Weierstrass elliptic function

"P-function" redirects here. For the phase-space function representing a quantum state, see Glauber–Sudarshan P representation.

"℘" redirects here; the symbol can also be used to denote a power set.

In mathematics, the Weierstrass elliptic functions are elliptic functions that take a particularly simple form. They are named for Karl Weierstrass. This class of functions are also referred to as ℘-functions and they are usually denoted by the symbol ℘, a uniquely fancy script p. They play an important role in the theory of elliptic functions, i.e., meromorphic functions that are doubly periodic. A ℘-function together with its derivative can be used to parameterize elliptic curves and they generate the field of elliptic functions with respect to a given period lattice.

Symbol for Weierstrass ${\displaystyle \wp }$-function

Model of Weierstrass ${\displaystyle \wp }$-function

Motivation

A cubic of the form ${\displaystyle C_{g_{2},g_{3}}^{\mathbb {C} }=\{(x,y)\in \mathbb {C} ^{2}:y^{2}=4x^{3}-g_{2}x-g_{3}\}}$ , where ${\displaystyle g_{2},g_{3}\in \mathbb {C} }$  are complex numbers with ${\displaystyle g_{2}^{3}-27g_{3}^{2}\neq 0}$ , cannot be rationally parameterized.^[1] Yet one still wants to find a way to parameterize it.

For the quadric ${\displaystyle K=\left\{(x,y)\in \mathbb {R} ^{2}:x^{2}+y^{2}=1\right\}}$ ; the unit circle, there exists a (non-rational) parameterization using the sine function and its derivative the cosine function:

$${\displaystyle \psi :\mathbb {R} /2\pi \mathbb {Z} \to K,\quad t\mapsto (\sin t,\cos t).}$$

 

Because of the periodicity of the sine and cosine ${\displaystyle \mathbb {R} /2\pi \mathbb {Z} }$  is chosen to be the domain, so the function is bijective.

In a similar way one can get a parameterization of ${\displaystyle C_{g_{2},g_{3}}^{\mathbb {C} }}$  by means of the doubly periodic ${\displaystyle \wp }$ -function (see in the section "Relation to elliptic curves"). This parameterization has the domain ${\displaystyle \mathbb {C} /\Lambda }$ , which is topologically equivalent to a torus.^[2]

There is another analogy to the trigonometric functions. Consider the integral function

$${\displaystyle a(x)=\int _{0}^{x}{\frac {dy}{\sqrt {1-y^{2}}}}.}$$

 

It can be simplified by substituting ${\displaystyle y=\sin t}$  and ${\displaystyle s=\arcsin x}$ :

$${\displaystyle a(x)=\int _{0}^{s}dt=s=\arcsin x.}$$

 

That means ${\displaystyle a^{-1}(x)=\sin x}$ . So the sine function is an inverse function of an integral function.^[3]

Elliptic functions are the inverse functions of elliptic integrals. In particular, let:

$${\displaystyle u(z)=-\int _{z}^{\infty }{\frac {ds}{\sqrt {4s^{3}-g_{2}s-g_{3}}}}.}$$

 

Then the extension of ${\displaystyle u^{-1}}$  to the complex plane equals the ${\displaystyle \wp }$ -function.^[4] This invertibility is used in complex analysis to provide a solution to certain nonlinear differential equations satisfying the Painlevé property, i.e., those equations that admit poles as their only movable singularities.^[5]

Definition

 

Visualization of the ${\displaystyle \wp }$ -function with invariants ${\displaystyle g_{2}=1+i}$  and ${\displaystyle g_{3}=2-3i}$  in which white corresponds to a pole, black to a zero.

Let ${\displaystyle \omega _{1},\omega _{2}\in \mathbb {C} }$  be two complex numbers that are linearly independent over ${\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }$  and let ${\displaystyle \Lambda :=\mathbb {Z} \omega _{1}+\mathbb {Z} \omega _{2}:=\{m\omega _{1}+n\omega _{2}:m,n\in \mathbb {Z} \}}$  be the period lattice generated by those numbers. Then the ${\displaystyle \wp }$ -function is defined as follows:

${\displaystyle \wp (z,\omega _{1},\omega _{2}):=\wp (z)={\frac {1}{z^{2}}}+\sum _{\lambda \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}}\left({\frac {1}{(z-\lambda )^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{\lambda ^{2}}}\right).}$ 

This series converges locally uniformly absolutely in the complex torus ${\displaystyle \mathbb {C} \setminus \Lambda }$ .

