculator, purchasing land along the Mohawk River in partnership with another Jefferson protégé, James Monroe.[54] Throughout the 1780s, Madison became increasingly worried about the disunity of the states and the weakness of the central government after the end of the Revolutionary War.[55] He believed that direct democracy caused social decay and that a Republican government would be effective against partisanship and factionalism.[56][57][58] He was particularly troubled by laws that legalized paper money and denied diplomatic immunity to ambassadors from other countries.[59] Madison was also concerned about the lack of ability in Congress to capably create foreign policy, protect American trade, and foster the settlement of the lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.[60] As Madison wrote, "a crisis had arrived which was to decide whether the American experiment was to be a blessing to the world, or to blast for ever the hopes which the republican cause had inspired."[61] Madison committed to an intense study of law and political theory and also was influenced by Enlightenment texts sent by Jefferson from France.[62] Madison especially sought out works on international law and the constitutions of "ancient and modern confederacies" such as the Dutch Republic, the Swiss Confederation, and the Achaean League.[63] He came to believe that the United States could improve upon past republican experiments by its size which geographically combined 13 colonies; with so many competing interests, Madison hoped to minimize the abuses of majority rule.[64] Additionally, navigation rights to the major trade routes accessed by the Mississippi River highly concerned Madison. He opposed the proposal by John Jay that the United States concede claims to the river for 25 years, and, according to historian Ralph Ketcham, Madison's desire to fight the proposal was a major motivation in his to return to Congress in 1787.[65]

 
First page of the original handwritten copy of the U.S. Constitution
 
George Washington witnesses Gouverneur Morris sign the Constitution while Madison sits in front of Benjamin Franklin and next to Robert Morris in John Henry Hintermeister's 1925 painting, Foundation of the American Government.[66]

Leading up to the 1787 ratification debates for the Constitution,[67] Madison worked with other members of the Virginia delegation, especially Edmund Randolph and George Mason, to create and present the Virginia Plan, an outline for a new federal constitution.[68] It called for three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial), a bicameral Congress (consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives) apportioned by population, and a federal Council of Revision that would have the right to veto laws passed by Congress.[69] The Virginia Plan did not explicitly lay out the structure of the executive branch, but Madison himself favored a strong single executive.[70] Many delegates were surprised to learn that the plan called for the abrogation of the Articles and the creation of a new constitution, to be ratified by special conventions in each state, rather than by the state legislatures. With the assent of prominent attendees such as Washington and Benjamin Franklin, the delegates agreed in a secret session that the abrogation of the Articles and the creation of a new constitution was a plausible option and began scheduling the process of debating its ratification in the individual states.[71] As a compromise between small and large states, large states got a proportional House, while the small states got equal representation in the Senate.[72]

After the Philadelphia Convention ended in September 1787, Madison convinced his fellow congressmen to remain neutral in the ratification debate and allow each state to vote on the Constitution.[73] Those who supported the Constitution were called Federalists, that included Madison.[74] Throughout the United States, opponents of the Constitution, known as Anti-Federalists, began a public campaign against ratification.[74] In response, starting in October 1787,[75] Hamilton and John Jay, both Federalists, began publishing a series of pro-ratification newspaper articles in New York.[76] After Jay dropped out of the project, Hamilton approached Madison, who was in New York on congressional business, to write some of the essays.[77] The essays were published under the pseudonym of Publius.[78][79] The trio produced 85 essays known as The Federalist Papers.[79] The 85 essays were divided into two parts, 36 letters were against the Articles of Confederation, and 49 letters that favored the new Constitution.[75] The articles were also published in book form and used by the supporters of the Constitution in the ratifying conventions. Federalist No. 10, Madison's first contribution to The Federalist Papers, became highly regarded in the 20th century for its advocacy of representative democracy.[80] In it, Madison describes the dangers posed by the majority factions and argues that their effects can be limited through the formation of a large republic. He theorizes that in large republics the large number of factions that emerge will control their influence because no single faction can become a majority.[81][82] In Federalist No. 51, he goes on to explain how the separation of powers between three branches of the federal government, as well as between state governments and the federal government, establishes a system of checks and balances that ensures that no one institution would become too powerful.[83]

As the Virginia ratification convention began, Madison focused his efforts on winning the support of the relatively small number of undecided delegates.[84] His long correspondence with Randolph paid off at the convention, as Randolph announced that he would support unconditional ratification of the Constitution, with amendments to be proposed after ratification.[85] Though former Virginia governor Patrick Henry gave several persuasive speeches arguing against ratification, Madison's expertise on the subject he had long argued for allowed him to respond with rational arguments to Henry's anti-Federalist appeals.[86] Madison was also a defender of federal veto rights and, according to historian Ron Chernow "pleaded at the Constitutional Convention that the federal government should possess a veto over state laws".[87] In his final speech to the ratifying convention, Madison implored his fellow delegates to ratify the Constitution as it had been written, arguing that failure to do so would lead to the collapse of the entire ratification effort, as each state would seek favorable amendments.[88] On June 25, 1788, the convention voted 89–79 in favor of ratification. The vote came a week after New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, thereby securing the Constitution's adoption and with that, a new form of government.[89] The following January, Washington was elected the nation's first president.[90]

Congressman and party leader (1789–1801)

Election to Congress

After Virginia ratified the constitution, Madison returned to New York and resumed his duties in the Congress of the Confederation. After Madison was defeated in his bid for the Senate, and with concerns for both his political career and the possibility that Patrick Henry and his allies would arrange for a second constitutional convention, Madison ran for the House of Representatives.[91][92][93] Henry and the Anti-Federalists were in firm control of the General Assembly in the autumn of 1788.[93] At Henry's behest, the Virginia legislature designed to deny Madison a seat, and created congressional districts. Henry and his supporters ensured that Orange County was in a district heavily populated with Anti-Federalists, roughly three to one, to oppose Madison.[93][94] This practice is called gerrymandering.[93] Henry also recruited James Monroe, a strong challenger to Madison. [94] Locked in a difficult race against Monroe, Madison promised to support a series of constitutional amendments to protect individual liberties.[91] In an open letter, Madison wrote that, while he had opposed requiring alterations to the Constitution before ratification, he now believed that "amendments, if pursued with a proper moderation and in a proper mode ... may serve the double purpose of satisfying the minds of well-meaning opponents, and of providing additional guards in favor of liberty."[95] Madison's promise paid off, as in Virginia's 5th district election, he gained a seat in Congress with 57 percent of the vote.[4]

Madison became a key adviser to Washington, who valued Madison's understanding of the Constitution.[91] Madison helped Washington write his first inaugural address and also prepared the official House response to Washington's speech. He played a significant role in establishing and staffing the three Cabinet departments, and his influence helped Thomas Jefferson become the first Secretary of State.[96] At the start of the first Congress, he introduced a tariff bill similar to the one he had advocated for under the Articles of the Confederation,[97] and Congress established a federal tariff on imports by enacting the Tariff of 1789.[98] The following year, Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton introduced an ambitious economic program that called for the federal assumption of state debts and the funding of that debt through the issuance of federal securities. Hamilton's plan favored Northern speculators and was disadvantageous to states, such as Virginia, that had already paid off most of their debt; Madison emerged as one of the principal congressional opponents of the plan.[99] After prolonged legislative deadlock, Madison, Jefferson, and Hamilton agreed to the Compromise of 1790, which provided for the enactment of Hamilton's assumption plan, as part of the Funding Act of 1790. In return, Congress passed the Residence Act, which established the federal capital district of Washington, D.C., on the Potomac River.[100]

Bill of Rights

During the first Congress, Madison took the lead in advocating for several constitutional amendments to the Bill of Rights.[101] His primary goals were to fulfill his 1789 campaign pledge and to prevent the calling of a second constitutional convention, but he also hoped to safeguard the rights and liberties of the people against broad actions of Congress and individual states. He believed that the enumeration of specific rights would fix those rights in the public mind and encourage judges to protect them.[102][103] After studying more than two hundred amendments that had been proposed at the state ratifying conventions,[104] Madison introduced the Bill of Rights on June 8, 1789. His amendments contained numerous restrictions on the federal government and would protect, among other things, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and the right to peaceful assembly.[105] While most of his proposed amendments were drawn from the ratifying conventions, Madison was largely responsible for proposals to guarantee freedom of the press, protect property from government seizure, and ensure jury trials.[104] He also proposed an amendment to prevent states from abridging "equal rights of conscience, or freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases".[106]

To prevent a permanent standing federal army, Madison proposed the Second Amendment, which gave state-regulated militia groups and private citizens, the "right to bear arms." Madison and the Republicans desired a free government to be established by the consent of the governed, rather than by national military force. [107]

Madison's Bill of Rights faced little opposition; he had largely co-opted the Anti-Federalist goal of amending the Constitution but had avoided proposing amendments that would alienate supporters of the Constitution.[108] His amendments were mostly adopted by the House of Representatives as proposed, but the Senate made several changes.[109] Madison's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states was eliminated, as was his change to the Constitution's preamble which he thought would be enhanced by including a prefatory paragraph indicating that governmental power is vested by the people.[110] He was disappointed that the Bill of Rights did not include protections against actions by state governments,[d] but the passage of the document mollified some critics of the original constitution and shored up his support in Virginia.[104] Ten amendments were finally ratified on December 15, 1791, becoming known in their final form as the Bill of Rights.[112][e]

Founding the Democratic–Republican Party

 
Thomas Jefferson founded the Democratic-Republican Party with Madison and broadly represented Southern interests.

After 1790, the Washington administration became polarized into two main factions. One faction, led by Jefferson and Madison, broadly represented Southern interests and sought close relations with France. This faction became the Democratic-Republican Party opposition to Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton. The other faction, led by Hamilton and the Federalists, broadly represented Northern financial interests and favored close relations with Britain.[114] In 1791, Hamilton introduced a plan that called for the establishment of a national bank to provide loans to emerging industries and oversee the money supply.[115] Madison and the Democratic-Republican Party fought back against Hamilton's attempt to expand the power of the Federal Government with the formation of a national bank. Therefore, they opposed Hamilton's plan and Madison argued that under the Constitution, Congress did not have the power to create a federally empowered national bank.[116] Despite Madison's opposition, Congress passed a bill to create the First Bank of the United States, which Washington signed into law in February 1791.[115] As Hamilton implemented his economic program and Washington continued to enjoy immense prestige as president, Madison became increasingly concerned that Hamilton would seek to abolish the federal republic in favor of a centralized monarchy.[117]

When Hamilton submitted his Report on Manufactures, which called for federal action to stimulate the development of a diversified economy, Madison once again challenged Hamilton's proposal.[118] Along with Jefferson, Madison helped Philip Freneau establish the National Gazette, a Philadelphia newspaper that attacked Hamilton's proposals.[119] In an essay published in the newspaper in September 1792, Madison wrote that the country had divided into two factions: his faction, which believed "that mankind are capable of governing themselves", and Hamilton's faction, which allegedly sought the establishment of an aristocratic monarchy and was biased in favor of the wealthy.[120] Those opposed to Hamilton's economic policies, including many former Anti-Federalists, continued to strengthen the ranks of the Democratic–Republican Party,[f] while those who supported the administration's policies supported Hamilton's Federalist Party.[122] In the 1792 presidential election, both major parties supported Washington for re-election, but the Democratic–Republicans sought to unseat Vice President John Adams. Because the Constitution's rules essentially precluded Jefferson from challenging Adams,[g] the party backed New York Governor George Clinton for the vice presidency, but Adams won nonetheless.[124]

With Jefferson out of office after 1793, Madison became the de facto leader of the Democratic–Republican Party.[125] When Britain and France went to war in 1793, the U.S. needed to determine which side to support.[126] While the differences between the Democratic–Republicans and the Federalists had previously centered on economic matters, foreign policy became an increasingly important issue, as Madison and Jefferson favored France and Hamilton favored Britain.[127] War with Britain became imminent in 1794 after the British seized hundreds of American ships that were trading with French colonies. Madison believed that a trade war with Britain would probably succeed, and would allow Americans to assert their independence fully. The British West Indies, Madison maintained, could not live without American foodstuffs, but Americans could easily do without British manufacturers.[128] Washington then secured friendly trade relations with Britain through the Jay Treaty of 1794.[129] Madison and his Democratic–Republican allies were outraged by the treaty; the Democratic–Republican Robert R. Livingston wrote to Madison that the treaty "sacrifices every essential interest and prostrates the honor of our country".[130] Madison's strong opposition to the treaty led to a permanent break with Washington, ending their friendship.[129]

Marriage and family

On September 15, 1794, Madison married Dolley Payne Todd, the 26-year-old widow of John Todd, a Quaker farmer who died during a yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia.[131] Earlier that year, Madison and Dolley Todd had been formally introduced at Madison's request by Aaron Burr. Burr had become friends with her when staying at the same Philadelphia boardinghouse.[132] After an arranged meeting in early 1794, the two quickly became romantically engaged and prepared for a wedding that summer, but Todd suffered recurring illnesses because of her exposure to yellow fever in Philadelphia. They eventually traveled to Harewood in Virginia for their wedding. Only a few close family members attended, and Winchester reverend Alexander Balmain presided.[133] Dolley became a renowned figure in Washington, D.C., and excelled at hosting dinners and other important political occasions.[10] She subsequently helped to establish the modern image of the first lady of the United States as an individual who has a leading role in the social affairs of the nation.[134]

Throughout his life, Madison maintained a close relationship with his father, James Sr. Eventually at age 50, Madison inherited the large plantation of Montpelier and other possessions, including his father's numerous slaves.[135][12] While Madison never had children with Dolley, he adopted her one surviving son, John Payne Todd (known as Payne), after the couple's marriage.[136] Some of his colleagues, such as Monroe and Burr, believed Madison's lack of offspring weighed on his thoughts, though he never spoke of any distress.[137] Meanwhile, oral history has suggested Madison may have fathered a child with his enslaved half-sister, a cook named Coreen, but researchers were unable to gather the DNA evidence needed to determine the validity of the accusation.[138][139]

Adams presidency

Washington chose to retire after serving two terms and, in advance of the 1796 presidential election, Madison helped convince Jefferson to run for the presidency.[125] Despite Madison's efforts, Federalist candidate John Adams defeated Jefferson, taking a narrow majority of the electoral vote.[140] Under the rules of the Electoral College then in place, Jefferson became vice president because he finished with the second-most electoral votes.[141] Madison, meanwhile, had declined to seek re-election to the House, and he returned to Montpelier.[136] On Jefferson's advice, Adams considered appointing Madison to an American delegation charged with ending French attacks on American shipping, but Adams's cabinet members strongly opposed the idea.[142]

Though he was out of office, Madison remained a prominent Democratic–Republican leader in opposition to the Adams administration.[143][144] Madison and Jefferson believed that the Federalists were using the Quasi-War with France to justify the violation of constitutional rights by passing the Alien and Sedition Acts, and they increasingly came to view Adams as a monarchist.[145] Both Madison and Jefferson, as leaders of the Democratic–Republican Party, expressed the belief that natural rights were non-negotiable even during a time of war. Madison believed that the Alien and Sedition Acts formed a dangerous precedent, by giving the government the power to look past the natural rights of its people in the name of national security.[146][147] In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, Jefferson argued that the states had the power to nullify federal law on the basis of the Constitution was a compact among the states. Madison rejected this view of nullification and urged that states respond to unjust federal laws through interposition, a process by which a state legislature declared a law to be unconstitutional but did not take steps to actively prevent its enforcement. Jefferson's doctrine of nullification was widely rejected, and the incident damaged the Democratic–Republican Party as attention was shifted from the Alien and Sedition Acts to the unpopular nullification doctrine.[148]

In 1799, Madison was elected to the Virginia legislature. At the same time, Madison planned for Jefferson's campaign in the 1800 presidential election.[149] Madison issued the Report of 1800, which attacked the Alien and Sedition Acts as unconstitutional. That report held that Congress was limited to legislating on its enumerated powers and that punishment for sedition violated freedom of speech and freedom of the press. Jefferson embraced the report, and it became the unofficial Democratic–Republican platform for the 1800 election.[150] With the Federalists divided between supporters of Hamilton and Adams, and with news of the end of the Quasi-War not reaching the United States until after the election, Jefferson and his running mate, Aaron Burr, defeated Adams, allowing Jefferson to prevail as president.[151][152]

Secretary of State (1801–1809)

Madison was one of two major influences in Jefferson's Cabinet, the other being Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin. Madison was appointed secretary of state despite lacking foreign policy experience.[153][154] An introspective individual, he received assistance from his wife,[134] relying deeply on her in dealing with the social pressures of being a public figure both in his own Cabinet appointment as secretary of state and afterward.[10] As the ascent of Napoleon in France had dulled Democratic–Republican enthusiasm for the French cause, Madison sought a neutral position in the ongoing Coalition Wars between France and Britain.[155] Domestically, the Jefferson administration and the Democratic–Republican Congress rolled back many Federalist policies; Congress quickly repealed the Alien and Sedition Act, abolished internal taxes, and reduced the size of the army and navy.[156] Gallatin, however, did convince Jefferson to retain the First Bank of the United States.[157] Though the Federalist political power was rapidly fading away at the national level, Chief Justice John Marshall ensured that Federalist ideology retained an important presence in the judiciary. In the case of Marbury v. Madison, Marshall simultaneously ruled that Madison had unjustly refused to deliver federal commissions to individuals who had been appointed by the previous administration, but that the Supreme Court did not have jurisdiction over the case. Most importantly, Marshall's opinion established the principle of judicial review.[158] While attaining the position of secretary of state and throughout his life, Madison maintained contact with his father, James Sr., who died in 1801 and which allowed Madison to inherit the large plantation of Montpelier.[135]

 
The 1803 Louisiana Purchase totaled 827,987 square miles (2,144,480 square kilometers), doubling the size of the United States.

