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Snowy albatross

January 01, 1970

The snowy albatross (Diomedea exulans), also known as the white-winged albatross or goonie, is a large seabird from the family Diomedeidae; they have a circumpolar range in the Southern Ocean. It is the most recently described species of albatross and was long considered to be the same species as the Tristan albatross and the Antipodean albatross. Together with the Amsterdam albatross, it forms the wandering albatross species complex. When the complex was split into four species, the English name of the nominate form was changed from wandering albatross to snowy albatross.

Snowy albatross
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Procellariiformes
Family: Diomedeidae
Genus: Diomedea
Species:
D. exulans
Binomial name
Diomedea exulans
Synonyms

Diomedea chionoptera

The snowy albatross is one of the two largest members of the genus Diomedea (the great albatrosses), being similar in size to the southern royal albatross. It has the greatest known wingspan of any living bird and is also one of the most far-ranging birds. Some individual snowy albatrosses are known to circumnavigate the Southern Ocean three times, covering more than 120,000 km (75,000 mi), in one year.

Taxonomy edit

The snowy albatross was first described as Diomedea exulans by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, based on a specimen from the Cape of Good Hope.[3] Diomedea refers to Diomedes from Greek mythology whose companions turned to birds, and exulans or exsul are Latin for "exile" or "wanderer" referring to its extensive flights.[4] The type locality has been restricted to South Georgia.[5]

Some experts considered there to be four subspecies of D. exulans, which they elevated to species status, and use the term wandering albatross to refer to a species complex that includes the proposed species D. antipodensis, D. dabbenena, D. exulans, and D. gibsoni.[6]

Description edit

The plumage varies with age, with the juveniles starting chocolate brown. As they age they become whiter.[3] The adults have white bodies with black and white wings. Males have whiter wings than females, with just the tips and trailing edges of the wings black. The snowy albatross is the whitest of the wandering albatross species complex, the other species having a great deal more brown and black on the wings and body, very closely resembling immature wandering albatrosses. The large bill is pink, as are the feet.[7] They also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. They excrete a high saline solution from their nose, which is a probable cause for the pink-yellow stain seen on some animals' necks.[8][9]

Size edit

 
In flight

The snowy albatross has the longest wingspan of any living bird, reaching upwards of 3.5 m (11 ft),[10][11] with a mean span of 3.1 m (10 ft 2 in) in Bird Island, South Georgia. Wingspan measured an average of 3 m (9 ft 10 in) in 123 birds measured off the coast of Malabar, New South Wales.[3][12][13] On the Crozet Islands, adults averaged 3.05 m (10 ft 0 in) in wingspan.[14] The longest-winged specimens have been about 3.7 m (12 ft 2 in).[13] Two specimens have been reported having wingspans of 4.22 m (13 ft 10 in) and 5.3 m (17 ft 5 in), but these reports remain unverified.[13] As a result of its large wingspan, it is capable of remaining in the air without flapping its wings for several hours at a time (traveling 22m for every meter of drop).[15] The length of the body is about 107 to 135 cm (3 ft 6 in to 4 ft 5 in)[12] with females being slightly smaller than males.[16][7]

Adults can weigh from 5.9 to 12.7 kg (13 to 28 lb), although most will weigh 6.35 to 11.91 kg (14.0 to 26.3 lb).[3][13][17][18] On Macquarie Island, three males averaged 8.4 kg (19 lb) and three females averaged 6.2 kg (14 lb).[19] In parts of the Crozet Islands, males averaged 9.44 kg (20.8 lb) while females averaged 7.84 kg (17.3 lb).[14] However, 10 unsexed adults from the Crozet Islands averaged 9.6 kg (21 lb).[20] On South Georgia, 52 males were found to average 9.11 kg (20.1 lb) while 53 females were found to average 7.27 kg (16.0 lb).[21] On Île de la Possession, adult male snowy albatrosses averaged 10.92 kg (24.1 lb) while adult females averaged 8.87 kg (19.6 lb).[22] Another sampling of adult body masses from the same colony found males to average 11.09 kg (24.4 lb) and females to average 9.1 kg (20 lb).[23] Immature birds have been recorded weighing as much as 16.1 kg (35 lb) during their first flights (at which time they may still have fat reserves that will be shed as they continue to fly).[13] On South Georgia, fledglings were found to average 10.9 kg (24 lb).[24] Albatrosses from outside the "snowy" wandering albatross group (D. exulans) are smaller but are now generally deemed to belong to different species.[21][25]