It is common to use ${\displaystyle 1}$  and ${\displaystyle \tau }$  in the upper half-plane ${\displaystyle \mathbb {H} :=\{z\in \mathbb {C} :\operatorname {Im} (z)>0\}}$  as generators of the lattice. Dividing by ${\textstyle \omega _{1}}$  maps the lattice ${\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} \omega _{1}+\mathbb {Z} \omega _{2}}$  isomorphically onto the lattice ${\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} +\mathbb {Z} \tau }$  with ${\textstyle \tau ={\tfrac {\omega _{2}}{\omega _{1}}}}$ . Because ${\displaystyle -\tau }$  can be substituted for ${\displaystyle \tau }$ , without loss of generality we can assume ${\displaystyle \tau \in \mathbb {H} }$ , and then define ${\displaystyle \wp (z,\tau ):=\wp (z,1,\tau )}$ .

Properties

• ${\displaystyle \wp }$  is a meromorphic function with a pole of order 2 at each period ${\displaystyle \lambda }$  in ${\displaystyle \Lambda }$ .
• ${\displaystyle \wp }$  is an even function. That means ${\displaystyle \wp (z)=\wp (-z)}$  for all ${\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {C} \setminus \Lambda }$ , which can be seen in the following way:

${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\wp (-z)&={\frac {1}{(-z)^{2}}}+\sum _{\lambda \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}}\left({\frac {1}{(-z-\lambda )^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{\lambda ^{2}}}\right)\\&={\frac {1}{z^{2}}}+\sum _{\lambda \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}}\left({\frac {1}{(z+\lambda )^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{\lambda ^{2}}}\right)\\&={\frac {1}{z^{2}}}+\sum _{\lambda \in \Lambda \setminus \{0\}}\left({\frac {1}{(z-\lambda )^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{\lambda ^{2}}}\right)=\wp (z).\end{aligned}}}$ 

The second last equality holds because ${\displaystyle \{-\lambda :\lambda \in \Lambda \}=\Lambda }$ . Since the sum converges absolutely this rearrangement does not change the limit.

• The derivative of ${\displaystyle \wp }$  is given by:^[6]
  $${\displaystyle \wp '(z)=-2\sum _{\lambda \in \Lambda }{\frac {1}{(z-\lambda )^{3}}}.}$$

   
• ${\displaystyle \wp }$  and ${\displaystyle \wp '}$  are doubly periodic with the periods ${\displaystyle \omega _{1}}$  and ${\displaystyle \omega _{2}}$ .^[6] This means:
  $${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\wp (z+\omega _{1})&=\wp (z)=\wp (z+\omega _{2}),\ {\textrm {and}}\\[3mu]\wp '(z+\omega _{1})&=\wp '(z)=\wp '(z+\omega _{2}).\end{aligned}}}$$

   
  It follows that ${\displaystyle \wp (z+\lambda )=\wp (z)}$  and ${\displaystyle \wp '(z+\lambda )=\wp '(z)}$  for all ${\displaystyle \lambda \in \Lambda }$ .

Laurent expansion

Let ${\displaystyle r:=\min\{{|\lambda }|:0\neq \lambda \in \Lambda \}}$ . Then for ${\displaystyle 0<|z|<r}$  the ${\displaystyle \wp }$ -function has the following Laurent expansion

$${\displaystyle \wp (z)={\frac {1}{z^{2}}}+\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }(2n+1)G_{2n+2}z^{2n}}$$

 

where

$${\displaystyle G_{n}=\sum _{0\neq \lambda \in \Lambda }\lambda ^{-n}}$$

 

for ${\displaystyle n\geq 3}$  are so called Eisenstein series.^[6]

Differential equation

Set ${\displaystyle g_{2}=60G_{4}}$  and ${\displaystyle g_{3}=140G_{6}}$ . Then the ${\displaystyle \wp }$ -function satisfies the differential equation^[6]

$${\displaystyle \wp '^{2}(z)=4\wp ^{3}(z)-g_{2}\wp (z)-g_{3}.}$$

 

This relation can be verified by forming a linear combination of powers of ${\displaystyle \wp }$  and ${\displaystyle \wp '}$  to eliminate the pole at ${\displaystyle z=0}$ . This yields an entire elliptic function that has to be constant by Liouville's theorem.^[6]

Invariants

 

The real part of the invariant g₃ as a function of the square of the nome q on the unit disk.