Jefferson took office and was sympathetic to the westward expansion of Americans who had settled as far west as the Mississippi River; his sympathy for expansion was supported by his concern for the sparse regional demographics in the far west compared to the more populated eastern states, the far west being inhabited almost exclusively by Native Americans. Jefferson promoted such western expansion and hoped to acquire the Spanish territory of Louisiana, west of the Mississippi River, for expansionist purposes.[159] Early in Jefferson's presidency, the administration learned that Spain planned to retrocede the Louisiana territory to France, raising fears of French encroachment on U.S. territory.[160] In 1802, Jefferson and Madison sent Monroe, a sympathetic fellow Virginian, to France to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans, which controlled access to the Mississippi River and thus was immensely important to the farmers of the American frontier. Rather than merely selling New Orleans, Napoleon's government, having already given up on plans to establish a new French empire in the Americas, offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana. Despite lacking explicit authorization from Jefferson, Monroe, along with Livingston, whom Jefferson had appointed as America's minister to France, negotiated the Louisiana Purchase, in which France sold more than 827,987 square miles (2,144,480 square kilometers) of land in exchange for $15 million (equivalent to $271,433,333.33 in 2021). [161]

 
James Madison as Secretary of State painted by Gilbert Stuart, c. 1805–1807

Despite the time-sensitive nature of negotiations with the French, Jefferson was concerned about the constitutionality of the Louisiana Purchase, and he privately favored introducing a constitutional amendment explicitly authorizing Congress to acquire new territories. Madison convinced Jefferson to refrain from proposing the amendment, and the administration ultimately submitted the Louisiana Purchase Treaty for approval by the Senate, without an accompanying constitutional amendment.[162] Unlike Jefferson, Madison was not seriously concerned with the constitutionality of the purchase. He believed that the circumstances did not warrant a strict interpretation of the Constitution, because the expansion was in the country's best interest.[163] The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal alacrity, passed enabling legislation.[164][165][166]

Early in his tenure, Jefferson was able to maintain cordial relations with both France and Britain, but relations with Britain deteriorated after 1805.[167] The British ended their policy of tolerance towards American shipping and began seizing American goods headed for French ports.[168] They also impressed American sailors, some of whom had originally defected from the British navy, but some of whom had never been British subjects.[169] In response to the attacks, Congress passed the Non-importation Act, which restricted many, but not all, British imports.[168] Tensions with Britain were heightened due to the Chesapeake–Leopard affair, a June 1807 naval confrontation between American and British naval forces, while the French also began attacking American shipping.[170] Madison believed that economic pressure could force the British to end their seizure of American shipped goods, and he and Jefferson convinced Congress to pass the Embargo Act of 1807, which banned all exports to foreign nations.[171] The embargo proved ineffective, unpopular, and difficult to enforce, especially in New England.[172] In March 1809, Congress replaced the embargo with the Non-Intercourse Act, which allowed trade with nations other than Britain and France.[173]

1808 presidential election

 
Following Jefferson's presidency, Madison's 1808 electoral vote results

Speculation regarding Madison's potential succession to Jefferson commenced early in Jefferson's first term. Madison's status in the party was damaged by his association with the embargo, which was unpopular throughout the country and especially in the Northeast.[174] With the Federalists collapsing as a national party after 1800, the chief opposition to Madison's candidacy came from other members of the Democratic–Republican Party.[175] Madison became the target of attacks from Congressman John Randolph, a leader of a faction of the party known as the tertium quids.[176]

Randolph recruited Monroe, who had felt betrayed by the administration's rejection of the proposed Monroe–Pinkney Treaty with Britain, to challenge Madison for leadership of the party.[177] Many Northerners, meanwhile, hoped that Vice President Clinton could unseat Madison as Jefferson's successor.[178] Despite this opposition, Madison won his party's presidential nomination at the January 1808 congressional nominating caucus.[179] The Federalist Party mustered little strength outside New England, and Madison easily defeated Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in the general election.[180]

Presidency (1809–1817)

Inauguration and cabinet

 
James Madison as President, engraving by David Edwin from between 1809 and 1817

Madison's inauguration took place on March 4, 1809, in the House chamber of the U.S. Capitol. Chief Justice Marshall administered the presidential oath of office to Madison while outgoing President Jefferson watched from a seat close by.[181] Vice President George Clinton was sworn in for a second term, making him the first U.S. vice president to serve under two presidents. Unlike Jefferson, who enjoyed relatively unified support, Madison faced political opposition from previous political allies such as Monroe and Clinton. Additionally, the Federalist Party was resurgent owing to opposition to the embargo. Aside from his planned nomination of Gallatin for secretary of state, the remaining members of Madison's Cabinet were chosen merely to further political harmony, and, according to historians Ketcham and Rutland, were largely unremarkable or incompetent.[182][183] Due to the opposition of Monroe and Clinton, Madison immediately faced opposition to his planned nomination of Secretary of the Treasury Gallatin as secretary of state. Madison eventually chose not to nominate Gallatin, keeping him in the treasury department.[184]

Madison settled instead for Robert Smith, the brother of Maryland Senator Samuel Smith, to be the secretary of state.[183] However, for the next two years, Madison performed most of the job of the secretary of state due to Smith's incompetence. After bitter intra-party contention, Madison finally replaced Smith with Monroe in April 1811.[185][186] With a Cabinet full of those he distrusted, Madison rarely called Cabinet meetings and instead frequently consulted with Gallatin alone.[187] Early in his presidency, Madison sought to continue Jefferson's policies of low taxes and a reduction of the national debt.[188] In 1811, Congress allowed the charter of the First Bank of the United States to lapse after Madison declined to take a strong stance on the issue.[189]

War of 1812

Prelude to war

Congress had repealed the Embargo Act of 1807 shortly before Madison became president, but troubles with the British and French continued.[190] Madison settled on a new strategy that was designed to pit the British and French against each other, offering to trade with whichever country would end their attacks against American shipping. The gambit almost succeeded, but negotiations with the British collapsed in mid-1809.[191] Seeking to drive a wedge between the Americans and the British, Napoleon offered to end French attacks on American shipping so long as the United States punished any countries that did not similarly end restrictions on trade.[192] Madison accepted Napoleon's proposal in the hope that it would convince the British to finally end their policy of commercial warfare. Notwithstanding, the British refused to change their policies, and the French reneged on their promise and continued to attack American shipping.[193]

With sanctions and other policies having failed, Madison determined that war with Britain was the only remaining option.[194] Many Americans called for a "second war of independence" to restore honor and stature to their new nation, and an angry public elected a "war hawk" Congress, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun.[195] With Britain already engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, many Americans including Madison believed that the United States could easily capture Canada, using it as a bargaining chip for other disputes or simply retaining control of it.[196] On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war, stating that the United States could no longer tolerate Britain's "state of war against the United States". The declaration of war was passed along sectional and party lines, with opposition to the declaration coming from Federalists and from some Democratic–Republicans in the Northeast.[197] In the years prior to the war, Jefferson and Madison had reduced the size of the military, leaving the country with a military force consisting mostly of poorly trained militia members.[198] Madison asked Congress to quickly put the country "into an armor and an attitude demanded by the crisis", specifically recommending expansion of the army and navy.[199]

Military actions

 
USS Constitution defeats HMS Guerriere, a significant event during the war. U.S. nautical victories boosted American morale.

Given the circumstances involving Napoleon in Europe Madison initially believed the war would result in a quick American victory.[196][200] Madison ordered three landed military spearhead incursions into Canada, starting from Fort Detroit, designed to loosen British control around American-held Fort Niagara and destroy the British supply lines from Montreal. These actions would gain leverage for concessions to protect American shipping in the Atlantic.[200] Without a standing army, Madison counted on regular state militias to rally to the flag and invade Canada: still, governors in the Northeast failed to cooperate.[201] The British army was more organized, used professional soldiers, and fostered an alliance with Native American tribes led by Tecumseh. On August 16, during the British siege of Detroit, Major General William Hull panicked, after the British fired on the fort, killing two American officers. Terrified of an Indian attack, drinking heavily, Hull quickly ordered a white tablecloth out a window and unconditionally surrendered Fort Detroit and his entire army to British Major-General Sir Issac Brock.[200][202] Hull was court-martialed for cowardness, but Madison intervened and saved him from being shot.[202] On October 13, a separate force from the United States was defeated at Queenston Heights, although Brock was killed.[203][200] Commanding General Henry Dearborn, hampered by mutinous New England infantry, retreated to winter quarters near Albany, failing to destroy Montreal's vulnerable British supply lines.[200] Lacking adequate revenue to fund the war, the Madison administration was forced to rely on high-interest loans furnished by bankers based in New York City and Philadelphia.[204]

In the 1812 presidential election, held during the early stages of the war, Madison was re-nominated without opposition.[205] A dissident group of New York Democratic-Republicans nominated DeWitt Clinton, the lieutenant governor of New York and a nephew of recently deceased Vice President George Clinton, to oppose Madison in the 1812 election. This faction of Democratic-Republicans hoped to unseat the president by forging a coalition among Democratic-Republicans opposed to the coming war, as well as those party faithful angry with Madison for not moving more decisively toward war, northerners weary of the Virginia dynasty and southern control of the White House, and many New Englanders wanted Madison replaced. Dismayed about their prospects of beating Madison, a group of top Federalists met with Clinton's supporters to discuss a unification strategy. Difficult as it was for them to join forces, they nominated Clinton for President and Jared Ingersoll, a Philadelphia lawyer, for vice president.[48] Hoping to shore up his support in the Northeast, where the War of 1812 was unpopular, Madison selected Governor Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts as his running mate,[206] though Gerry would only survive two years after the election due to advanced old age.[207] Despite the maneuverings of Clinton and the Federalists, Madison won re-election, though by the narrowest margin of any election since that of 1800 in the popular vote as later supported by the electoral vote as well. He received 128 electoral votes to 89 for Clinton.[208] With Clinton winning most of the Northeast, Madison won Pennsylvania in addition to having swept the South and the West which ensured his victory.[209][210]

 
The British set ablaze the U.S. Capitol among other buildings in the capital while Madison was President on August 24, 1814.

After the disastrous start to the war, Madison accepted Russia's invitation to arbitrate and sent a delegation led by Gallatin and John Quincy Adams (the first son of former President John Adams) to Europe to negotiate a peace treaty.[196] While Madison worked to end the war, the United States experienced some impressive naval successes, by the USS Constitution and other warships, that boosted American morale.[211][200] Victorious in the Battle of Lake Erie, the U.S. crippled the supply and reinforcement of British military forces in the western theater of the war.[212] In the aftermath of the Battle of Lake Erie, General William Henry Harrison defeated the forces of the British and of Tecumseh's confederacy at the Battle of the Thames. The death of Tecumseh in that battle marked the permanent end of armed Native American resistance in the Old Northwest and any hope of a united Indian nation.[213] In March 1814, Major General Andrew Jackson broke the resistance of the British-allied Muscogee Creek in the Old Southwest with his victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.[214] Despite those successes, the British continued to repel American attempts to invade Canada, and a British force captured Fort Niagara and burned the American city of Buffalo in late 1813.[215]

 
The Battle of New Orleans took place while the Treaty of Ghent was being negotiated in 1815.

On August 24, 1814, the British landed a large force on the shores of Chesapeake Bay and routed General William Winder's army at the Battle of Bladensburg.[216] Madison, who had earlier inspected Winder's army,[217] escaped British capture by fleeing to Virginia on a fresh horse, though the British captured Washington and burned many of its buildings, including the White House.[218][219] Escaping capture by the British, Dolley had abandoned the capital and fled to Virginia, but only after securing the portrait of George Washington.[217] The charred remains of the capital signified a humiliating defeat for James Madison and America.[220] On August 27, Madison returned to Washington to view the carnage of the city.[220] Dolley returned the next day, and on September 8, the Madisons moved into the Octagon House. The British army next advanced on Baltimore, but the U.S. repelled the British attack in the Battle of Baltimore, and the British army departed from the Chesapeake region in September.[221] That same month, U.S. forces repelled a British invasion from Canada with a victory at the Battle of Plattsburgh.[222] The British public began to turn against the war in North America, and British leaders began to look for a quick exit from the conflict.[223]

In January 1815, Jackson's troops defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans.[224] Just more than a month later, Madison learned that his negotiators led by John Quincy Adams had concluded the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, which ended the war.[225]

Madison quickly sent the treaty to the Senate, which ratified it on February 16, 1815.[226] Although the overall result of the war ended in a standoff, the quick succession of events at the end of the war, including the burning of the capital, the Battle of New Orleans, and the Treaty of Ghent, made it appear as though American valor at New Orleans had forced the British to surrender. This view, while inaccurate, strongly contributed to bolstering Madison's reputation as president. Native Americans lost the most, including their land and independence.[227] Napoleon's defeat at the June 1815 Battle of Waterloo brought a final close to the Napoleonic Wars and thus an end to the hostile seizure of American shipping by British and French forces.[228]

Postwar period and decline of the Federalist opposition

The postwar period of Madison's second term saw the transition into the "Era of Good Feelings" between mid-1815 and 1817, with the Federalists experiencing a further decline in influence.[229] During the war, delegates from the New England states held the Hartford Convention, where they asked for several amendments to the Constitution.[230] Though the Hartford Convention did not explicitly call for the secession of New England,[231] the Convention became an adverse political millstone around the Federalist Party as general American sentiment had moved towards a celebrated unity among the states in what they saw as a successful "second war of independence" from Britain.[232]

Madison hastened the decline of the Federalists by adopting several programs he had previously opposed.[233] Recognizing the difficulties of financing the war and the necessity of an institution to regulate American currency, Madison proposed the re-establishment of a national bank. He also called for increased spending on the army and the navy, a tariff designed to protect American goods from foreign competition, and a constitutional amendment authorizing the federal government to fund the construction of internal improvements such as roads and canals. Madison's initiatives to now act on behalf of a national bank appeared to reverse his earlier opposition to Hamilton and were opposed by strict constructionists such as John Randolph, who stated that Madison's proposals now "out-Hamiltons Alexander Hamilton".[234] Responding to Madison's proposals, the 14th Congress compiled one of the most productive legislative records up to that point in history.[235] Congress granted the Second Bank of the United States a twenty-five-year charter[234] and passed the Tariff of 1816, which set high import duties for all goods that were produced outside the United States.[235] Madison approved federal spending on the Cumberland Road, which provided a link to the country's western lands;[236] still, in his last act before leaving office, he blocked further federal spending on internal improvements by vetoing the Bonus Bill of 1817 arguing that it unduly exceeded the limits of the General Welfare Clause concerning such improvements.[237]

Native American policy

 
The Battle of Tippecanoe took place in the Northwest Territory on November 7, 1811.

Upon becoming president, Madison said the federal government's duty was to convert Native Americans by the "participation of the improvements of which the human mind and manners are susceptible in a civilized state".[188] In 1809, General Harrison began to push for a treaty to open more land for white American settlement. The Miami, Wea, and Kickapoo were vehemently opposed to selling any more land around the Wabash River.[238] To motivate those groups to sell their land, Harrison decided, against the wishes of Madison, to first conclude a treaty with the tribes who were willing to sell and use those treaties to help influence those who held out. In September 1809, Harrison invited the Potawatomie, Delaware, Eel Rivers, and the Miami to a meeting in Fort Wayne. During the negotiations, Harrison promised large subsidies and direct payments to the tribes if they would cede the other lands under discussion.[239] On September 30, 1809, little more than six months into his first term, Madison agreed to the Treaty of Fort Wayne, negotiated and signed by Indiana Territory's Governor Harrison.[240] In the treaty, the American Indian tribes were compensated $5,200 (equivalent to $90,092.77 in 2021) in goods and $500 in cash (equivalent to $8,662.77 in 2021), with $250 in annual payments (equivalent to $4,331.38 in 2021), in return for the cession of 3 million acres of land (approximately 12,140 square kilometers) with incentivized subsidies paid to individual tribes for exerting their influence over less cooperative tribes.[241][242] The treaty angered Shawnee leader Tecumseh, who said, "Sell a country! Why not sell the air, the clouds and the great sea, as well as the earth?"[243] Harrison responded that tribes were the owners of their land and could sell it to whomever they wished.[244]

Like Jefferson, Madison had a paternalistic attitude toward American Indians, encouraging them to become farmers.[245] Madison believed the adoption of European-style agriculture would help Native Americans assimilate the values of British–U.S. civilization. As pioneers and settlers moved West into large tracts of Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, and Chickasaw territory, Madison ordered the U.S. Army to protect Native lands from intrusion by settlers. This was done to the chagrin of his military commander Andrew Jackson, who wanted Madison to ignore Indian pleas to stop the invasion of their lands.[246] Tensions continued to mount between the United States and Tecumseh over the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne, which ultimately led to Tecumseh's alliance with the British and the Battle of Tippecanoe, on November 7, 1811, in the Northwest Territory.[246][247] The divisions among the Native American leaders were bitter and before leaving the discussions, Tecumseh informed Harrison that unless the terms of the negotiated treaty were largely nullified, he would seek an alliance with the British.[248]