Distribution and habitat edit

The snowy albatross breeds on South Georgia Island, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, Prince Edward Islands, and Macquarie Island, is seen feeding year-round off the Kaikōura Peninsula on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand,[26] and ranges in all the southern oceans from 28° to 60°.[1] Some individual snowy albatrosses are known to circumnavigate the Southern Ocean three times, covering more than 120,000 km (75,000 mi), in one year.[27] Snowy albatrosses spend most of their life in flight, landing only to breed and feed. Distances traveled each year are difficult to measure, but one banded bird was recorded traveling 6,000 km (3,700 mi) in twelve days.[7][28]

Behavior edit

Feeding edit

 
Snowy albatrosses have the longest wingspan of any living bird.

Snowy albatrosses travel vast distances and tend to feed further out in open oceans whereas other albatross, such as the related royal albatross in general tend to forage in somewhat shallower waters and closer to continental shelves.[29] At flight, speeds of 135 km/h (84 mph) have been recorded.[11] They also tend to forage in colder waters further south than other albatrosses. They feed on cephalopods, small fish, and crustaceans.[3][30] They are prone to following ships. They can also make shallow dives.[31]

Reproduction edit

 
Egg of Diomedea exulans

The snowy albatross mates for life and breeds every other year.[16] At breeding time they occupy loose colonies on isolated island groups in the Southern Ocean. When courting they will spread their wings, wave their heads, and rap their bills together while braying.[7] Wanderers have a large range of displays from screams and whistles to grunts and bill clapping.[3] They lay one egg that is white, with a few spots, and is about 10 cm (3.9 in) long. They lay between 10 December and 5 January. The nests are large bowls built of grassy vegetation and soil peat,[3] that is 1 meter wide at the base and half a meter wide at the apex. Incubation takes about 11 weeks and both parents are involved.[16] The 11-week incubation period is among the longest of any bird.[32] During the early stages of the chick's development, the parents take turns sitting on the nest while the other searches for food. Later, both adults search for food and visit the chick at irregular intervals.[33] Researchers previously assumed that chicks went without food for the whole winter after a weaning period of roughly 12 to 16 weeks. Later studies disproved this concept, as chicks were found to be feeding during this period.[34] They are a monogamous species, usually for life. Adolescents return to the colony within six years; however, they will not start breeding until 11 to 15 years.[12] About 31.5% of fledglings survive.[3] They can live for over 50 years.[35]

Relationship with humans edit

Individual taking off

Sailors used to capture the birds for their long wing bones, from which they made tobacco pipe stems. The early explorers of the great Southern Sea were cheered by the companionship of the albatross in their dreary solitudes, and the evil fate of him who shot with his cross-bow the "bird of good omen" is familiar to readers of Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. The metaphor of "an albatross around his neck" also comes from the poem and indicates an unwanted burden causing anxiety or hindrance. In the days of sail the bird often accompanied ships for days, not merely following it, but wheeling in wide circles around it without ever being observed to land on the water. It continued its flight, apparently untired, in tempestuous as well as moderate weather.[36]

The Māori of New Zealand used albatrosses as a food source. They caught them by baiting hooks.[37] Because the wing bones of albatross were light but very strong Māori used these to create a number of different items including kōauau (flutes),[38] needles, tattooing chisel blades,[39] and barbs for fish hooks.[40]