 

The imaginary part of the invariant g₃ as a function of the square of the nome q on the unit disk.

The coefficients of the above differential equation g₂ and g₃ are known as the invariants. Because they depend on the lattice ${\displaystyle \Lambda }$  they can be viewed as functions in ${\displaystyle \omega _{1}}$ and ${\displaystyle \omega _{2}}$ .

The series expansion suggests that g₂ and g₃ are homogeneous functions of degree −4 and −6. That is^[7]

$${\displaystyle g_{2}(\lambda \omega _{1},\lambda \omega _{2})=\lambda ^{-4}g_{2}(\omega _{1},\omega _{2})}$$

 

$${\displaystyle g_{3}(\lambda \omega _{1},\lambda \omega _{2})=\lambda ^{-6}g_{3}(\omega _{1},\omega _{2})}$$

 

for ${\displaystyle \lambda \neq 0}$ .

If ${\displaystyle \omega _{1}}$ and ${\displaystyle \omega _{2}}$  are chosen in such a way that ${\displaystyle \operatorname {Im} \left({\tfrac {\omega _{2}}{\omega _{1}}}\right)>0}$ , g₂ and g₃ can be interpreted as functions on the upper half-plane ${\displaystyle \mathbb {H} :=\{z\in \mathbb {C} :\operatorname {Im} (z)>0\}}$ .

Let ${\displaystyle \tau ={\tfrac {\omega _{2}}{\omega _{1}}}}$ . One has:^[8]

$${\displaystyle g_{2}(1,\tau )=\omega _{1}^{4}g_{2}(\omega _{1},\omega _{2}),}$$

 

$${\displaystyle g_{3}(1,\tau )=\omega _{1}^{6}g_{3}(\omega _{1},\omega _{2}).}$$

 

That means g₂ and g₃ are only scaled by doing this. Set

$${\displaystyle g_{2}(\tau ):=g_{2}(1,\tau )}$$

 

and

$${\displaystyle g_{3}(\tau ):=g_{3}(1,\tau ).}$$

 

As functions of ${\displaystyle \tau \in \mathbb {H} }$  ${\displaystyle g_{2},g_{3}}$  are so called modular forms.

The Fourier series for ${\displaystyle g_{2}}$  and ${\displaystyle g_{3}}$  are given as follows:^[9]

$${\displaystyle g_{2}(\tau )={\frac {4}{3}}\pi ^{4}\left[1+240\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }\sigma _{3}(k)q^{2k}\right]}$$

 

$${\displaystyle g_{3}(\tau )={\frac {8}{27}}\pi ^{6}\left[1-504\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }\sigma _{5}(k)q^{2k}\right]}$$

 

where

$${\displaystyle \sigma _{a}(k):=\sum _{d\mid {k}}d^{\alpha }}$$

 

is the divisor function and ${\displaystyle q=e^{\pi i\tau }}$  is the nome.

Modular discriminant

 

The real part of the discriminant as a function of the square of the nome q on the unit disk.

The modular discriminant Δ is defined as the discriminant of the polynomial on the right-hand side of the above differential equation:

$${\displaystyle \Delta =g_{2}^{3}-27g_{3}^{2}.}$$

 

The discriminant is a modular form of weight 12. That is, under the action of the modular group, it transforms as

$${\displaystyle \Delta \left({\frac {a\tau +b}{c\tau +d}}\right)=\left(c\tau +d\right)^{12}\Delta (\tau )}$$

 

where ${\displaystyle a,b,d,c\in \mathbb {Z} }$  with ad − bc = 1.^[10]

Note that ${\displaystyle \Delta =(2\pi )^{12}\eta ^{24}}$  where ${\displaystyle \eta }$  is the Dedekind eta function.^[11]

For the Fourier coefficients of ${\displaystyle \Delta }$ , see Ramanujan tau function.