The situation continued to escalate, eventually leading to the outbreak of hostilities between Tecumseh's followers and American settlers later that year. Tensions continued to rise, leading to the Battle of Tippecanoe during a period sometimes called Tecumseh's War.[249][250] Tecumseh was defeated and Indians were pushed off their tribal lands, replaced entirely by white settlers.[246][247] In addition to the Battle of the Thames and the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, other wars with American Indians took place, including the Peoria War, and the Creek War. Negotiated by Jackson, in the aftermath of the Creek War, the Treaty of Fort Jackson of August 9, 1814, added approximately 23 million acres of land to the United States (93,000 square kilometers) in Georgia and Alabama.[251][252] Privately, Madison did not believe American Indians could be fully assimilated to the values of Euro-American culture. He believed that Native Americans may have been unwilling to make "the transition from the hunter, or even the herdsman state, to the agriculture". Madison feared that Native Americans had too great an influence on the settlers they interacted with, who in his view was "irresistibly attracted by that complete liberty, that freedom from bonds, obligations, duties, that absence of care and anxiety which characterize the savage state". Later in Madison's term, in March 1816, Madison's Secretary of War William Crawford advocated for the government to encourage intermarriages between Native Americans and whites as a way of assimilating the former. This prompted public outrage and exacerbated anti-indigenous bigotry among white Americans, as seen in hostile letters sent to Madison, who remained publicly silent on the issue.[243]

Election of 1816

In the 1816 presidential election, Madison and Jefferson both favored the candidacy of Secretary of State James Monroe, who defeated Secretary of War William H. Crawford in the party's congressional nominating caucus. As the Federalist Party continued to collapse, Monroe easily defeated Federalist candidate, New York Senator Rufus King, in the 1816 election.[253] Madison left office as a popular president; former president Adams wrote that Madison had "acquired more glory, and established more union, than all his three predecessors, Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, put together".[254]

Post-presidency (1817–1836)

 
Portrait of James Madison after the completion of his two terms as president c. 1821, by Gilbert Stuart

When Madison left office in 1817 at age 65, he retired to Montpelier, not far from Jefferson's Monticello. As with both Washington and Jefferson, Madison left the presidency a poorer man than when he came in. His plantation experienced a steady financial collapse, due to price declines in tobacco and his stepson's mismanagement.[10] In his retirement, Madison occasionally became involved in public affairs, advising Andrew Jackson and other presidents.[255] He remained out of the public debate over the Missouri Compromise, though he privately complained about the North's opposition to the extension of slavery.[256] Madison had warm relations with all four of the major candidates in the 1824 presidential election, but, like Jefferson, largely stayed out of the race.[257] During Jackson's presidency, Madison publicly disavowed the Nullification movement and argued that no state had the right to secede.[258] Madison also helped Jefferson establish the University of Virginia.[259] In 1826, after the death of Jefferson, Madison was appointed as the second rector of the university. He retained the position as college chancellor for ten years until his death in 1836.[260]

In 1829, at the age of 78, Madison was chosen as a representative to the Virginia Constitutional Convention for revision of the commonwealth's constitution. It was his last appearance as a statesman. Apportionment of adequate representation was the central issue at the convention for the western districts of Virginia. The increased population in the Piedmont and western parts of the state were not proportionately represented in the legislature. Western reformers also wanted to extend suffrage to all white men, in place of the prevailing property ownership requirement. Madison made modest gains but was disappointed at the failure of Virginians to extend suffrage to all white men.[261]

In his later years, Madison became highly concerned about his historical legacy. He resorted to modifying letters and other documents in his possession, changing days and dates, and adding and deleting words and sentences. By his late seventies, Madison's self-editing of his own archived letters and older materials had become almost an obsession. As an example, he edited a letter written to Jefferson criticizing Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette; Madison not only inked out original passages but in other correspondence he even forged Jefferson's handwriting.[262] Historian Drew R. McCoy wrote that "During the final six years of his life, amid a sea of personal [financial] troubles that were threatening to engulf him ... At times mental agitation issued in physical collapse. For the better part of a year in 1831 and 1832 he was bedridden, if not silenced ... Literally sick with anxiety, he began to despair of his ability to make himself understood by his fellow citizens."[263]

Death

Madison's health slowly deteriorated through the early-to-mid-1830s.[264] Approaching the Fourth of July, he died of congestive heart failure at Montpelier on the morning of June 28, 1836, at the age of 85.[265] According to one common account of his final moments, he was given his breakfast, which he tried eating but was unable to swallow. His favorite niece,[clarification needed] who sat by to keep him company, asked him, "What is the matter, Uncle James?" Madison died immediately after he replied, "Nothing more than a change of mind, my dear."[266] He was buried in the family cemetery at Montpelier.[10] He was one of the last prominent members of the Revolutionary War generation to die.[255] His last will and testament left significant sums to the American Colonization Society, Princeton, and the University of Virginia, as well as $30,000 ($897,000 in 2021) to his wife, Dolley. Left with a smaller sum than James had intended, Dolley suffered financial troubles until her death in 1849.[267] In the 1840s Dolley sold Montpelier, its remaining slaves, and the furnishings to pay off outstanding debts. Paul Jennings, one of Madison's younger slaves, later recalled in his memoir,

In the last days of her life, before Congress purchased her husband's papers, she was in a state of absolute poverty, and I think sometimes suffered for the necessaries of life. While I was a servant to Mr. Webster, he often sent me to her with a market-basket full of provisions, and told me whenever I saw anything in the house that I thought she was in need of, to take it to her. I often did this, and occasionally gave her small sums from my own pocket, though I had years before bought my freedom of her.[268]

Political and religious views

Federalism

External videos
  Booknotes interview with Lance Banning on The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic, February 11, 1996, C-SPAN

During his first stint in Congress in the 1780s, Madison came to favor amending the Articles of Confederation to provide for a stronger central government.[269] In the 1790s, he led the opposition to Hamilton's centralizing policies and the Alien and Sedition Acts.[270] Madison's support of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in the 1790s has been referred to as "a breathtaking evolution for a man who had pleaded at the Constitutional Convention that the federal government should possess a veto over state laws".[87]

Religion

Although baptized as an Anglican and educated by Presbyterian clergymen,[271] young Madison was an avid reader of English deist tracts.[272] As an adult, Madison paid little attention to religious matters. Though most historians have found little indication of his religious leanings after he left college,[273] some scholars indicate he leaned toward deism.[274][275] Others maintain that Madison accepted Christian tenets and formed his outlook on life with a Christian worldview.[276] Regardless of his own religious beliefs, Madison believed in religious liberty, and he advocated for Virginia's disestablishment of religious institutions sponsored by the state.[277] He also opposed the appointments of chaplains for Congress and the armed forces, arguing that the appointments produce religious exclusion as well as political disharmony.[278][279]

Slavery

Throughout his life, Madison's views on slavery were conflicted. He was born into a plantation society that relied on slave labor, and both sides of his family profited from tobacco farming.[280] While he viewed slavery as essential to the Southern economy, he was troubled by the instability of a society that depended on a large slave population.[281] Madison also believed slavery was incompatible with American Revolutionary principles, though he owned over one hundred African American slaves.[280]

History

Madison grew up on Montpelier, his family's plantation in Virginia. Like other southern plantations, Montpelier depended on slave labor. When Madison left for college on August 10, 1769, he arrived at Princeton accompanied by his slave Sawney, who was charged with Madison's expenses and with relaying messages to his family back home.[280] In 1783, fearing the possibility of a slave rebellion at Montpelier, Madison emancipated one slave, Billey, selling him into a seven-year apprentice contract. After his manumission, Billey changed his name to William Gardner, married and had a family,[282] and became a shipping agent, representing Madison in Philadelphia. In 1795, Gardner was swept overboard and drowned on a voyage to New Orleans. [283][284] Madison inherited Montpelier and its more than one hundred slaves, after his father's death in 1801.[285] That same year, Madison was appointed Secretary of State by President Jefferson, and he moved to Washington D.C., running Montpelier from afar making no effort to free his slaves. After his election to the presidency in 1808, Madison brought his slaves to the White House.[280] During the 1820s and 1830s, Madison sold some of his land and slaves to repay debt. In 1836, at the time of Madison's death, he owned 36 taxable slaves.[286] In his will, Madison gave his remaining slaves to his wife Dolley and charged her not to sell the slaves without their permission. For reasons of necessity, Dolley did not comply and sold the slaves without their permission to pay off debts.[280]

Treatment of slaves

As was consistent with the "established social norms of Virginia society",[287] Madison was known from his farm papers for advocating the humane treatment of his slaves at Montpelier. He instructed an overseer to "treat the Negroes with all the humanity and kindness consistent with their necessary subordination and work."[288] Madison also ensured that his slaves had milk cows and meals for their daily food.[289] By the 1790s, Madison's slave Sawney was an overseer of part of the plantation. Madison ordered Sawney by letter to ready fields for growing apples, corn, tobacco, and Irish potatoes. Like Sawney, some slaves at Montpelier could read.[289] Enslaved people at Montpelier worked six days a week from dawn to dusk, with a mid-day break, and got Sundays off.[290][291] Paul Jennings was a slave of the Madisons for 48 years. Jennings, born into slavery in 1799 at the Montpelier plantation, served as Madison's footman at the White House. In his memoir A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison, published in 1865, Jennings said that he "never knew [Madison] to strike a slave, although he had over one hundred; neither would he allow an overseer to do it." As a house slave, Jennings had a basic education and was literate, taught in mathematics, and played the violin. Although Jennings condemned slavery, he said that James was "one of the best men that ever lived", and that Dolley was "a remarkably fine woman."[292][293]

Views on slavery

Madison called slavery "the most oppressive dominion" that ever existed,[294] and he had a "lifelong abhorrence" for it.[295] In 1785 Madison spoke in the Virginia Assembly favoring a bill that Thomas Jefferson had proposed for the gradual abolition of slavery, and he also helped defeat a bill designed to outlaw the manumission of individual slaves.[295] As a slaveholder, Madison was aware that owning slaves was not consistent with revolutionary values,[296] but, as a pragmatist, this sort of self-contradiction was a common feature in his political career.[297] Historian Drew R. McCoy said that Madison's antislavery principles were indeed "impeccable."[298] Historian Ralph Ketcham said, "[a]lthough Madison abhorred slavery, he nonetheless bore the burden of depending all his life on a slave system that he could never square with his republican beliefs."[7] There is no evidence Madison thought black people were inferior.[299][294] Madison believed blacks and whites were unlikely to co-exist peacefully due to "the prejudices of the whites" as well as feelings on both sides "inspired by their former relation as oppressors and oppressed."[300] As such, he became interested in the idea of freedmen establishing colonies in Africa and later served as the president of the American Colonization Society, which relocated former slaves to Liberia.[301] Madison believed that this solution offered a gradual, long-term, but potentially feasible means of eradicating slavery in the United States.[302] Madison nevertheless thought that peaceful co-existence between the two racial groups could eventually be achieved in the long run.[288]

Madison initially opposed the Constitution's 20-year protection of the foreign slave trade, but he eventually accepted it as a necessary compromise to get the South to ratify the document.[303] He also proposed that apportionment in the House of Representatives be according to each state's free and enslaved population, eventually leading to the adoption of the Three-fifths Compromise.[304] Madison supported the extension of slavery into the West during the Missouri crisis of 1819–1821,[305] asserting that the spread of slavery would not lead to more slaves, but rather diminish their generative increase through dispersing them,[h] thus substantially improving their condition, accelerating emancipation, easing racial tensions, and increasing "partial manumissions."[307] Madison thought of slaves as "wayward (but still educable) students in need of regular guidance."[288] According to historian Paris Spies-Gans, Madison's anti-slavery thought was strongest "at the height of Revolutionary politics. But by the early 1800s, when in a position to truly impact policy, he failed to follow through on these views." Spies-Gans concluded, "[u]ltimately, Madison's personal dependence on slavery led him to question his own, once enlightened, definition of liberty itself."[280]

Legacy

Historical reputation

 
Portrait of Madison after his health began to fail, age 82, c. 1833

Regarded as one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, Madison had a wide influence on the founding of the nation and upon the early development of American constitutional government and foreign policy. Historian J.C.A. Stagg writes that "in some ways—because he was on the winning side of every important issue facing the young nation from 1776 to 1816—Madison was the most successful and possibly the most influential of all the Founding Fathers."[48] Though he helped found a major political party and served as the fourth president, his legacy has largely been defined by his contributions to the Constitution; even in his own life he was hailed as the "Father of the Constitution".[308] Law professor Noah Feldman writes that Madison "invented and theorized the modern ideal of an expanded, federal constitution that combines local self-government with an overarching national order".[309] Feldman adds that Madison's "model of liberty-protecting constitutional government" is "the most influential American idea in global political history".[309][i] Various rankings of historians and political scientists tend to rank Madison as an above average president with a 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranking Madison as the twelfth best president.[305]

Various historians have criticized Madison's tenure as president.[311] In 1968, Henry Steele Commager and Richard B. Morris said the conventional view of Madison was of an "incapable President" who "mismanaged an unnecessary war".[312] A 2006 poll of historians ranked Madison's failure to prevent the War of 1812 as the sixth-worst mistake made by a sitting president.[313] Regarding Madison's consistency and adaptability of policy-making during his many years of political activity, historian Gordon S. Wood says that Lance Banning, as in his Sacred Fire of Liberty (1995), is the "only present-day scholar to maintain that Madison did not change his views in the 1790s".[314]

During and after the War of 1812, Madison came to support several of the policies that he opposed in the 1790s, including the national bank, a strong navy, and direct taxes.[315] Wood notes that many historians struggle to understand Madison, but Wood looks at him in the terms of Madison's own times—as a nationalist but one with a different conception of nationalism than that of the Federalists.[314] Gary Rosen uses other approaches to suggest Madison's consistency.[316] Historian Garry Wills wrote, "Madison's claim on our admiration does not rest on a perfect consistency, any more than it rests on his presidency. He has other virtues.  ... As a framer and defender of the Constitution he had no peer.  ... No man could do everything for the country—not even Washington. Madison did more than most, and did some things better than any. That was quite enough."[317]

Popular culture

Madison, portrayed by Burgess Meredith, is a key protagonist in the 1946 Hollywood film Magnificent Doll, which focuses on a fictionalized account of Dolley Madison's romantic life.[318] Madison is also portrayed in the popular musical Hamilton, played by Joshua Henry in the original 2013 Vassar version and then revised by Okieriete Onaodowan for the 2015 Broadway opening.[319][320][321] In the Broadway musical, Madison, joined by Jefferson and Burr, confront Hamilton about his affaire de cœur in the Reynolds affair by intoning the rap lyrics to the song "We Know". Onaodowan won a Grammy Award for his portrayal of Madison.[322]

Memorials

Montpelier, the Madison family's plantation, has been designated a National Historic Landmark. The James Madison Memorial Building is part of the United States Library of Congress and serves as the official memorial to Madison.[323] In 1986, Congress created the James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation as part of the bicentennial celebration of the Constitution.[324][325] Other memorials include Madison, Wisconsin and Madison County, Alabama[326][327] which were both named for Madison, as were Madison Square Garden, James Madison University, and the USS James Madison.[328][329][330] In 2021, the Madison Metropolitan School District renamed James Madison Memorial High School following community opposition to commemorating someone who used slave labor.[331]

Notes

  1. ^ a b Vice President Clinton and Vice President Gerry both died in office. Neither was replaced for the remainder of their respective terms, as the Constitution did not have a provision for filling a vice presidential vacancy prior to the adoption of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967.[2]
  2. ^ O.S. March 5, 1750.
  3. ^ After the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781, the Second Continental Congress became the Congress of the Confederation.[47]
  4. ^ Portions of the Bill of Rights would later be incorporated against the states.[111]
  5. ^ One of the two unratified amendments became part of the Constitution in 1992 as the Twenty-seventh Amendment. The other unratified amendment, known as the Congressional Apportionment Amendment, is technically still pending before the states.[113]
  6. ^ The Democratic–Republican Party was often referred to as the "Republican Party". It was a separate entity from the later Republican Party, which was founded in the 1850s.[121]
  7. ^ Because the Constitution required presidential electors to vote for at least one individual from outside their home state, electors from Virginia would not have been able to vote for both Washington and Jefferson.[123]
  8. ^ According to McCoy, through this reasoning, Madison implicitly rejected "the Malthusian logic of restrictionists, who contended that diffusion, by increasing the supply of available subsistence to the black population, would indeed increase their numbers by accelerating the rate of natural growth."[306]
  9. ^ Historian Gordon Wood commends Madison for his steady leadership during the war and resolve to avoid expanding the president's power, noting one admirer's observation that the war was conducted "without one trial for treason, or even one prosecution for libel".[310]

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Further reading

External links

  • Scholarly coverage of Madison at Miller Center, U of Virginia
  • James Madison: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress
  • Works by or about James Madison at Internet Archive
  • Works by James Madison at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)  
  • . montpelier.org. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. Retrieved April 29, 2020.