The constants e₁, e₂ and e₃

${\displaystyle e_{1}}$ , ${\displaystyle e_{2}}$  and ${\displaystyle e_{3}}$  are usually used to denote the values of the ${\displaystyle \wp }$ -function at the half-periods.

$${\displaystyle e_{1}\equiv \wp \left({\frac {\omega _{1}}{2}}\right)}$$

 

$${\displaystyle e_{2}\equiv \wp \left({\frac {\omega _{2}}{2}}\right)}$$

 

$${\displaystyle e_{3}\equiv \wp \left({\frac {\omega _{1}+\omega _{2}}{2}}\right)}$$

 

They are pairwise distinct and only depend on the lattice ${\displaystyle \Lambda }$  and not on its generators.^[12]

${\displaystyle e_{1}}$ , ${\displaystyle e_{2}}$  and ${\displaystyle e_{3}}$  are the roots of the cubic polynomial ${\displaystyle 4\wp (z)^{3}-g_{2}\wp (z)-g_{3}}$  and are related by the equation:

$${\displaystyle e_{1}+e_{2}+e_{3}=0.}$$

 

Because those roots are distinct the discriminant ${\displaystyle \Delta }$  does not vanish on the upper half plane.^[13] Now we can rewrite the differential equation:

$${\displaystyle \wp '^{2}(z)=4(\wp (z)-e_{1})(\wp (z)-e_{2})(\wp (z)-e_{3}).}$$

 

That means the half-periods are zeros of ${\displaystyle \wp '}$ .

The invariants ${\displaystyle g_{2}}$  and ${\displaystyle g_{3}}$  can be expressed in terms of these constants in the following way:^[14]

$${\displaystyle g_{2}=-4(e_{1}e_{2}+e_{1}e_{3}+e_{2}e_{3})}$$

 

$${\displaystyle g_{3}=4e_{1}e_{2}e_{3}}$$

 

${\displaystyle e_{1}}$ , ${\displaystyle e_{2}}$  and ${\displaystyle e_{3}}$  are related to the modular lambda function:

$${\displaystyle \lambda (\tau )={\frac {e_{3}-e_{2}}{e_{1}-e_{2}}},\quad \tau ={\frac {\omega _{2}}{\omega _{1}}}.}$$

 

Relation to Jacobi's elliptic functions

For numerical work, it is often convenient to calculate the Weierstrass elliptic function in terms of Jacobi's elliptic functions.

The basic relations are:^[15]

$${\displaystyle \wp (z)=e_{3}+{\frac {e_{1}-e_{3}}{\operatorname {sn} ^{2}w}}=e_{2}+(e_{1}-e_{3}){\frac {\operatorname {dn} ^{2}w}{\operatorname {sn} ^{2}w}}=e_{1}+(e_{1}-e_{3}){\frac {\operatorname {cn} ^{2}w}{\operatorname {sn} ^{2}w}}}$$

 

where ${\displaystyle e_{1},e_{2}}$ and ${\displaystyle e_{3}}$  are the three roots described above and where the modulus k of the Jacobi functions equals

$${\displaystyle k={\sqrt {\frac {e_{2}-e_{3}}{e_{1}-e_{3}}}}}$$

 

and their argument w equals

$${\displaystyle w=z{\sqrt {e_{1}-e_{3}}}.}$$

 

Relation to Jacobi's theta functions

The function ${\displaystyle \wp (z,\tau )=\wp (z,1,\omega _{2}/\omega _{1})}$  can be represented by Jacobi's theta functions:

$${\displaystyle \wp (z,\tau )=\left(\pi \theta _{2}(0,q)\theta _{3}(0,q){\frac {\theta _{4}(\pi z,q)}{\theta _{1}(\pi z,q)}}\right)^{2}-{\frac {\pi ^{2}}{3}}\left(\theta _{2}^{4}(0,q)+\theta _{3}^{4}(0,q)\right)}$$

 

where ${\displaystyle q=e^{\pi i\tau }}$  is the nome and ${\displaystyle \tau }$  is the period ratio ${\displaystyle (\tau \in \mathbb {H} )}$ .^[16] This also provides a very rapid algorithm for computing ${\displaystyle \wp (z,\tau )}$ .