james, madison, other, uses, disambiguation, president, madison, redirects, here, ships, named, president, madison, president, madison, march, 1751, june, 1836, american, statesman, diplomat, founding, father, served, fourth, president, united, states, from, 1. For other uses see James Madison disambiguation President Madison redirects here For ships named President Madison see SS President Madison James Madison Jr March 16 1751 b June 28 1836 was an American statesman diplomat and Founding Father who served as the fourth president of the United States from 1809 to 1817 Madison was popularly acclaimed the Father of the Constitution for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the Constitution of the United States and the Bill of Rights James Madison1816 portrait4th President of the United StatesIn office March 4 1809 March 4 1817 1 Vice PresidentGeorge Clinton 1809 1812 None 1812 1813 a Elbridge Gerry 1813 1814 None 1814 1817 a Preceded byThomas JeffersonSucceeded byJames Monroe5th United States Secretary of StateIn office May 2 1801 March 3 1809 3 PresidentThomas JeffersonPreceded byJohn MarshallSucceeded byRobert SmithMember of the U S House of Representatives from VirginiaIn office March 4 1789 March 4 1797 4 Preceded byConstituency establishedSucceeded byJohn DawsonConstituency5th district 1789 1793 15th district 1793 1797 Delegate from Virginia to the Congress of the ConfederationIn office November 6 1786 October 30 1787 5 In office March 1 1781 November 1 1783Personal detailsBornJames Madison Jr 1751 03 16 March 16 1751Port Conway Virginia British AmericaDiedJune 28 1836 1836 06 28 aged 85 Montpelier Virginia U S Political partyDemocratic RepublicanHeight5 ft 4 in 163 cm 6 SpouseDolley Payne m 1794 wbr ParentsJames Madison Sr Eleanor MadisonEducationCollege of New Jersey BA SignatureMilitary serviceAllegianceUnited StatesBranch serviceVirginia militiaYears of service1775 17761814RankColonelCommander in ChiefUnitOrange County MilitiaBattles warsAmerican Revolutionary War War of 1812 Battle of BladensburgMadison was born into a prominent slave owning planter family in Virginia He served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates and the Continental Congress during and after the American Revolutionary War Dissatisfied with the weak national government established by the Articles of Confederation he helped organize the Constitutional Convention which produced a new constitution designed to strengthen republican government against democratic assembly Madison s Virginia Plan was the basis for the convention s deliberations and he was an influential voice at the convention He became one of the leaders in the movement to ratify the Constitution and joined Alexander Hamilton and John Jay in writing The Federalist Papers a series of pro ratification essays that remains prominent among works of political science in American history Madison emerged as an important leader in the House of Representatives and was a close adviser to President George Washington During the early 1790s Madison opposed the economic program and the accompanying centralization of power favored by Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton Alongside Thomas Jefferson he organized the Democratic Republican Party in opposition to Hamilton s Federalist Party After Jefferson was elected president in 1800 Madison served as his Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809 and supported Jefferson in the case of Marbury v Madison While Madison was Secretary of State Jefferson made the Louisiana Purchase and later as President Madison oversaw related disputes in the Northwest Territories Madison was elected president in 1808 Motivated by desire to acquire land held by Britain Spain and Native Americans and after diplomatic protests with a trade embargo failed to end British seizures of American shipped goods Madison led the United States into the War of 1812 Although the war ended inconclusively many Americans viewed the war s outcome as a successful second war of independence against Britain Madison was re elected in 1812 albeit by a smaller margin The war convinced Madison of the necessity of a stronger federal government He presided over the creation of the Second Bank of the United States and the enactment of the protective Tariff of 1816 By treaty or through war Native American tribes ceded 26 000 000 acres 11 000 000 ha of land to the United States under Madison s presidency Retiring from public office at the end of his presidency in 1817 Madison returned to his plantation Montpelier and died there in 1836 During his lifetime Madison was a slave owner In 1783 to prevent a slave rebellion at Montpelier Madison freed one of his slaves He did not free any slaves in his will Among historians Madison is considered one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States Leading historians have generally ranked him as an above average president although they are critical of his endorsement of slavery and his leadership during the War of 1812 Madison s name is commemorated in many landmarks across the nation both publicly and privately with prominent examples including Madison Square Garden James Madison University the James Madison Memorial Building and the USS James Madison Contents 1 Early life and education 2 American Revolution and Articles of Confederation 3 Ratification of the Constitution 4 Congressman and party leader 1789 1801 4 1 Election to Congress 4 2 Bill of Rights 4 3 Founding the Democratic Republican Party 4 4 Marriage and family 4 5 Adams presidency 5 Secretary of State 1801 1809 5 1 1808 presidential election 6 Presidency 1809 1817 6 1 Inauguration and cabinet 6 2 War of 1812 6 2 1 Prelude to war 6 2 2 Military actions 6 3 Postwar period and decline of the Federalist opposition 6 4 Native American policy 6 5 Election of 1816 7 Post presidency 1817 1836 7 1 Death 8 Political and religious views 8 1 Federalism 8 2 Religion 9 Slavery 9 1 History 9 2 Treatment of slaves 9 3 Views on slavery 10 Legacy 10 1 Historical reputation 10 2 Popular culture 10 3 Memorials 11 Notes 12 References 12 1 Citations 12 2 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External linksEarly life and educationJames Madison Jr was born on March 16 1751 March 5 1750 Old Style at Belle Grove Plantation near Port Conway in the Colony of Virginia to James Madison Sr and Eleanor Madison His family had lived in Virginia since the mid 17th century 7 Madison s maternal grandfather Francis Conway was a prominent planter and tobacco merchant 8 His father was a tobacco planter who grew up on a plantation then called Mount Pleasant which he inherited upon reaching adulthood With an estimated 100 slaves 7 and a 5 000 acre 2 000 ha plantation Madison s father was among the largest landowners in Virginia s Piedmont 9 In the early 1760s the Madison family moved into a newly built house that they named Montpelier 10 Madison grew up as the oldest of twelve children 11 with seven brothers and four sisters though only six lived to adulthood 10 Of the surviving three brothers Francis Ambrose and William and three sisters Nelly Sarah and Frances it was Ambrose who would eventually help to manage Montpelier for both his father and older brother until his own death in 1793 12 President Zachary Taylor was a descendant of Elder William Brewster a Pilgrim leader of the Plymouth Colony a Mayflower immigrant and a signer of the Mayflower Compact and Isaac Allerton Jr a colonial merchant colonel and son of Mayflower Pilgrim Isaac Allerton and Fear Brewster Taylor s second cousin through that line was Madison 13 nbsp Virginia historic marker for Birthplace of President James Madison in Port Conway VirginiaFrom age 11 to 16 Madison studied under Donald Robertson a Scottish instructor who served as a tutor for several prominent planter families in the South Madison learned mathematics geography and modern and classical languages becoming exceptionally proficient in Latin 14 10 At age 16 Madison returned to Montpelier where he studied under the Reverend Thomas Martin to prepare for college Unlike most college bound Virginians of his day Madison did not attend the College of William and Mary where the lowland Williamsburg climate thought to be more likely to harbor infectious disease might have strained his sensibilities concerning his own health 15 Instead in 1769 he enrolled at the College of New Jersey later renamed Princeton University 16 nbsp Madison as a student at Princeton portrait by James SharplesHis college studies included Latin Greek theology and the works of the Enlightenment 17 Emphasis was placed on both speech and debate Madison was a leading member of the American Whig Cliosophic Society which competed on campus with a political counterpart the Cliosophic Society 18 During his time at Princeton Madison s closest friend was future Attorney General William Bradford 19 Along with classmate Aaron Burr Madison undertook an intense program of study and completed the college s three year Bachelor of Arts degree in two years graduating in 1771 20 Madison had contemplated either entering the clergy or practicing law after graduation but instead remained at Princeton to study Hebrew and political philosophy under the college s president John Witherspoon 7 He returned home to Montpelier in early 1772 21 Madison s ideas on philosophy and morality were strongly shaped by Witherspoon who converted him to the philosophy values and modes of thinking of the Age of Enlightenment Biographer Terence Ball wrote that at Princeton Madison was immersed in the liberalism of the Enlightenment and converted to eighteenth century political radicalism From then on James Madison s theories would advance the rights of happiness of man and his most active efforts would serve devotedly the cause of civil and political liberty 22 After returning to Montpelier without a chosen career Madison served as a tutor to his younger siblings 23 He began to study law books in 1773 asking his friend Bradford a law apprentice to send him a written plan of study Madison had acquired an understanding of legal publications by 1783 He saw himself as a law student but not a lawyer Madison did not apprentice himself to a lawyer and never joined the bar 24 Following the Revolutionary War he spent time at Montpelier in Virginia studying ancient democracies of the world in preparation for the Constitutional Convention 10 25 Madison suffered from episodes of mental exhaustion and illness with associated nervousness which often caused temporary short term incapacity after periods of stress However he enjoyed good physical health until his final years 26 American Revolution and Articles of ConfederationMain articles American Revolution and Articles of Confederation During the 1760s and 1770s American Colonists protested tightened British tax monetary and military laws forced on them by Parliament 27 In 1765 the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act which caused strong opposition by the colonists and began a conflict that would culminate in the American Revolution 28 29 The American Revolutionary War broke out on April 19 1775 and was ended by the Treaty of Paris signed on September 3 1783 28 30 31 The colonists formed three prominent factions Loyalists who continued to back King George III of the United Kingdom a significant neutral faction without firm commitments to either Loyalists or Patriots and the Patriots whom Madison joined under the leadership of the Continental Congress 32 33 Madison believed that Parliament had overstepped its bounds by attempting to tax the American colonies and he sympathized with those who resisted British rule 34 Historically debate about the consecration of bishops was ongoing and eventual legislation was passed in the British Parliament subsequently called the Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786 to allow bishops to be consecrated for an American church outside of allegiance to the British Crown 35 Both in the United States and in Canada the new Anglican churches began incorporating more active forms of polity in their own self government collective decision making and self supported financing these measures would be consistent with separation of religious and secular identities 36 Madison believed these measures to be insufficient and also favored disestablishing the Anglican Church in Virginia Madison believed that tolerance of an established religion was detrimental not only to freedom of religion but also because it encouraged excessive deference to any authority which might be asserted by an established church 37 nbsp Madison s portrait as congressional delegate at age 32 when he was already recognized as a contributor to politics and government Portrait by Charles Willson PealeAfter returning to Montpelier in 1774 Madison took a seat on the local Committee of Safety a pro revolution group that oversaw the local Patriot militia 38 In October 1775 he was commissioned as the colonel of the Orange County militia serving as his father s second in command until he was elected as a delegate to the Fifth Virginia Convention which was charged with producing Virginia s first constitution 5 Although Madison never battled in the Revolutionary War he did rise to prominence in Virginia politics as a wartime leader 39 At the Virginia constitutional convention he convinced delegates to alter the Virginia Declaration of Rights originally drafted on May 20 1776 to provide for equal entitlement rather than mere tolerance in the exercise of religion 40 With the enactment of the Virginia constitution Madison became part of the Virginia House of Delegates and he was subsequently elected to the Virginia governor s Council of State 41 where he became a close ally of Governor Thomas Jefferson 42 On July 4 1776 the United States Declaration of Independence was formally printed declaring the 13 American states an independent nation 43 44 Madison participated in the debates concerning the Articles of Confederation 45 in November 1777 contributing to the discussion of religious freedom affecting the drafting of the Articles though his signature was not required for adopting the Articles of Confederation Madison had proposed liberalizing the article on religious freedom but the larger Virginia Convention stripped the proposed constitution of the more radical language of free expression of faith to the less controversial mention of highlighting tolerance within religion Other amendments by the committee and the entire Convention included the addition of a section on the right to a uniform government 46 Madison again served on the Council of State from 1777 to 1779 when he was elected to the Second Continental Congress the governing body of the United States c During Madison s term in Congress from 1780 to 1783 the U S faced a difficult war against Great Britain as well as runaway inflation financial troubles and a lack of cooperation between the different levels of government According to historian J C A Stagg Madison worked to become an expert on financial issues becoming a legislative workhorse and a master of parliamentary coalition building 48 Frustrated by the failure of the states to supply needed requisitions Madison proposed to amend the Articles of Confederation to grant Congress the power to independently raise revenue through tariffs on imports 49 Though General George Washington Congressman Alexander Hamilton and other leaders also favored the tariff amendment it was defeated because it failed to win the ratification of all thirteen states 50 While a member of Congress Madison was an ardent supporter of a close alliance between the United States and France As an advocate of westward expansion he insisted that the new nation had to ensure its right to navigation on the Mississippi River and control of all lands east of it in the Treaty of Paris which ended the Revolutionary War 51 Following his term in Congress Madison won election to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1784 52 Ratification of the ConstitutionMain articles James Madison as Father of the Constitution and Constitutional Convention United States Further information Confederation period As a member of the Virginia House of Delegates Madison continued to advocate for religious freedom and along with Jefferson drafted the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom That amendment which guaranteed freedom of religion and disestablished the Church of England was passed in 1786 53 Madison also became a land speculator purchasing land along the Mohawk River in partnership with another Jefferson protege James Monroe 54 Throughout the 1780s Madison became increasingly worried about the disunity of the states and the weakness of the central government after the end of the Revolutionary War 55 He believed that direct democracy caused social decay and that a Republican government would be effective against partisanship and factionalism 56 57 58 He was particularly troubled by laws that legalized paper money and denied diplomatic immunity to ambassadors from other countries 59 Madison was also concerned about the lack of ability in Congress to capably create foreign policy protect American trade and foster the settlement of the lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River 60 As Madison wrote a crisis had arrived which was to decide whether the American experiment was to be a blessing to the world or to blast for ever the hopes which the republican cause had inspired 61 Madison committed to an intense study of law and political theory and also was influenced by Enlightenment texts sent by Jefferson from France 62 Madison especially sought out works on international law and the constitutions of ancient and modern confederacies such as the Dutch Republic the Swiss Confederation and the Achaean League 63 He came to believe that the United States could improve upon past republican experiments by its size which geographically combined 13 colonies with so many competing interests Madison hoped to minimize the abuses of majority rule 64 Additionally navigation rights to the major trade routes accessed by the Mississippi River highly concerned Madison He opposed the proposal by John Jay that the United States concede claims to the river for 25 years and according to historian Ralph Ketcham Madison s desire to fight the proposal was a major motivation in his to return to Congress in 1787 65 nbsp First page of the original handwritten copy of the U S Constitution nbsp George Washington witnesses Gouverneur Morris sign the Constitution while Madison sits in front of Benjamin Franklin and next to Robert Morris in John Henry Hintermeister s 1925 painting Foundation of the American Government 66 Leading up to the 1787 ratification debates for the Constitution 67 Madison worked with other members of the Virginia delegation especially Edmund Randolph and George Mason to create and present the Virginia Plan an outline for a new federal constitution 68 It called for three branches of government legislative executive and judicial a bicameral Congress consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives apportioned by population and a federal Council of Revision that would have the right to veto laws passed by Congress 69 The Virginia Plan did not explicitly lay out the structure of the executive branch but Madison himself favored a strong single executive 70 Many delegates were surprised to learn that the plan called for the abrogation of the Articles and the creation of a new constitution to be ratified by special conventions in each state rather than by the state legislatures With the assent of prominent attendees such as Washington and Benjamin Franklin the delegates agreed in a secret session that the abrogation of the Articles and the creation of a new constitution was a plausible option and began scheduling the process of debating its ratification in the individual states 71 As a compromise between small and large states large states got a proportional House while the small states got equal representation in the Senate 72 After the Philadelphia Convention ended in September 1787 Madison convinced his fellow congressmen to remain neutral in the ratification debate and allow each state to vote on the Constitution 73 Those who supported the Constitution were called Federalists that included Madison 74 Throughout the United States opponents of the Constitution known as Anti Federalists began a public campaign against ratification 74 In response starting in October 1787 75 Hamilton and John Jay both Federalists began publishing a series of pro ratification newspaper articles in New York 76 After Jay dropped out of the project Hamilton approached Madison who was in New York on congressional business to write some of the essays 77 The essays were published under the pseudonym of Publius 78 79 The trio produced 85 essays known as The Federalist Papers 79 The 85 essays were divided into two parts 36 letters were against the Articles of Confederation and 49 letters that favored the new Constitution 75 The articles were also published in book form and used by the supporters of the Constitution in the ratifying conventions Federalist No 10 Madison s first contribution to The Federalist Papers became highly regarded in the 20th century for its advocacy of representative democracy 80 In it Madison describes the dangers posed by the majority factions and argues that their effects can be limited through the formation of a large republic He theorizes that in large republics the large number of factions that emerge will control their influence because no single faction can become a majority 81 82 In Federalist No 51 he goes on to explain how the separation of powers between three branches of the federal government as well as between state governments and the federal government establishes a system of checks and balances that ensures that no one institution would become too powerful 83 As the Virginia ratification convention began Madison focused his efforts on winning the support of the relatively small number of undecided delegates 84 His long correspondence with Randolph paid off at the convention as Randolph announced that he would support unconditional ratification of the Constitution with amendments to be proposed after ratification 85 Though former Virginia governor Patrick Henry gave several persuasive speeches arguing against ratification Madison s expertise on the subject he had long argued for allowed him to respond with rational arguments to Henry s anti Federalist appeals 86 Madison was also a defender of federal veto rights and according to historian Ron Chernow pleaded at the Constitutional Convention that the federal government should possess a veto over state laws 87 In his final speech to the ratifying convention Madison implored his fellow delegates to ratify the Constitution as it had been written arguing that failure to do so would lead to the collapse of the entire ratification effort as each state would seek favorable amendments 88 On June 25 1788 the convention voted 89 79 in favor of ratification The vote came a week after New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify thereby securing the Constitution s adoption and with that a new form of government 89 The following January Washington was elected the nation s first president 90 Congressman and party leader 1789 1801 Further information Presidency of George Washington Election to Congress Main article 1789 Virginia s 5th congressional district election After Virginia ratified the constitution Madison returned to New York and resumed his duties in the Congress of the Confederation After Madison was defeated in his bid for the Senate and with concerns for both his political career and the possibility that Patrick Henry and his allies would arrange for a second constitutional convention Madison ran for the House of Representatives 91 92 93 Henry and the Anti Federalists were in firm control of the General Assembly in the autumn of 1788 93 At Henry s behest the Virginia legislature designed to deny Madison a seat and created congressional districts Henry and his supporters ensured that Orange County was in a district heavily populated with Anti Federalists roughly three to one to oppose Madison 93 94 This practice is called gerrymandering 93 Henry also recruited James Monroe a strong challenger to Madison 94 Locked in a difficult race against Monroe Madison promised to support a series of constitutional amendments to protect individual liberties 91 In an open letter Madison wrote that while he had opposed requiring alterations to the Constitution before ratification he now believed that amendments if pursued with a proper moderation and in a proper mode may serve the double purpose of satisfying the minds of well meaning opponents and of providing additional guards in favor of liberty 95 Madison s promise paid off as in Virginia s 5th district election he gained a seat in Congress with 57 percent of the vote 4 Madison became a key adviser to Washington who valued Madison s understanding of the Constitution 91 Madison helped Washington write his first inaugural address and also prepared the official House response to Washington s speech He played a significant role in establishing and staffing the three Cabinet departments and his influence helped Thomas Jefferson become the first Secretary of State 96 At the start of the first Congress he introduced a tariff bill similar to the one he had advocated for under the Articles of the Confederation 97 and Congress established a federal tariff on imports by enacting the Tariff of 1789 98 The following year Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton introduced an ambitious economic program that called for the federal assumption of state debts and the funding of that debt through the issuance of federal securities Hamilton s plan favored Northern speculators and was disadvantageous to states such as Virginia that had already paid off most of their debt Madison emerged as one of the principal congressional opponents of the plan 99 After prolonged legislative deadlock Madison Jefferson and Hamilton agreed to the Compromise of 1790 which provided for the enactment of Hamilton s assumption plan as part of the Funding Act of 1790 In return Congress passed the Residence Act which established the federal capital district of Washington D C on the Potomac River 100 Bill of Rights Main article United States Bill of Rights During the first Congress Madison took the lead in advocating for several constitutional amendments to the Bill of Rights 101 His primary goals were to fulfill his 1789 campaign pledge and to prevent the calling of a second constitutional convention but he also hoped to safeguard the rights and liberties of the people against broad actions of Congress and individual states He believed that the enumeration of specific rights would fix those rights in the public mind and encourage judges to protect them 102 103 After studying more than two hundred amendments that had been proposed at the state ratifying conventions 104 Madison introduced the Bill of Rights on June 8 1789 His amendments contained numerous restrictions on the federal government and would protect among other things freedom of religion freedom of speech and the right to peaceful assembly 105 While most of his proposed amendments were drawn from the ratifying conventions Madison was largely responsible for proposals to guarantee freedom of the press protect property from government seizure and ensure jury trials 104 He also proposed an amendment to prevent states from abridging equal rights of conscience or freedom of the press or the trial by jury in criminal cases 106 To prevent a permanent standing federal army Madison proposed the Second Amendment which gave state regulated militia groups and private citizens the right to bear arms Madison and the Republicans desired a free government to be established by the consent of the governed rather than by national military force 107 Madison s Bill of Rights faced little opposition he had largely co opted the Anti Federalist goal of amending the Constitution but had avoided proposing amendments that would alienate supporters of the Constitution 108 His amendments were mostly adopted by the House of Representatives as proposed but the Senate made several changes 109 Madison s proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states was eliminated as was his change to the Constitution s preamble which he thought would be enhanced by including a prefatory paragraph indicating that governmental power is vested by the people 110 He was disappointed that the Bill of Rights did not include protections against actions by state governments d but the passage of the document mollified some critics of the original constitution and shored up his support in Virginia 104 Ten amendments were finally ratified on December 15 1791 becoming known in their final form as the Bill of Rights 112 e Founding the Democratic Republican Party Main article Democratic Republican Party nbsp Thomas Jefferson founded the Democratic Republican Party with Madison and broadly represented Southern interests After 1790 the Washington administration became polarized into two main factions One faction led by Jefferson and Madison broadly represented Southern interests and sought close relations with France This faction became the Democratic Republican Party opposition to Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton The other faction led by Hamilton and the Federalists broadly represented Northern financial interests and favored close relations with Britain 114 In 1791 Hamilton introduced a plan that called for the establishment of a national bank to provide loans to emerging industries and oversee the money supply 115 Madison and the Democratic Republican Party fought back against Hamilton s attempt to expand the power of the Federal Government with the formation of a national bank Therefore they opposed Hamilton s plan and Madison argued that under the Constitution Congress did not have the power to create a federally empowered national bank 116 Despite Madison s opposition Congress passed a bill to create the First Bank of the United States which Washington signed into law in February 1791 115 As Hamilton implemented his economic program and Washington continued to enjoy immense prestige as president Madison became increasingly concerned that Hamilton would seek to abolish the federal republic in favor of a centralized monarchy 117 When Hamilton submitted his Report on Manufactures which called for federal action to stimulate the development of a diversified economy Madison once again challenged Hamilton s proposal 118 Along with Jefferson Madison helped Philip Freneau establish the National Gazette a Philadelphia newspaper that attacked Hamilton s proposals 119 In an essay published in the newspaper in September 1792 Madison wrote that the country had divided into two factions his faction which believed that mankind are capable of governing themselves and Hamilton s faction which allegedly sought the establishment of an aristocratic monarchy and was biased in favor of the wealthy 120 Those opposed to Hamilton s economic policies including many former Anti Federalists continued to strengthen the ranks of the Democratic Republican Party f while those who supported the administration s policies supported Hamilton s Federalist Party 122 In the 1792 presidential election both major parties supported Washington for re election but the Democratic Republicans sought to unseat Vice President John Adams Because the Constitution s rules essentially precluded Jefferson from challenging Adams g the party backed New York Governor George Clinton for the vice presidency but Adams won nonetheless 124 With Jefferson out of office after 1793 Madison became the de facto leader of the Democratic Republican Party 125 When Britain and France went to war in 1793 the U S needed to determine which side to support 126 While the differences between the Democratic Republicans and the Federalists had previously centered on economic matters foreign policy became an increasingly important issue as Madison and Jefferson favored France and Hamilton favored Britain 127 War with Britain became imminent in 1794 after the British seized hundreds of American ships that were trading with French colonies Madison believed that a trade war with Britain would probably succeed and would allow Americans to assert their independence fully The British West Indies Madison maintained could not live without American foodstuffs but Americans could easily do without British manufacturers 128 Washington then secured friendly trade relations with Britain through the Jay Treaty of 1794 129 Madison and his Democratic Republican allies were outraged by the treaty the Democratic Republican Robert R Livingston wrote to Madison that the treaty sacrifices every essential interest and prostrates the honor of our country 130 Madison s strong opposition to the treaty led to a permanent break with Washington ending their friendship 129 Marriage and family On September 15 1794 Madison married Dolley Payne Todd the 26 year old widow of John Todd a Quaker farmer who died during a yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia 131 Earlier that year Madison and Dolley Todd had been formally introduced at Madison s request by Aaron Burr Burr had become friends with her when staying at the same Philadelphia boardinghouse 132 After an arranged meeting in early 1794 the two quickly became romantically engaged and prepared for a wedding that summer but Todd suffered recurring illnesses because of her exposure to yellow fever in Philadelphia They eventually traveled to Harewood in Virginia for their wedding Only a few close family members attended and Winchester reverend Alexander Balmain presided 133 Dolley became a renowned figure in Washington D C and excelled at hosting dinners and other important political occasions 10 She subsequently helped to establish the modern image of the first lady of the United States as an individual who has a leading role in the social affairs of the nation 134 Throughout his life Madison maintained a close relationship with his father James Sr Eventually at age 50 Madison inherited the large plantation of Montpelier and other possessions including his father s numerous slaves 135 12 While Madison never had children with Dolley he adopted her one surviving son John Payne Todd known as Payne after the couple s marriage 136 Some of his colleagues such as Monroe and Burr believed Madison s lack of offspring weighed on his thoughts though he never spoke of any distress 137 Meanwhile oral history has suggested Madison may have fathered a child with his enslaved half sister a cook named Coreen but researchers were unable to gather the DNA evidence needed to determine the validity of the accusation 138 139 Adams presidency Main article Presidency of John Adams Washington chose to retire after serving two terms and in advance of the 1796 presidential election Madison helped convince Jefferson to run for the presidency 125 Despite Madison s efforts Federalist candidate John Adams defeated Jefferson taking a narrow majority of the electoral vote 140 Under the rules of the Electoral College then in place Jefferson became vice president because he finished with the second most electoral votes 141 Madison meanwhile had declined to seek re election to the House and he returned to Montpelier 136 On Jefferson s advice Adams considered appointing Madison to an American delegation charged with ending French attacks on American shipping but Adams s cabinet members strongly opposed the idea 142 Though he was out of office Madison remained a prominent Democratic Republican leader in opposition to the Adams administration 143 144 Madison and Jefferson believed that the Federalists were using the Quasi War with France to justify the violation of constitutional rights by passing the Alien and Sedition Acts and they increasingly came to view Adams as a monarchist 145 Both Madison and Jefferson as leaders of the Democratic Republican Party expressed the belief that natural rights were non negotiable even during a time of war Madison believed that the Alien and Sedition Acts formed a dangerous precedent by giving the government the power to look past the natural rights of its people in the name of national security 146 147 In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts Jefferson argued that the states had the power to nullify federal law on the basis of the Constitution was a compact among the states Madison rejected this view of nullification and urged that states respond to unjust federal laws through interposition a process by which a state legislature declared a law to be unconstitutional but did not take steps to actively prevent its enforcement Jefferson s doctrine of nullification was widely rejected and the incident damaged the Democratic Republican Party as attention was shifted from the Alien and Sedition Acts to the unpopular nullification doctrine 148 In 1799 Madison was elected to the Virginia legislature At the same time Madison planned for Jefferson s campaign in the 1800 presidential election 149 Madison issued the Report of 1800 which attacked the Alien and Sedition Acts as unconstitutional That report held that Congress was limited to legislating on its enumerated powers and that punishment for sedition violated freedom of speech and freedom of the press Jefferson embraced the report and it became the unofficial Democratic Republican platform for the 1800 election 150 With the Federalists divided between supporters of Hamilton and Adams and with news of the end of the Quasi War not reaching the United States until after the election Jefferson and his running mate Aaron Burr defeated Adams allowing Jefferson to prevail as president 151 152 Secretary of State 1801 1809 Main article Presidency of Thomas Jefferson Further information Louisiana Purchase and Chesapeake Leopard affair Madison was one of two major influences in Jefferson s Cabinet the other being Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin Madison was appointed secretary of state despite lacking foreign policy experience 153 154 An introspective individual he received assistance from his wife 134 relying deeply on her in dealing with the social pressures of being a public figure both in his own Cabinet appointment as secretary of state and afterward 10 As the ascent of Napoleon in France had dulled Democratic Republican enthusiasm for the French cause Madison sought a neutral position in the ongoing Coalition Wars between France and Britain 155 Domestically the Jefferson administration and the Democratic Republican Congress rolled back many Federalist policies Congress quickly repealed the Alien and Sedition Act abolished internal taxes and reduced the size of the army and navy 156 Gallatin however did convince Jefferson to retain the First Bank of the United States 157 Though the Federalist political power was rapidly fading away at the national level Chief Justice John Marshall ensured that Federalist ideology retained an important presence in the judiciary In the case of Marbury v Madison Marshall simultaneously ruled that Madison had unjustly refused to deliver federal commissions to individuals who had been appointed by the previous administration but that the Supreme Court did not have jurisdiction over the case Most importantly Marshall s opinion established the principle of judicial review 158 While attaining the position of secretary of state and throughout his life Madison maintained contact with his father James Sr who died in 1801 and which allowed Madison to inherit the large plantation of Montpelier 135 nbsp The 1803 Louisiana Purchase totaled 827 987 square miles 2 144 480 square kilometers doubling the size of the United States Jefferson took office and was sympathetic to the westward expansion of Americans who had settled as far west as the Mississippi River his sympathy for expansion was supported by his concern for the sparse regional demographics in the far west compared to the more populated eastern states the far west being inhabited almost exclusively by Native Americans Jefferson promoted such western expansion and hoped to acquire the Spanish territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River for expansionist purposes 159 Early in Jefferson s presidency the administration learned that Spain planned to retrocede the Louisiana territory to France raising fears of French encroachment on U S territory 160 In 1802 Jefferson and Madison sent Monroe a sympathetic fellow Virginian to France to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans which controlled access to the Mississippi River and thus was immensely important to the farmers of the American frontier Rather than merely selling New Orleans Napoleon s government having already given up on plans to establish a new French empire in the Americas offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana Despite lacking explicit authorization from Jefferson Monroe along with Livingston whom Jefferson had appointed as America s minister to France negotiated the Louisiana Purchase in which France sold more than 827 987 square miles 2 144 480 square kilometers of land in exchange for 15 million equivalent to 271 433 333 33 in 2021 161 nbsp James Madison as Secretary of State painted by Gilbert Stuart c 1805 1807Despite the time sensitive nature of negotiations with the French Jefferson was concerned about the constitutionality of the Louisiana Purchase and he privately favored introducing a constitutional amendment explicitly authorizing Congress to acquire new territories Madison convinced Jefferson to refrain from proposing the amendment and the administration ultimately submitted the Louisiana Purchase Treaty for approval by the Senate without an accompanying constitutional amendment 162 Unlike Jefferson Madison was not seriously concerned with the constitutionality of the purchase He believed that the circumstances did not warrant a strict interpretation of the Constitution because the expansion was in the country s best interest 163 The Senate quickly ratified the treaty and the House with equal alacrity passed enabling legislation 164 165 166 Early in his tenure Jefferson was able to maintain cordial relations with both France and Britain but relations with Britain deteriorated after 1805 167 The British ended their policy of tolerance towards American shipping and began seizing American goods headed for French ports 168 They also impressed American sailors some of whom had originally defected from the British navy but some of whom had never been British subjects 169 In response to the attacks Congress passed the Non importation Act which restricted many but not all British imports 168 Tensions with Britain were heightened due to the Chesapeake Leopard affair a June 1807 naval confrontation between American and British naval forces while the French also began attacking American shipping 170 Madison believed that economic pressure could force the British to end their seizure of American shipped goods and he and Jefferson convinced Congress to pass the Embargo Act of 1807 which banned all exports to foreign nations 171 The embargo proved ineffective unpopular and difficult to enforce especially in New England 172 In March 1809 Congress replaced the embargo with the Non Intercourse Act which allowed trade with nations other than Britain and France 173 1808 presidential election Main article 1808 United States presidential election