Relation to elliptic curves

See also: Elliptic curve § Elliptic curves over the complex numbers

Consider the embedding of the cubic curve in the complex projective plane

${\displaystyle {\bar {C}}_{g_{2},g_{3}}^{\mathbb {C} }=\{(x,y)\in \mathbb {C} ^{2}:y^{2}=4x^{3}-g_{2}x-g_{3}\}\cup \{\infty \}\subset \mathbb {C} ^{2}\cup \{\infty \}=\mathbb {P} _{2}(\mathbb {C} ).}$ 

For this cubic there exists no rational parameterization, if ${\displaystyle \Delta \neq 0}$ .^[1] In this case it is also called an elliptic curve. Nevertheless there is a parameterization in homogeneous coordinates that uses the ${\displaystyle \wp }$ -function and its derivative ${\displaystyle \wp '}$ :^[17]

${\displaystyle \varphi (\wp ,\wp '):\mathbb {C} /\Lambda \to {\bar {C}}_{g_{2},g_{3}}^{\mathbb {C} },\quad z\mapsto {\begin{cases}\left[\wp (z):\wp '(z):1\right]&z\notin \Lambda \\\left[0:1:0\right]\quad &z\in \Lambda \end{cases}}}$ 

Now the map ${\displaystyle \varphi }$  is bijective and parameterizes the elliptic curve ${\displaystyle {\bar {C}}_{g_{2},g_{3}}^{\mathbb {C} }}$ .

${\displaystyle \mathbb {C} /\Lambda }$  is an abelian group and a topological space, equipped with the quotient topology.

It can be shown that every Weierstrass cubic is given in such a way. That is to say that for every pair ${\displaystyle g_{2},g_{3}\in \mathbb {C} }$  with ${\displaystyle \Delta =g_{2}^{3}-27g_{3}^{2}\neq 0}$  there exists a lattice ${\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} \omega _{1}+\mathbb {Z} \omega _{2}}$ , such that

${\displaystyle g_{2}=g_{2}(\omega _{1},\omega _{2})}$  and ${\displaystyle g_{3}=g_{3}(\omega _{1},\omega _{2})}$ .^[18]

The statement that elliptic curves over ${\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} }$  can be parameterized over ${\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} }$ , is known as the modularity theorem. This is an important theorem in number theory. It was part of Andrew Wiles' proof (1995) of Fermat's Last Theorem.

Addition theorems

Let ${\displaystyle z,w\in \mathbb {C} }$ , so that ${\displaystyle z,w,z+w,z-w\notin \Lambda }$ . Then one has:^[19]

$${\displaystyle \wp (z+w)={\frac {1}{4}}\left[{\frac {\wp '(z)-\wp '(w)}{\wp (z)-\wp (w)}}\right]^{2}-\wp (z)-\wp (w).}$$

 

As well as the duplication formula:^[19]

$${\displaystyle \wp (2z)={\frac {1}{4}}\left[{\frac {\wp ''(z)}{\wp '(z)}}\right]^{2}-2\wp (z).}$$

 

These formulas also have a geometric interpretation, if one looks at the elliptic curve ${\displaystyle {\bar {C}}_{g_{2},g_{3}}^{\mathbb {C} }}$  together with the mapping ${\displaystyle {\varphi }:\mathbb {C} /\Lambda \to {\bar {C}}_{g_{2},g_{3}}^{\mathbb {C} }}$  as in the previous section.