nbsp Following Jefferson s presidency Madison s 1808 electoral vote resultsSpeculation regarding Madison s potential succession to Jefferson commenced early in Jefferson s first term Madison s status in the party was damaged by his association with the embargo which was unpopular throughout the country and especially in the Northeast 174 With the Federalists collapsing as a national party after 1800 the chief opposition to Madison s candidacy came from other members of the Democratic Republican Party 175 Madison became the target of attacks from Congressman John Randolph a leader of a faction of the party known as the tertium quids 176 Randolph recruited Monroe who had felt betrayed by the administration s rejection of the proposed Monroe Pinkney Treaty with Britain to challenge Madison for leadership of the party 177 Many Northerners meanwhile hoped that Vice President Clinton could unseat Madison as Jefferson s successor 178 Despite this opposition Madison won his party s presidential nomination at the January 1808 congressional nominating caucus 179 The Federalist Party mustered little strength outside New England and Madison easily defeated Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in the general election 180 Presidency 1809 1817 Main article Presidency of James Madison Inauguration and cabinet nbsp James Madison as President engraving by David Edwin from between 1809 and 1817Madison s inauguration took place on March 4 1809 in the House chamber of the U S Capitol Chief Justice Marshall administered the presidential oath of office to Madison while outgoing President Jefferson watched from a seat close by 181 Vice President George Clinton was sworn in for a second term making him the first U S vice president to serve under two presidents Unlike Jefferson who enjoyed relatively unified support Madison faced political opposition from previous political allies such as Monroe and Clinton Additionally the Federalist Party was resurgent owing to opposition to the embargo Aside from his planned nomination of Gallatin for secretary of state the remaining members of Madison s Cabinet were chosen merely to further political harmony and according to historians Ketcham and Rutland were largely unremarkable or incompetent 182 183 Due to the opposition of Monroe and Clinton Madison immediately faced opposition to his planned nomination of Secretary of the Treasury Gallatin as secretary of state Madison eventually chose not to nominate Gallatin keeping him in the treasury department 184 Madison settled instead for Robert Smith the brother of Maryland Senator Samuel Smith to be the secretary of state 183 However for the next two years Madison performed most of the job of the secretary of state due to Smith s incompetence After bitter intra party contention Madison finally replaced Smith with Monroe in April 1811 185 186 With a Cabinet full of those he distrusted Madison rarely called Cabinet meetings and instead frequently consulted with Gallatin alone 187 Early in his presidency Madison sought to continue Jefferson s policies of low taxes and a reduction of the national debt 188 In 1811 Congress allowed the charter of the First Bank of the United States to lapse after Madison declined to take a strong stance on the issue 189 War of 1812 Main article War of 1812 Further information Origins of the War of 1812 Prelude to war Congress had repealed the Embargo Act of 1807 shortly before Madison became president but troubles with the British and French continued 190 Madison settled on a new strategy that was designed to pit the British and French against each other offering to trade with whichever country would end their attacks against American shipping The gambit almost succeeded but negotiations with the British collapsed in mid 1809 191 Seeking to drive a wedge between the Americans and the British Napoleon offered to end French attacks on American shipping so long as the United States punished any countries that did not similarly end restrictions on trade 192 Madison accepted Napoleon s proposal in the hope that it would convince the British to finally end their policy of commercial warfare Notwithstanding the British refused to change their policies and the French reneged on their promise and continued to attack American shipping 193 With sanctions and other policies having failed Madison determined that war with Britain was the only remaining option 194 Many Americans called for a second war of independence to restore honor and stature to their new nation and an angry public elected a war hawk Congress led by Henry Clay and John C Calhoun 195 With Britain already engaged in the Napoleonic Wars many Americans including Madison believed that the United States could easily capture Canada using it as a bargaining chip for other disputes or simply retaining control of it 196 On June 1 1812 Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war stating that the United States could no longer tolerate Britain s state of war against the United States The declaration of war was passed along sectional and party lines with opposition to the declaration coming from Federalists and from some Democratic Republicans in the Northeast 197 In the years prior to the war Jefferson and Madison had reduced the size of the military leaving the country with a military force consisting mostly of poorly trained militia members 198 Madison asked Congress to quickly put the country into an armor and an attitude demanded by the crisis specifically recommending expansion of the army and navy 199 Military actions nbsp USS Constitution defeats HMS Guerriere a significant event during the war U S nautical victories boosted American morale Given the circumstances involving Napoleon in Europe Madison initially believed the war would result in a quick American victory 196 200 Madison ordered three landed military spearhead incursions into Canada starting from Fort Detroit designed to loosen British control around American held Fort Niagara and destroy the British supply lines from Montreal These actions would gain leverage for concessions to protect American shipping in the Atlantic 200 Without a standing army Madison counted on regular state militias to rally to the flag and invade Canada still governors in the Northeast failed to cooperate 201 The British army was more organized used professional soldiers and fostered an alliance with Native American tribes led by Tecumseh On August 16 during the British siege of Detroit Major General William Hull panicked after the British fired on the fort killing two American officers Terrified of an Indian attack drinking heavily Hull quickly ordered a white tablecloth out a window and unconditionally surrendered Fort Detroit and his entire army to British Major General Sir Issac Brock 200 202 Hull was court martialed for cowardness but Madison intervened and saved him from being shot 202 On October 13 a separate force from the United States was defeated at Queenston Heights although Brock was killed 203 200 Commanding General Henry Dearborn hampered by mutinous New England infantry retreated to winter quarters near Albany failing to destroy Montreal s vulnerable British supply lines 200 Lacking adequate revenue to fund the war the Madison administration was forced to rely on high interest loans furnished by bankers based in New York City and Philadelphia 204 In the 1812 presidential election held during the early stages of the war Madison was re nominated without opposition 205 A dissident group of New York Democratic Republicans nominated DeWitt Clinton the lieutenant governor of New York and a nephew of recently deceased Vice President George Clinton to oppose Madison in the 1812 election This faction of Democratic Republicans hoped to unseat the president by forging a coalition among Democratic Republicans opposed to the coming war as well as those party faithful angry with Madison for not moving more decisively toward war northerners weary of the Virginia dynasty and southern control of the White House and many New Englanders wanted Madison replaced Dismayed about their prospects of beating Madison a group of top Federalists met with Clinton s supporters to discuss a unification strategy Difficult as it was for them to join forces they nominated Clinton for President and Jared Ingersoll a Philadelphia lawyer for vice president 48 Hoping to shore up his support in the Northeast where the War of 1812 was unpopular Madison selected Governor Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts as his running mate 206 though Gerry would only survive two years after the election due to advanced old age 207 Despite the maneuverings of Clinton and the Federalists Madison won re election though by the narrowest margin of any election since that of 1800 in the popular vote as later supported by the electoral vote as well He received 128 electoral votes to 89 for Clinton 208 With Clinton winning most of the Northeast Madison won Pennsylvania in addition to having swept the South and the West which ensured his victory 209 210 nbsp The British set ablaze the U S Capitol among other buildings in the capital while Madison was President on August 24 1814 After the disastrous start to the war Madison accepted Russia s invitation to arbitrate and sent a delegation led by Gallatin and John Quincy Adams the first son of former President John Adams to Europe to negotiate a peace treaty 196 While Madison worked to end the war the United States experienced some impressive naval successes by the USS Constitution and other warships that boosted American morale 211 200 Victorious in the Battle of Lake Erie the U S crippled the supply and reinforcement of British military forces in the western theater of the war 212 In the aftermath of the Battle of Lake Erie General William Henry Harrison defeated the forces of the British and of Tecumseh s confederacy at the Battle of the Thames The death of Tecumseh in that battle marked the permanent end of armed Native American resistance in the Old Northwest and any hope of a united Indian nation 213 In March 1814 Major General Andrew Jackson broke the resistance of the British allied Muscogee Creek in the Old Southwest with his victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend 214 Despite those successes the British continued to repel American attempts to invade Canada and a British force captured Fort Niagara and burned the American city of Buffalo in late 1813 215 nbsp The Battle of New Orleans took place while the Treaty of Ghent was being negotiated in 1815 On August 24 1814 the British landed a large force on the shores of Chesapeake Bay and routed General William Winder s army at the Battle of Bladensburg 216 Madison who had earlier inspected Winder s army 217 escaped British capture by fleeing to Virginia on a fresh horse though the British captured Washington and burned many of its buildings including the White House 218 219 Escaping capture by the British Dolley had abandoned the capital and fled to Virginia but only after securing the portrait of George Washington 217 The charred remains of the capital signified a humiliating defeat for James Madison and America 220 On August 27 Madison returned to Washington to view the carnage of the city 220 Dolley returned the next day and on September 8 the Madisons moved into the Octagon House The British army next advanced on Baltimore but the U S repelled the British attack in the Battle of Baltimore and the British army departed from the Chesapeake region in September 221 That same month U S forces repelled a British invasion from Canada with a victory at the Battle of Plattsburgh 222 The British public began to turn against the war in North America and British leaders began to look for a quick exit from the conflict 223 In January 1815 Jackson s troops defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans 224 Just more than a month later Madison learned that his negotiators led by John Quincy Adams had concluded the Treaty of Ghent on December 24 1814 which ended the war 225 Madison quickly sent the treaty to the Senate which ratified it on February 16 1815 226 Although the overall result of the war ended in a standoff the quick succession of events at the end of the war including the burning of the capital the Battle of New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent made it appear as though American valor at New Orleans had forced the British to surrender This view while inaccurate strongly contributed to bolstering Madison s reputation as president Native Americans lost the most including their land and independence 227 Napoleon s defeat at the June 1815 Battle of Waterloo brought a final close to the Napoleonic Wars and thus an end to the hostile seizure of American shipping by British and French forces 228 Postwar period and decline of the Federalist opposition Main article Era of Good Feelings The postwar period of Madison s second term saw the transition into the Era of Good Feelings between mid 1815 and 1817 with the Federalists experiencing a further decline in influence 229 During the war delegates from the New England states held the Hartford Convention where they asked for several amendments to the Constitution 230 Though the Hartford Convention did not explicitly call for the secession of New England 231 the Convention became an adverse political millstone around the Federalist Party as general American sentiment had moved towards a celebrated unity among the states in what they saw as a successful second war of independence from Britain 232 Madison hastened the decline of the Federalists by adopting several programs he had previously opposed 233 Recognizing the difficulties of financing the war and the necessity of an institution to regulate American currency Madison proposed the re establishment of a national bank He also called for increased spending on the army and the navy a tariff designed to protect American goods from foreign competition and a constitutional amendment authorizing the federal government to fund the construction of internal improvements such as roads and canals Madison s initiatives to now act on behalf of a national bank appeared to reverse his earlier opposition to Hamilton and were opposed by strict constructionists such as John Randolph who stated that Madison s proposals now out Hamiltons Alexander Hamilton 234 Responding to Madison s proposals the 14th Congress compiled one of the most productive legislative records up to that point in history 235 Congress granted the Second Bank of the United States a twenty five year charter 234 and passed the Tariff of 1816 which set high import duties for all goods that were produced outside the United States 235 Madison approved federal spending on the Cumberland Road which provided a link to the country s western lands 236 still in his last act before leaving office he blocked further federal spending on internal improvements by vetoing the Bonus Bill of 1817 arguing that it unduly exceeded the limits of the General Welfare Clause concerning such improvements 237 Native American policy Further information Treaty of Fort Wayne 1809 and Tecumseh s War nbsp The Battle of Tippecanoe took place in the Northwest Territory on November 7 1811 Upon becoming president Madison said the federal government s duty was to convert Native Americans by the participation of the improvements of which the human mind and manners are susceptible in a civilized state 188 In 1809 General Harrison began to push for a treaty to open more land for white American settlement The Miami Wea and Kickapoo were vehemently opposed to selling any more land around the Wabash River 238 To motivate those groups to sell their land Harrison decided against the wishes of Madison to first conclude a treaty with the tribes who were willing to sell and use those treaties to help influence those who held out In September 1809 Harrison invited the Potawatomie Delaware Eel Rivers and the Miami to a meeting in Fort Wayne During the negotiations Harrison promised large subsidies and direct payments to the tribes if they would cede the other lands under discussion 239 On September 30 1809 little more than six months into his first term Madison agreed to the Treaty of Fort Wayne negotiated and signed by Indiana Territory s Governor Harrison 240 In the treaty the American Indian tribes were compensated 5 200 equivalent to 90 092 77 in 2021 in goods and 500 in cash equivalent to 8 662 77 in 2021 with 250 in annual payments equivalent to 4 331 38 in 2021 in return for the cession of 3 million acres of land approximately 12 140 square kilometers with incentivized subsidies paid to individual tribes for exerting their influence over less cooperative tribes 241 242 The treaty angered Shawnee leader Tecumseh who said Sell a country Why not sell the air the clouds and the great sea as well as the earth 243 Harrison responded that tribes were the owners of their land and could sell it to whomever they wished 244 Like Jefferson Madison had a paternalistic attitude toward American Indians encouraging them to become farmers 245 Madison believed the adoption of European style agriculture would help Native Americans assimilate the values of British U S civilization As pioneers and settlers moved West into large tracts of Cherokee Choctaw Creek and Chickasaw territory Madison ordered the U S Army to protect Native lands from intrusion by settlers This was done to the chagrin of his military commander Andrew Jackson who wanted Madison to ignore Indian pleas to stop the invasion of their lands 246 Tensions continued to mount between the United States and Tecumseh over the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne which ultimately led to Tecumseh s alliance with the British and the Battle of Tippecanoe on November 7 1811 in the Northwest Territory 246 247 The divisions among the Native American leaders were bitter and before leaving the discussions Tecumseh informed Harrison that unless the terms of the negotiated treaty were largely nullified he would seek an alliance with the British 248 The situation continued to escalate eventually leading to the outbreak of hostilities between Tecumseh s followers and American settlers later that year Tensions continued to rise leading to the Battle of Tippecanoe during a period sometimes called Tecumseh s War 249 250 Tecumseh was defeated and Indians were pushed off their tribal lands replaced entirely by white settlers 246 247 In addition to the Battle of the Thames and the Battle of Horseshoe Bend other wars with American Indians took place including the Peoria War and the Creek War Negotiated by Jackson in the aftermath of the Creek War the Treaty of Fort Jackson of August 9 1814 added approximately 23 million acres of land to the United States 93 000 square kilometers in Georgia and Alabama 251 252 Privately Madison did not believe American Indians could be fully assimilated to the values of Euro American culture He believed that Native Americans may have been unwilling to make the transition from the hunter or even the herdsman state to the agriculture Madison feared that Native Americans had too great an influence on the settlers they interacted with who in his view was irresistibly attracted by that complete liberty that freedom from bonds obligations duties that absence of care and anxiety which characterize the savage state Later in Madison s term in March 1816 Madison s Secretary of War William Crawford advocated for the government to encourage intermarriages between Native Americans and whites as a way of assimilating the former This prompted public outrage and exacerbated anti indigenous bigotry among white Americans as seen in hostile letters sent to Madison who remained publicly silent on the issue 243 Election of 1816 Main article 1816 United States presidential election In the 1816 presidential election Madison and Jefferson both favored the candidacy of Secretary of State James Monroe who defeated Secretary of War William H Crawford in the party s congressional nominating caucus As the Federalist Party continued to collapse Monroe easily defeated Federalist candidate New York Senator Rufus King in the 1816 election 253 Madison left office as a popular president former president Adams wrote that Madison had acquired more glory and established more union than all his three predecessors Washington Adams and Jefferson put together 254 Post presidency 1817 1836 nbsp Portrait of James Madison after the completion of his two terms as president c 1821 by Gilbert StuartWhen Madison left office in 1817 at age 65 he retired to Montpelier not far from Jefferson s Monticello As with both Washington and Jefferson Madison left the presidency a poorer man than when he came in His plantation experienced a steady financial collapse due to price declines in tobacco and his stepson s mismanagement 10 In his retirement Madison occasionally became involved in public affairs advising Andrew Jackson and other presidents 255 He remained out of the public debate over the Missouri Compromise though he privately complained about the North s opposition to the extension of slavery 256 Madison had warm relations with all four of the major candidates in the 1824 presidential election but like Jefferson largely stayed out of the race 257 During Jackson s presidency Madison publicly disavowed the Nullification movement and argued that no state had the right to secede 258 Madison also helped Jefferson establish the University of Virginia 259 In 1826 after the death of Jefferson Madison was appointed as the second rector of the university He retained the position as college chancellor for ten years until his death in 1836 260 In 1829 at the age of 78 Madison was chosen as a representative to the Virginia Constitutional Convention for revision of the commonwealth s constitution It was his last appearance as a statesman Apportionment of adequate representation was the central issue at the convention for the western districts of Virginia The increased population in the Piedmont and western parts of the state were not proportionately represented in the legislature Western reformers also wanted to extend suffrage to all white men in place of the prevailing property ownership requirement Madison made modest gains but was disappointed at the failure of Virginians to extend suffrage to all white men 261 In his later years Madison became highly concerned about his historical legacy He resorted to modifying letters and other documents in his possession changing days and dates and adding and deleting words and sentences By his late seventies Madison s self editing of his own archived letters and older materials had become almost an obsession As an example he edited a letter written to Jefferson criticizing Gilbert du Motier Marquis de Lafayette Madison not only inked out original passages but in other correspondence he even forged Jefferson s handwriting 262 Historian Drew R McCoy wrote that During the final six years of his life amid a sea of personal financial troubles that were threatening to engulf him At times mental agitation issued in physical collapse For the better part of a year in 1831 and 1832 he was bedridden if not silenced Literally sick with anxiety he began to despair of his ability to make himself understood by his fellow citizens 263 Death Madison s health slowly deteriorated through the early to mid 1830s 264 Approaching the Fourth of July he died of congestive heart failure at Montpelier on the morning of June 28 1836 at the age of 85 265 According to one common account of his final moments he was given his breakfast which he tried eating but was unable to swallow His favorite niece clarification needed who sat by to keep him company asked him What is the matter Uncle James Madison died immediately after he replied Nothing more than a change of mind my dear 266 He was buried in the family cemetery at Montpelier 10 He was one of the last prominent members of the Revolutionary War generation to die 255 His last will and testament left significant sums to the American Colonization Society Princeton and the University of Virginia as well as 30 000 897 000 in 2021 to his wife Dolley Left with a smaller sum than James had intended Dolley suffered financial troubles until her death in 1849 267 In the 1840s Dolley sold Montpelier its remaining slaves and the furnishings to pay off outstanding debts Paul Jennings one of Madison s younger slaves later recalled in his memoir In the last days of her life before Congress purchased her husband s papers she was in a state of absolute poverty and I think sometimes suffered for the necessaries of life While I was a servant to Mr Webster he often sent me to her with a market basket full of provisions and told me whenever I saw anything in the house that I thought she was in need of to take it to her I often did this and occasionally gave her small sums from my own pocket though I had years before bought my freedom of her 268 Political and religious viewsFederalism External videos nbsp Booknotes interview with Lance Banning on The Sacred Fire of Liberty James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic February 11 1996 C SPANDuring his first stint in Congress in the 1780s Madison came to favor amending the Articles of Confederation to provide for a stronger central government 269 In the 1790s he led the opposition to Hamilton s centralizing policies and the Alien and Sedition Acts 270 Madison s support of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in the 1790s has been referred to as a breathtaking evolution for a man who had pleaded at the Constitutional Convention that the federal government should possess a veto over state laws 87 Religion Although baptized as an Anglican and educated by Presbyterian clergymen 271 young Madison was an avid reader of English deist tracts 272 As an adult Madison paid little attention to religious matters Though most historians have found little indication of his religious leanings after he left college 273 some scholars indicate he leaned toward deism 274 275 Others maintain that Madison accepted Christian tenets and formed his outlook on life with a Christian worldview 276 Regardless of his own religious beliefs Madison believed in religious liberty and he advocated for Virginia s disestablishment of religious institutions sponsored by the state 277 He also opposed the appointments of chaplains for Congress and the armed forces arguing that the appointments produce religious exclusion as well as political disharmony 278 279 SlaveryMain article James Madison and slavery Throughout his life Madison s views on slavery were conflicted He was born into a plantation society that relied on slave labor and both sides of his family profited from tobacco farming 280 While he viewed slavery as essential to the Southern economy he was troubled by the instability of a society that depended on a large slave population 281 Madison also believed slavery was incompatible with American Revolutionary principles though he owned over one hundred African American slaves 280 History Madison grew up on Montpelier his family s plantation in Virginia Like other southern plantations Montpelier depended on slave labor When Madison left for college on August 10 1769 he arrived at Princeton accompanied by his slave Sawney who was charged with Madison s expenses and with relaying messages to his family back home 280 In 1783 fearing the possibility of a slave rebellion at Montpelier Madison emancipated one slave Billey selling him into a seven year apprentice contract After his manumission Billey changed his name to William Gardner married and had a family 282 and became a shipping agent representing Madison in Philadelphia In 1795 Gardner was swept overboard and drowned on a voyage to New Orleans 283 284 Madison inherited Montpelier and its more than one hundred slaves after his father s death in 1801 285 That same year Madison was appointed Secretary of State by President Jefferson and he moved to Washington D C running Montpelier from afar making no effort to free his slaves After his election to the presidency in 1808 Madison brought his slaves to the White House 280 During the 1820s and 1830s Madison sold some of his land and slaves to repay debt In 1836 at the time of Madison s death he owned 36 taxable slaves 286 In his will Madison gave his remaining slaves to his wife Dolley and charged her not to sell the slaves without their permission For reasons of necessity Dolley did not comply and sold the slaves without their permission to pay off debts 280 Treatment of slaves As was consistent with the established social norms of Virginia society 287 Madison was known from his farm papers for advocating the humane treatment of his slaves at Montpelier He instructed an overseer to treat the Negroes with all the humanity and kindness consistent with their necessary subordination and work 288 Madison also ensured that his slaves had milk cows and meals for their daily food 289 By the 1790s Madison s slave Sawney was an overseer of part of the plantation Madison ordered Sawney by letter to ready fields for growing apples corn tobacco and Irish potatoes Like Sawney some slaves at Montpelier could read 289 Enslaved people at Montpelier worked six days a week from dawn to dusk with a mid day break and got Sundays off 290 291 Paul Jennings was a slave of the Madisons for 48 years Jennings born into slavery in 1799 at the Montpelier plantation served as Madison s footman at the White House In his memoir A Colored Man s Reminiscences of James Madison published in 1865 Jennings said that he never knew Madison to strike a slave although he had over one hundred neither would he allow an overseer to do it As a house slave Jennings had a basic education and was literate taught in mathematics and played the violin Although Jennings condemned slavery he said that James was one of the best men that ever lived and that Dolley was a remarkably fine woman 292 293 Views on slavery Madison called slavery the most oppressive dominion that ever existed 294 and he had a lifelong abhorrence for it 295 In 1785 Madison spoke in the Virginia Assembly favoring a bill that Thomas Jefferson had proposed for the gradual abolition of slavery and he also helped defeat a bill designed to outlaw the manumission of individual slaves 295 As a slaveholder Madison was aware that owning slaves was not consistent with revolutionary values 296 but as a pragmatist this sort of self contradiction was a common feature in his political career 297 Historian Drew R McCoy said that Madison s antislavery principles were indeed impeccable 298 Historian Ralph Ketcham said a lthough Madison abhorred slavery he nonetheless bore the burden of depending all his life on a slave system that he could never square with his republican beliefs 7 There is no evidence Madison thought black people were inferior 299 294 Madison believed blacks and whites were unlikely to co exist peacefully due to the prejudices of the whites as well as feelings on both sides inspired by their former relation as oppressors and oppressed 300 As such he became interested in the idea of freedmen establishing colonies in Africa and later served as the president of the American Colonization Society which relocated former slaves to Liberia 301 Madison believed that this solution offered a gradual long term but potentially feasible means of eradicating slavery in the United States 302 Madison nevertheless thought that peaceful co existence between the two racial groups could eventually be achieved in the long run 288 Madison initially opposed the Constitution s 20 year protection of the foreign slave trade but he eventually accepted it as a necessary compromise to get the South to ratify the document 303 He also proposed that apportionment in the House of Representatives be according to each state s free and enslaved population eventually leading to the adoption of the Three fifths Compromise 304 Madison supported the extension of slavery into the West during the Missouri crisis of 1819 1821 305 asserting that the spread of slavery would not lead to more slaves but rather diminish their generative increase through dispersing them h thus substantially improving their condition accelerating emancipation easing racial tensions and increasing partial manumissions 307 Madison thought of slaves as wayward but still educable students in need of regular guidance 288 According to historian Paris Spies Gans Madison s anti slavery thought was strongest at the height of Revolutionary politics But by the early 1800s when in a position to truly impact policy he failed to follow through on these views Spies Gans concluded u ltimately Madison s personal dependence on slavery led him to question his own once enlightened definition of liberty itself 280 LegacyHistorical reputation nbsp Portrait of Madison after his health began to fail age 82 c 1833Regarded as one of the Founding Fathers of the United States Madison had a wide influence on the founding of the nation and upon the early development of American constitutional government and foreign policy Historian J C A Stagg writes that in some ways because he was on the winning side of every important issue facing the young nation from 1776 to 1816 Madison was the most successful and possibly the most influential of all the Founding Fathers 48 Though he helped found a major political party and served as the fourth president his legacy has largely been defined by his contributions to the Constitution even in his own life he was hailed as the Father of the Constitution 308 Law professor Noah Feldman writes that Madison invented and theorized the modern ideal of an expanded federal constitution that combines local self government with an overarching national order 309 Feldman adds that Madison s model of liberty protecting constitutional government is the most influential American idea in global political history 309 i Various rankings of historians and political scientists tend to rank Madison as an above average president with a 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranking Madison as the twelfth best president 305 Various historians have criticized Madison s tenure as president 311 In 1968 Henry Steele Commager and Richard B Morris said the conventional view of Madison was of an incapable President who mismanaged an unnecessary war 312 A 2006 poll of historians ranked Madison s failure to prevent the War of 1812 as the sixth worst mistake made by a sitting president 313 Regarding Madison s consistency and adaptability of policy making during his many years of political activity historian Gordon S Wood says that Lance Banning as in his Sacred Fire of Liberty 1995 is the only present day scholar to maintain that Madison did not change his views in the 1790s 314 During and after the War of 1812 Madison came to support several of the policies that he opposed in the 1790s including the national bank a strong navy and direct taxes 315 Wood notes that many historians struggle to understand Madison but Wood looks at him in the terms of Madison s own times as a nationalist but one with a different conception of nationalism than that of the Federalists 314 Gary Rosen uses other approaches to suggest Madison s consistency 316 Historian Garry Wills wrote Madison s claim on our admiration does not rest on a perfect consistency any more than it rests on his presidency He has other virtues As a framer and defender of the Constitution he had no peer No man could do everything for the country not even Washington Madison did more than most and did some things better than any That was quite enough 317 Popular culture Madison portrayed by Burgess Meredith is a key protagonist in the 1946 Hollywood film Magnificent Doll which focuses on a fictionalized account of Dolley Madison s romantic life 318 Madison is also portrayed in the popular musical Hamilton played by Joshua Henry in the original 2013 Vassar version and then revised by Okieriete Onaodowan for the 2015 Broadway opening 319 320 321 In the Broadway musical Madison joined by Jefferson and Burr confront Hamilton about his affaire de cœur in the Reynolds affair by intoning the rap lyrics to the song We Know Onaodowan won a Grammy Award for his portrayal of Madison 322 Memorials Further information List of memorials to James Madison Montpelier the Madison family s plantation has been designated a National Historic Landmark The James Madison Memorial Building is part of the United States Library of Congress and serves as the official memorial to Madison 323 In 1986 Congress created the James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation as part of the bicentennial celebration of the Constitution 324 325 Other memorials include Madison Wisconsin and Madison County Alabama 326 327 which were both named for Madison as were Madison Square Garden James Madison University and the USS James Madison 328 329 330 In 2021 the Madison Metropolitan School District renamed James Madison Memorial High School following community opposition to commemorating someone who used slave labor 331 Notes a b Vice President Clinton and Vice President Gerry both died in office Neither was replaced for the remainder of their respective terms as the Constitution did not have a provision for filling a vice presidential vacancy prior to the adoption of the Twenty fifth Amendment in 1967 2 O S March 5 1750 After the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781 the Second Continental Congress became the Congress of the Confederation 47 Portions of the Bill of Rights would later be incorporated against the states 111 One of the two unratified amendments became part of the Constitution in 1992 as the Twenty seventh Amendment The other unratified amendment known as the Congressional Apportionment Amendment is technically still pending before the states 113 The Democratic Republican Party was often referred to as the Republican Party It was a separate entity from the later Republican Party which was founded in the 1850s 121 Because the Constitution required presidential electors to vote for at least one individual from outside their home state electors from Virginia would not have been able to vote for both Washington and Jefferson 123 According to McCoy through this reasoning Madison implicitly rejected the Malthusian logic of restrictionists who contended that diffusion by increasing the supply of available subsistence to the black population would indeed increase their numbers by accelerating the rate of natural growth 306 Historian Gordon Wood commends Madison for his steady leadership during the war and resolve to avoid expanding the president s power noting one admirer s observation that the war was conducted without one trial for treason or even one prosecution for libel 310 ReferencesCitations Banning 2000 Billias 1976 p 329 Rutland 1990 p 19 a b Labunski 2006 pp 148 150 a b Wills 2002 pp 12 13 Kane 1993 p 344 a b c d Ketcham 2002 p 57 Ketcham 1990 p 5 Montpellier Foundation a b c d e f g h Montpellier Life of James Madison Ketcham 1990 p 12 a b Ketcham 2003 pp 370 371 Hamilton 1941 pp 22 259 Boyd 2013 Gutzman 2012 p 2 Feldman 2017 pp 3 7 Feldman 2017 pp 5 6 Ketcham 2003 p 35 Ketcham 2003 p 34 Feldman 2017 pp 4 5 Ketcham 1990 p 51 Ball 2017 pp 45 46 Feldman 2017 pp 7 8 Bilder 2010 pp 390 391 McCullough 2006 p 21 Ketcham 2002 p 58 Taylor 2002 pp 442 443 a b Isaacson 2004 Taylor 2016 pp 96 100 Taylor 2016 pp 132 135 Paterson Clifford amp Maddock 2014 p 20 Jillson amp Wilson 1994 p 4 Taylor 2016 pp 135 139 123 127 Feldman 2017 pp 17 18 Edwards 1984 p 43 Edwards 1984 p 322 Feldman 2017 pp 10 14 Feldman 2017 p 22 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 14 15 Feldman 2017 pp 25 27 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 48 49 59 60 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 65 66 Library of Congress pp 506 507 Coelho 2013 p 61 Taylor 2016 pp 337 339 Mason 1970 pp 274 289 Ferling 2003 pp 230 232 a b c Stagg 2019 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 96 97 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 96 98 Ketcham 2003 pp 120 123 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 p xxiv Wills 2002 pp 17 19 Feldman 2017 p 70 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 96 97 128 130 Allott 2003 p 321 Manweller 2005 p 22 Gustafson 1992 p 290 Wood 2011 p 104 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 129 130 Rutland 1987 p 14 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 136 137 Feldman 2017 pp 56 57 74 75 Feldman 2017 pp 98 99 121 122 Ketcham 2003 pp 177 179 Robinson 1999 p 117 Feldman 2017 p 107 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 150 151 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 140 141 Feldman 2017 pp 115 117 Wills 2002 pp 25 27 Feldman 2017 pp 199 200 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 164 166 a b Cost 2021 p 118 a b The Federalist Papers p xxv Feldman 2017 pp 177 178 Feldman 2017 pp 179 180 Cost 2021 p 130 a b Hamilton Madison amp Jay 1992 p xxv Wills 2002 pp 31 35 Hamilton Madison amp Jay 1992 Feldman 2017 pp 180 183 Feldman 2017 pp 208 209 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 179 180 Feldman 2017 pp 231 233 Wills 2002 pp 35 37 a b Chernow 2004 pp 571 74 Feldman 2017 pp 239 240 Amar 2005 p 6 Mount Vernon Essay a b c Wills 2002 pp 38 39 Feldman 2017 pp 247 248 251 252 a b c d National Archives Founders Online a b Cost 2021 p 162 Feldman 2017 pp 252 253 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 189 193 203 Feldman 2017 pp 258 259 Bordewich 2016 pp 100 102 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 213 217 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 217 220 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 195 197 Feldman 2017 pp 264 274 Ketcham 1990 p 290 a b c Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 197 199 Feldman 2017 pp 267 269 Feldman 2017 pp 270 271 Cost 2021 p 331 Feldman 2017 pp 274 275 Feldman 2017 pp 275 276 Labunski 2006 p 232 Labunski 2006 p 198 Bill of Rights National Archives Thomas 2013 p 49 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 207 208 a b Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 221 224 Feldman 2017 pp 199 211 Feldman 2017 p 343 Feldman 2017 pp 343 347 Feldman 2017 pp 324 326 Feldman 2017 pp 366 367 Meacham 2012 pp 405 406 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 279 280 Feldman 2017 p 369 Feldman 2017 pp 369 370 a b Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 305 306 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 261 262 Feldman 2017 pp 373 374 Varg 1963 p 74 a b Wills 2002 pp 38 44 Feldman 2017 pp 396 398 Ketcham 1990 p 377 Brant 1950 pp 406 407 Ketcham 2003 pp 376 380 a b Feldman 2017 pp 479 480 a b Feldman 2017 pp 443 444 a b Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 321 322 Ketcham 2003 p 386 Mummolo 2007 Nelson 2016 pp 19 20 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 317 318 Feldman 2017 pp 408 400 Feldman 2017 pp 411 414 Wills 2002 pp 48 49 Chernow 2004 pp 571 574 Feldman 2017 pp 415 417 Wikisource Virginia Resolutions of 1798 Time Magazine July 5 2004 Feldman 2017 pp 417 421 Feldman 2017 pp 424 425 Feldman 2017 pp 428 430 Feldman 2017 pp 433 436 Feldman 2017 pp 438 439 Wills 2002 pp 50 51 McDonald 1976 pp 36 38 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 373 374 McDonald 1976 pp 42 44 Wood 2009 pp 293 296 Feldman 2017 pp 465 466 Wood 2009 pp 357 359 366 367 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 374 376 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 382 389 Feldman 2017 pp 463 465 Ketcham 2003 p 422 Ketcham 1990 pp 419 