The group structure of ${\displaystyle (\mathbb {C} /\Lambda ,+)}$  translates to the curve ${\displaystyle {\bar {C}}_{g_{2},g_{3}}^{\mathbb {C} }}$ and can be geometrically interpreted there:

The sum of three pairwise different points ${\displaystyle a,b,c\in {\bar {C}}_{g_{2},g_{3}}^{\mathbb {C} }}$ is zero if and only if they lie on the same line in ${\displaystyle \mathbb {P} _{\mathbb {C} }^{2}}$ .^[20]

This is equivalent to:

$${\displaystyle \det \left({\begin{array}{rrr}1&\wp (u+v)&-\wp '(u+v)\\1&\wp (v)&\wp '(v)\\1&\wp (u)&\wp '(u)\\\end{array}}\right)=0,}$$

 

where ${\displaystyle \wp (u)=a}$ , ${\displaystyle \wp (v)=b}$  and ${\displaystyle u,v\notin \Lambda }$ .^[21]

Typography

The Weierstrass's elliptic function is usually written with a rather special, lower case script letter ℘, which was Weierstrass's own notation introduced in his lectures of 1862–1863.^{[footnote 1]}

In computing, the letter ℘ is available as \wp in TeX. In Unicode the code point is U+2118 ℘ SCRIPT CAPITAL P (&weierp;, &wp;), with the more correct alias weierstrass elliptic function.^{[footnote 2]} In HTML, it can be escaped as ℘.

Character information

Preview	℘
Unicode name	SCRIPT CAPITAL P / WEIERSTRASS ELLIPTIC FUNCTION
Encodings	decimal	hex
Unicode	8472	U+2118
UTF-8	226 132 152	E2 84 98
Numeric character reference	℘	℘
Named character reference	℘, ℘

See also

• Weierstrass functions
• Jacobi elliptic functions
• Lemniscate elliptic functions

Footnotes

1. This symbol was also used in the version of Weierstrass's lectures published by Schwarz in the 1880s. The first edition of A Course of Modern Analysis by E. T. Whittaker in 1902 also used it.^[22]
2. The Unicode Consortium has acknowledged two problems with the letter's name: the letter is in fact lowercase, and it is not a "script" class letter, like U+1D4C5 𝓅 MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL P, but the letter for Weierstrass's elliptic function. Unicode added the alias as a correction.^[23][24]

References

1. Hulek, Klaus. (2012), Elementare Algebraische Geometrie : Grundlegende Begriffe und Techniken mit zahlreichen Beispielen und Anwendungen (in German) (2., überarb. u. erw. Aufl. 2012 ed.), Wiesbaden: Vieweg+Teubner Verlag, p. 8, ISBN 978-3-8348-2348-9
2. Rolf Busam (2006), Funktionentheorie 1 (in German) (4., korr. und erw. Aufl ed.), Berlin: Springer, p. 259, ISBN 978-3-540-32058-6
3. Jeremy Gray (2015), Real and the complex: a history of analysis in the 19th century (in German), Cham, p. 71, ISBN 978-3-319-23715-2{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
4. Rolf Busam (2006), Funktionentheorie 1 (in German) (4., korr. und erw. Aufl ed.), Berlin: Springer, p. 294, ISBN 978-3-540-32058-6
5. Ablowitz, Mark J.; Fokas, Athanassios S. (2003). Complex Variables: Introduction and Applications. Cambridge University Press. p. 185. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511791246. ISBN 978-0-521-53429-1.
6. Apostol, Tom M. (1976), Modular functions and Dirichlet series in number theory (in German), New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 11, ISBN 0-387-90185-X
7. Apostol, Tom M. (1976). Modular functions and Dirichlet series in number theory. New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 14. ISBN 0-387-90185-X. OCLC 2121639.
8. Apostol, Tom M. (1976), Modular functions and Dirichlet series in number theory (in German), New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 14, ISBN 0-387-90185-X
9. Apostol, Tom M. (1990). Modular functions and Dirichlet series in number theory (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 20. ISBN 0-387-97127-0. OCLC 20262861.
10. Apostol, Tom M. (1976). Modular functions and Dirichlet series in number theory. New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 50. ISBN 0-387-90185-X. OCLC 2121639.
11. Chandrasekharan, K. (Komaravolu), 1920- (1985). Elliptic functions. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 122. ISBN 0-387-15295-4. OCLC 12053023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
12. Busam, Rolf (2006), Funktionentheorie 1 (in German) (4., korr. und erw. Aufl ed.), Berlin: Springer, p. 270, ISBN 978-3-540-32058-6
13. Apostol, Tom M. (1976), Modular functions and Dirichlet series in number theory (in German), New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 13, ISBN 0-387-90185-X
14. K. Chandrasekharan (1985), Elliptic functions (in German), Berlin: Springer-Verlag, p. 33, ISBN 0-387-15295-4
15. Korn GA, Korn TM (1961). Mathematical Handbook for Scientists and Engineers. New York: McGraw–Hill. p. 721. LCCN 59014456.
16. Reinhardt, W. P.; Walker, P. L. (2010), "Weierstrass Elliptic and Modular Functions", in Olver, Frank W. J.; Lozier, Daniel M.; Boisvert, Ronald F.; Clark, Charles W. (eds.), NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-19225-5, MR 2723248.
17. Hulek, Klaus. (2012), Elementare Algebraische Geometrie : Grundlegende Begriffe und Techniken mit zahlreichen Beispielen und Anwendungen (in German) (2., überarb. u. erw. Aufl. 2012 ed.), Wiesbaden: Vieweg+Teubner Verlag, p. 12, ISBN 978-3-8348-2348-9
18. Hulek, Klaus. (2012), Elementare Algebraische Geometrie : Grundlegende Begriffe und Techniken mit zahlreichen Beispielen und Anwendungen (in German) (2., überarb. u. erw. Aufl. 2012 ed.), Wiesbaden: Vieweg+Teubner Verlag, p. 111, ISBN 978-3-8348-2348-9
19. Rolf Busam (2006), Funktionentheorie 1 (in German) (4., korr. und erw. Aufl ed.), Berlin: Springer, p. 286, ISBN 978-3-540-32058-6
20. Rolf Busam (2006), Funktionentheorie 1 (in German) (4., korr. und erw. Aufl ed.), Berlin: Springer, p. 287, ISBN 978-3-540-32058-6
21. Rolf Busam (2006), Funktionentheorie 1 (in German) (4., korr. und erw. Aufl ed.), Berlin: Springer, p. 288, ISBN 978-3-540-32058-6
22. teika kazura (2017-08-17), The letter ℘ Name & origin?, MathOverflow, retrieved 2018-08-30
23. "Known Anomalies in Unicode Character Names". Unicode Technical Note #27. version 4. Unicode, Inc. 2017-04-10. Retrieved 2017-07-20.
24. "NameAliases-10.0.0.txt". Unicode, Inc. 2017-05-06. Retrieved 2017-07-20.

• Abramowitz, Milton; Stegun, Irene Ann, eds. (1983) [June 1964]. "Chapter 18". Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. Applied Mathematics Series. Vol. 55 (Ninth reprint with additional corrections of tenth original printing with corrections (December 1972); first ed.). Washington D.C.; New York: United States Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards; Dover Publications. p. 627. ISBN 978-0-486-61272-0. LCCN 64-60036. MR 0167642. LCCN 65-12253.
• N. I. Akhiezer, Elements of the Theory of Elliptic Functions, (1970) Moscow, translated into English as AMS Translations of Mathematical Monographs Volume 79 (1990) AMS, Rhode Island ISBN 0-8218-4532-2
• Tom M. Apostol, Modular Functions and Dirichlet Series in Number Theory, Second Edition (1990), Springer, New York ISBN 0-387-97127-0 (See chapter 1.)
• K. Chandrasekharan, Elliptic functions (1980), Springer-Verlag ISBN 0-387-15295-4
• Konrad Knopp, Funktionentheorie II (1947), Dover Publications; Republished in English translation as Theory of Functions (1996), Dover Publications ISBN 0-486-69219-1
• Serge Lang, Elliptic Functions (1973), Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-04162-6
• E. T. Whittaker and G. N. Watson, A Course of Modern Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 1952, chapters 20 and 21

External links

 

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Weierstrass's elliptic functions.

• "Weierstrass elliptic functions", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
• Weierstrass's elliptic functions on Mathworld.
• Chapter 23, Weierstrass Elliptic and Modular Functions in DLMF (Digital Library of Mathematical Functions) by W. P. Reinhardt and P. L. Walker.
• Weierstrass P function and its derivative implemented in C by David Dumas