421 Wills 2002 pp 51 52 Feldman 2017 pp 462 463 McDonald 1976 pp 100 101 a b Wood 2009 pp 640 642 Wills 2002 pp 81 84 Wood 2009 pp 644 649 Feldman 2017 pp 493 495 Feldman 2017 pp 494 495 Wood 2009 pp 652 657 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 457 458 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 438 439 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 434 435 Feldman 2017 pp 496 497 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 457 459 Feldman 2017 p 498 Rutland 1990 p 5 Brant 1956 p 13 Rutland 1990 pp 32 33 51 55 a b Ketcham 2002 pp 61 62 Rutland 1990 pp 32 33 Ketcham 2002 p 62 Feldman 2017 pp 524 527 Wills 2002 pp 64 65 a b Rutland 1990 p 20 Rutland 1990 pp 68 70 Rutland 1990 p 13 Feldman 2017 pp 508 512 Rutland 1990 pp 62 64 Rutland 1990 pp 64 66 81 Feldman 2017 pp 532 537 Risjord 1961 pp 196 210 a b c Wills 2002 pp 97 98 Feldman 2017 pp 543 545 Rutland 1990 p 159 Ketcham 1990 p 509 a b c d e f Ketcham 2002 p 65 Feldman 2017 pp 551 552 a b Cost 2021 p 334 Feldman 2017 pp 548 550 Rutland 1990 pp 126 127 Rutland 1990 pp 92 93 Wills 2002 pp 115 116 Billias 1976 p 323 1812 Presidential Election American Presidency Project Wood 2009 pp 682 683 Feldman 2017 pp 555 557 Feldman 2017 pp 554 566 567 Roosevelt 1999 pp 147 152 Rutland 1990 p 133 Rutland 1990 pp 138 139 150 Feldman 2017 pp 569 571 Feldman 2017 pp 579 585 a b Cost 2021 p 346 Feldman 2017 pp 586 588 Ketcham 2002 p 67 a b Ketcham 2002 pp 66 67 Rutland 1990 pp 165 167 Wills 2002 pp 130 131 Rutland 1990 pp 179 180 Rutland 1990 p 185 American Heritage December 1960 Rutland 1990 pp 186 188 Rutland 1987 p 188 Rutland 1990 pp 192 201 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 547 548 Wills 2002 pp 145 150 Feldman 2017 pp 599 600 Rutland 1990 pp 211 212 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 559 560 a b Rutland 1990 pp 195 198 a b Howe 2007 pp 82 84 Rutland 1990 pp 198 199 Rutland 1990 pp 204 207 Owens 2007 p 200 Owens 2007 pp 201 203 Kappler 1904 pp 101 102 Owens 2007 pp 201 203 Kappler 1904 pp 101 102 Owens 2007 p 205 a b Landry 2016 essay Langguth 2006 p 165 Rutland 1990 p 37 a b c Rutland 1990 pp 199 200 a b Langguth 2006 pp 166 169 Owens 2007 p 214 Langguth 2006 p 166 Langguth 2006 p 167 Owens 2007 p 214 Green 1982 p 43 Wilentz 2005 p 26 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 559 563 Feldman 2017 p 616 a b Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 608 609 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 578 581 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 589 591 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 603 604 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 p 585 Thomas Jefferson Foundation Essay Keysaar 2009 pp 26 27 Wills 2002 p 162 McCoy 1989 p 151 Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia Ketcham 1990 pp 669 670 Magnet 2013 pp 321 322 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 609 611 Jennings 1865 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 85 86 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 232 234 Feldman 2017 p 7 Hoffer 2006 p 363 Hutson 2003 p 156 Miroff 2011 p 149 Corbett 2013 p 78 Ketcham 1990 p 47 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 106 107 Madison Detached Memoranda 1817 Madison 1908 p 432 a b c d e f Spies Gans 2013 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 26 200 202 Cost 2021 p 255 Watts 1990 p 1289 Ketcham 1990 pp 374 375 Taylor 2012 p 27 Spies Gans 2013 French 2001 amp New York Review of Books June 6 2019 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 4 26 Broadwater 2012 p 188 Hopkins 2019 a b c Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 p 201 a b Ketcham 1990 pp 374 375 Hopkins 2019 Jennings 1865 Taylor 2012 p 22 Ketcham 1990 pp 374 375 National Park Service 2022 Taylor 2012 p 22 a b Feldman 2017 p 121 a b Ketcham 1990 p 149 Feldman 2017 p 52 Madison knew that the institution of slavery contradicted the humanitarian ideals of the Revolution His livelihood then and throughout his life depended on slavery He was not trying to introduce abolition by subtleties Madison was attempting the doubtful self contradictory goal of being a humane slaveholder one actuated by revolutionary principles Feldman 2017 pp 16 17 McCoy 1989 p 260 Rutland 1987 p 241 Feldman 2017 p 284 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 200 201 607 608 McCoy 1989 p 5 James Madison Memorial Foundation Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 156 157 a b New York Review of Books June 6 2019 McCoy 1989 p 268 McCoy 1989 pp 268 269 Feldman 2017 pp 625 626 a b Feldman 2017 pp 627 628 Wood 2009 pp 697 699 Skidmore 2004 pp 45 56 Smelser 1968 introduction by Commager amp Morris USA Today February 18 2006 a b Wood 2006 p 425 Burstein amp Isenberg 2010 pp 521 522 Rosen 1999 pp 2 4 6 9 140 175 Wills 2002 p 164 The Cincinnati Post November 28 1946 p 23 AIM Media Midwest July 17 2015 Hollywood Reporter July 28 2015 BroadwayWorld October 2 2015 CBS News December 12 2015 National Capital Planning Commission National Capital Planning Commission2 The Courier Journal p b3 Real Time Alabama July 17 2020 Gannett 1905 p 196 Mendelsohn 1995 pp 711 712 Wisconsin Historical Society CIA memo 25 January 2017 Journal Sentinel Sources Further information Bibliography of the United States Constitution Allott Philip Winter 2003 The Emerging International Aristocracy New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 35 2 321 ISSN 1930 6237 via HeinOnline Amar Akhil Reed 2005 America s Constitution A Biography New York Random House ISBN 978 1 4000 6262 1 Ball Terence ed 2017 James Madison Milton Park England Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 351 15514 4 Banning Lance 2000 1999 Madison James American National Biography Oxford England Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 anb 9780198606697 article 0300303 ISBN 978 0 19 860669 7 Retrieved May 14 2022 Bilder Mary Sarah May 2010 James Madison Law Student and Demi Lawyer Law and History Review 28 2 390 391 doi 10 1017 S0738248010000052 JSTOR 25701109 S2CID 143805768 Billias George 1976 Elbridge Gerry Founding Father and Republican Statesman New York New York McGraw Hill Publishers ISBN 978 0 07 005269 7 Bordewich Fergus M 2016 The First Congress How James Madison George Washington and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government New York New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 1 4516 9193 1 Boyd Rush Dorothy Molding a Founding Father James Madison s Montpelier Montpelier James Madison University Archived from the original on August 7 2016 Retrieved March 25 2013 Brant Irving 1950 James Madison Father of the Constitution 1787 1800 Indianapolis Bobbs Merrill Company Inc pp 406 407 ASIN B0007FE8EW Brant Irving 1956 James Madison President 1809 1812 Indianapolis Bobbs Merrill Company Inc p 13 ASIN B0007FVWXC Broadwater Jeff 2012 James Madison A Son of Virginia and a Founder of a Nation Chapel Hill North Carolina University of North Carolina Press ISBN 978 0 8078 3530 2 Burstein Andrew Isenberg Nancy 2010 Madison and Jefferson New York New York Random House ISBN 978 1 4000 6728 2 Carberry Edward November 28 1946 Movies Keith s Palace The Cincinnati Post p 23 Chernow Ron 2004 Alexander Hamilton London England Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 303475 9 At Internet Archive Coelho Chris 2013 Timothy Matlack Scribe of the Declaration of Independence Jefferson North Carolina McFarland ISBN 978 0 7864 7443 1 Corbett Michael 2013 Politics and Religion in the United States Milton Park England Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 57975 3 Cost Jay 2021 James Madison America s First Polititian New York N Y Basic Books ISBN 978 1 5416 9955 7 Edwards David L 1984 Christian England Volume 3 From the 18th Century to the First World War London England Collins ISBN 978 0 00 215143 6 OCLC 11256111 Engelman Fred L December 1960 The Peace of Christmas Eve American Heritage Vol 12 no 1 ISSN 0002 8738 Feldman Noah 2017 The Three Lives of James Madison Genius Partisan President New York New York Random House ISBN 978 0 8129 9275 5 Ferling John 2003 A Leap in the Dark The Struggle to Create the American Republic Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 515924 0 French Mary Ann July 6 2001 The Slaves Who Freed Our Founders Christian Science Monitor ISSN 0882 7729 Retrieved April 20 2023 Gannett Henry 1905 The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States Washington D C U S Government Printing Office ISBN 978 1 3409 5496 3 Green Michael D 1982 The Politics of Indian Removal Paperback Lincoln Nebraska University of Nebraska Press ISBN 978 0 8032 7015 2 Gustafson Thomas 1992 Representative Words Politics Literature and the American Language 1776 1865 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 39512 0 Gutzman Kevin R C February 14 2012 James Madison and the Making of America New York New York St Martin s Publishing Group ISBN 978 1 4299 4100 6 Guyatt Nicholas June 6 2019 How Proslavery Was the Constitution New York Review of Books ISSN 0028 7504 Hamilton Alexander Madison James Jay John 1992 1787 1788 The Federalist Papers Cutchogue N Y Buccaneer Books ISBN 978 0 8996 6695 2 Hamilton Holman 1941 Zachary Taylor Soldier of the Republic Vol 1 Indianapolis Indiana Bobbs Merrill Company ISBN 978 1 2584 5153 0 Hoffer Peter Charles 2006 The Brave New World A History of Early America Baltimore Maryland Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 978 0 8018 8483 2 Hopkins Callie August 28 2019 The Enslaved Household of President James Madison White House Historical Association Retrieved December 12 2021 Howe Daniel Walker 2007 What Hath God Wrought The Transformation of America 1815 1848 Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 507894 7 Hutson James H 2003 Forgotten Features of the Founding The Recovery of Religious Themes in the Early American Republic Lanham Maryland Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 0570 2 Isaacson Walter 2004 Benjamin Franklin An American Life New York New York Simon and Schuster pp 229 230 ISBN 978 0 7432 5807 4 Jennings Paul 2021 Documents of the American South University of North Carolina University of North Carolina Retrieved February 19 2017 Jillson Calvin Wilson Rick 1994 Congressional Dynamics Structure Coordination and Choice in the First American Congress 1774 1789 Redwood City California Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 2293 3 Kappler Charles J 1904 Indian Affairs Laws and Treaties PDF Vol II Treaties Washington D C Government Printing Office OCLC 6812979 Kane Joseph Nathan 1993 Facts About the Presidents A Compilation of Biographical and Historical Information New York H W Wilson Company ISBN 978 0 8242 0845 5 Kennedy Mark July 17 2015 3 Presidents in Hamilton Put blood into the statues limaohio com Lima Ohio AIM Media Midwest Operating LLC AP Archived from the original on September 23 2020 Retrieved August 12 2015 Ketcham Ralph 1990 James Madison A Biography paperback ed Charlottesville Virginia University of Virginia Press ISBN 978 0 8139 1265 3 Ketcham Ralph 2002 James Madison In Graff Henry F ed The Presidents A Reference History Third ed New York New York Charles Scribner s Sons pp 57 70 ISBN 978 0 684 31226 2 Ketcham Ralph 2003 James Madison A Biography Newton Connecticut American Political Biography Press ISBN 978 0 8139 1265 3 Keysaar Alexander 2009 The Right to Vote New York New York Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 02969 3 Labunski Richard 2006 James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 1953 4142 3 Landry Alysa January 26 2016 James Madison Pushed Intermarriage Between Settlers and Indians Indian Country Today Retrieved April 25 2020 Langguth A J 2006 Union 1812 The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence New York New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 2618 9 Lee Ashley July 28 2015 Hamilton Lin Manuel Miranda Repeatedly Rewards Lottery Hopefuls With Unique Pre Shows The Hollywood Reporter Retrieved August 12 2015 Linnane Rory November 23 2021 James Madison Memorial High School in Madison Renamed after Vel Phillips Journal Sentinel Milwaukee Wisconsin Retrieved December 8 2022 Madison James 1817 Detached Memoranda University of Chicago Retrieved February 19 2017 Madison James 1908 The Writings of James Madison 1808 1819 Volume VIII New York New York G P Putnam s Sons LCCN 01020807 Magnet Myron 2013 The Founders at Home The Building of America 1735 1817 New York New York W W Norton amp Company ISBN 978 0 393 24021 4 Manweller Mathew 2005 The People Vs the Courts Judicial Review and Direct Democracy in the American Legal System Bethesda Maryland Academica Press LLC p 22 ISBN 978 1 930901 97 1 Mason George 1970 Rutland Robert A ed The Papers of George Mason 1725 1792 Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press ISBN 978 0 8078 1134 4 McCoy Drew R 1989 The Last of the Fathers James Madison and the Republican Legacy Cambridge England Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 40772 4 McCullough Noah 2006 The Essential Book of Presidential Trivia New York New York Random House Digital Inc ISBN 978 1 4000 6482 3 McDonald Forrest 1976 The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson Lawrence Kansas University Press of Kansas ISBN 978 0 7006 0330 5 Meacham Jon 2012 Thomas Jefferson The Art of Power New York New York Random House LLC ISBN 978 0 679 64536 8 Mendelsohn Joyce 1995 Madison Square In Jackson Kenneth T ed The Encyclopedia of New York City New Haven Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 05536 8 Miroff Bruce et al 2011 Debating Democracy A Reader in American Politics Boston Massachusetts Cengage Learning ISBN 978 0 495 91347 4 Mummolo Jonathan June 11 2007 African American Seeks to Prove A Genetic Link to James Madison The Washington Post Retrieved December 27 2021 Nelson Alondra 2016 The Social Life of DNA Race Reparations and Reconciliation after the Genome Boston Massachusetts Beacon Press ISBN 978 0 8070 3301 2 OCLC 907702592 Owens Robert M 2007 Mr Jefferson s Hammer William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy Norman University of Oklahoma Press ISBN 978 0 8061 3842 8 Paterson Thomas Clifford J Garry Maddock Shane J January 1 2014 American Foreign Relations A History to 1920 Vol 1 Boston Massachusetts Cengage Learning p 20 ISBN 978 1 305 17210 4 Reed Ishmael July 5 2004 Thomas Jefferson The Patriot Act of the 18th Century Time magazine Archived from the original on November 11 2012 Risjord Norman K 1961 1812 Conservatives War Hawks and the Nation s Honor The William and Mary Quarterly 18 2 196 210 doi 10 2307 1918543 JSTOR 1918543 Robinson Raymond H 1999 The Marketing of an Icon George Washington American Symbol New York New York Free Press pp 109 121 ISBN 978 1 55595 148 1 Figure 56 John Henry Hintermeister American 1869 1945 Signing of the Constitution 1925 Alternatively labeled Title to Freedom and the Foundation of American Government Roosevelt Theodore 1999 The Naval War of 1812 London England Modern Library War ISBN 978 0 375 75419 7 Rosen Gary 1999 American Compact James Madison and the Problem of the Founding Lawrence Kansas University Press of Kansas ISBN 978 0 7006 0960 4 Rutland Robert A 1987 James Madison The Founding Father New York New York Macmillan Publishing Co ISBN 978 0 02 927601 3 Rutland Robert A 1990 The Presidency of James Madison Lawrence Kansas University Press of Kansas ISBN 978 0 7006 0465 4 Skidmore Max J 2004 Presidential Performance A Comprehensive Review Jefferson N C McFarland amp Co ISBN 978 0 7864 1820 6 Smelser Marshall 1968 Commager Henry Steele Morris Richard B eds The Democratic Republic 1801 1815 New York New York Harper amp Row ISBN 978 0 06 013927 8 Spies Gans Paris Amanda 2023 James Madison Princeton University Princeton amp Slavery Retrieved March 8 2023 Stagg J C A October 4 2016 James Madison Impact and Legacy Miller Center University of Virginia Retrieved February 8 2019 Taylor Alan 2016 American Revolutions A Continental History 1750 1804 New York New York W W Norton amp Company Inc ISBN 978 0 393 35476 8 Taylor Alan 2002 American Colonies New York New York Viking Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 200210 0 Taylor Elizabeth Dowling 2012 A Slave in the White House Paul Jennings and the Madisons New York Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 34198 2 Thomas Kenneth R ed 2013 The Constitution of the United States of America Analysis of Cases Decided by the Supreme Court of the U S PDF Washington D C Government Publishing Office p 49 Retrieved February 16 2017 Varg Paul A 1963 Foreign Policies of the Founding Fathers East Lansing Michigan Michigan State University Press OCLC 1034677575 Watts Steven 1990 The Last of the Fathers James Madison and the Republican Legacy The American Historical Review 95 4 xvii doi 10 2307 2163682 JSTOR 2163682 Review Wilentz Sean 2005 Andrew Jackson New York Times Books p 26 ISBN 978 0 8050 6925 9 OCLC 61254015 Wills Garry 2002 James Madison New York Times Books ISBN 978 0 8050 6905 1 Wilson Gaye Berkes Anna Ragosta John James Madison Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia Retrieved June 24 2022 Wood Gordon S 2006 Is there a James Madison Problem in Liberty and American Experience in the Eighteenth Century Womersley David ed Liberty Fund Retrieved May 2 2012 Wood Gordon S 2009 Empire of Liberty A History of the Early Republic Oxford England Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 983246 0 Wood Gordon S 2011 The Idea of America Reflections on the Birth of the United States London England The Penguin Press ISBN 978 1 59420 290 2 A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation U S Congressional Documents and Debates 1774 1875 Washington D C Library of Congress 2003 OCLC 4932598489 Tuesday July 2 1776 Resolved That these United colonies are and of right ought to be Free and Independent States that they are absolved of all allegiance to the British Crown and that all political connexion between them and the state of Great Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved James Madison Memorial Building of the Library of Congress Map National Capital Planning Commission Memorials in Washington DC An interactive map of commemorative works in the nation s capital 2012 Retrieved September 28 2023 1812 Presidential Election The American Presidency Project Retrieved November 11 2022 2016 Grammy Award Nominations cbs com CBS News December 7 2015 Retrieved December 12 2015 CIA Memo Confirms Nuclear Sub Crash BBC January 25 2017 The Charters of Freedom The Bill of Rights National Archives and Records Administration October 31 2015 Retrieved February 16 2017 The Enslaved Community James Madison s Montpelier Montpelier Foundation Archived from the original on September 30 2011 Retrieved November 20 2016 The Federalist Papers Cutchogue New York Buccaneer Books 1992 ISBN 978 0 89966 695 2 James Madison Monticello Thomas Jefferson Foundation Retrieved July 22 2016 James Madison and Slavery The James Madison Memorial Foundation 2000 Retrieved April 4 2023 Justitia US Law Mountain View California National Capital Planning Commission Retrieved January 2 2022 Life in Early Madison Wisconsin Historical Society June 27 2012 Archived from the original on December 21 2018 Retrieved June 24 2021 Madison s Election to the First Federal Congress October 1788 February 1789 Editorial Note founders archive gov National Archives Founders Online Retrieved April 25 2023 The Life of James Madison James Madison s Montpelier Montpelier Foundation Retrieved October 21 2017 Paul Jennings nps gov National Park Service February 16 2022 Retrieved April 21 2023 Presidential Election of 1789 Mount Vernon Virginia Mount Vernon Ladies Association George Washington s Mount Vernon Archived from the original on January 14 2016 Retrieved July 14 2017 Q amp As with Your Favorite Broadway Stars HAMILTON s Okieriete Onaodowan BroadwayWorld com October 2 2015 Retrieved December 12 2015 Scholars Rate Worst Presidential Errors USA Today AP February 18 2006 Retrieved August 31 2018 UK Professor in Line for Post The Courier Journal Louisville Kentucky October 6 1988 p B3 Retrieved April 4 2023 Violet Edwards Elected Madison County s First Black Woman Commissioner Real Time Alabama July 17 2020 Retrieved November 7 2020 Further readingFurther information Bibliography of James Madison Edwards David L 1983 Christian England Volume 2 From the Reformation to the 18th Century London Collins ISBN 978 0 00 626663 1 Graeber David 2013 The Democracy Project A History a Crisis a Movement New York Spiegel amp Grau pp 155 156 ISBN 978 0 8129 9356 1 OCLC 769425385 Jackson Kenneth T ed 1995 The Encyclopedia of New York City New Haven Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 05536 8 Stewart David 2007 The Summer of 1787 The Men Who Invented the Constitution New York New York Simon and Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 8693 0 External linksScholarly coverage of Madison at Miller Center U of Virginia James Madison A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress Works by or about James Madison at Internet Archive Works by James Madison at LibriVox public domain audiobooks nbsp Montpelier The People The Place The Idea montpelier org Archived from the original on July 24 2020 Retrieved April 29 2020 Portals nbsp Biography nbsp History nbsp Politics nbsp United StatesJames Madison at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Media from Commons nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource nbsp Textbooks from Wikibooks nbsp Resources from Wikiversity nbsp Data from Wikidata Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title James Madison amp oldid 1205135644, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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