Conservation edit

 
Snowy albatross at South Georgia Island

The IUCN lists the snowy albatross as vulnerable status.[1] Adult mortality is 5% to 7.8% per year as of 2003.[3] It has an occurrence range of 64,700,000 km2 (25,000,000 sq mi), although its breeding range is only 1,900 km2 (730 sq mi).[7]

The biggest threat to their survival is longline fishing; however, pollution, mainly plastics and fishing hooks, is also taking a toll. The CCAMLR has introduced measures to reduce bycatch of albatrosses around South Georgia by 99%, and other regional fishing commissions are taking similar measures to reduce fatalities. The Prince Edward Islands are a nature preserve, and the Macquarie Islands are a World Heritage site. Finally, large parts of the Crozet Islands and the Kerguelen Islands are nature reserves.[7]

References edit

  1. ^ a b c BirdLife International (2018). "Diomedea exulans". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22698305A132640680. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22698305A132640680.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ Brands, Sheila (14 August 2008). . Project: The Taxonomicon. Archived from the original on 21 February 2009. Retrieved 12 February 2009.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Robertson, C. J. R. (2003). "Albatrosses (Diomedeidae)". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 113–116, 118–119. ISBN 978-0-7876-5784-0.
  4. ^ Gotch, A. F. (1995) [1979]. "Albatrosses, Fulmars, Shearwaters, and Petrels". Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals. New York, NY: Facts on File. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-8160-3377-5.
  5. ^ Schodde, Richard; Tennyson, Alan J.D.; Groth, Jeff G.; Lai, Jonas; Scofield, Paul; Steinheimer, Frank D. (2017). "Settling the name Diomedea exulans Linnaeus, 1758 for the Wandering Albatross by neotypification". Zootaxa. 4236 (1): 135. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4236.1.7. PMID 28264342.
  6. ^ Burg, T. M.; Croxall, J. P. (2004). "Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex" (PDF). Molecular Ecology. 13 (8): 2345–2355. Bibcode:2004MolEc..13.2345B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02232.x. PMID 15245406. S2CID 28479284.
  7. ^ a b c d e f BirdLife International (2008). "Wandering Albatross – BirdLife Species Factsheet". Data Zone. from the original on 2 January 2009. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
  8. ^ Ehrlich, Paul R.; Dobkin, David, S.; Wheye, Darryl (1988). The Birders Handbook (First ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. pp. 29–31. ISBN 978-0-671-65989-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Tickell, W.L.N. (2011). "Plumage contamination on Wandering Albatrosses – an aerodynamic model". Sea Swallow. 60: 67–69.
  10. ^ Sanchez, Gerardo; Salazar, Ryan D.; Hassanalian, Mostafa; Abdelkefi, Abdessattar (8 January 2018). "Sizing and performance analysis of albatross-inspired tilt-wing unmanned air vehicle". Dynamic Loads, Response, and Stability of Aerospace Vehicles. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2018-1445. ISBN 978-1-62410-532-6.
  11. ^ a b Barwell, Graham (15 October 2013). Albatross. Reaktion Books. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-1-78023-214-0.
  12. ^ a b c Dunn, Jon L.; Alderfer, Jonathon (2006). "Accidentals, Extinct Species". In Levitt, Barbara (ed.). National Geographic Field Guide to the Birds of North America (fifth ed.). Washington D.C.: National Geographic Society. p. 467. ISBN 978-0-7922-5314-3.
  13. ^ a b c d e Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
  14. ^ a b Shaffer, S. A.; Weimerskirch, H.; Costa, D. P. (2001). "Functional significance of sexual dimorphism in Wandering Albatrosses, Diomedea exulans". Functional Ecology. 15 (2): 203–210. Bibcode:2001FuEco..15..203S. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2435.2001.00514.x. S2CID 49358426.
  15. ^ Rattenborg, Niels, C. (2006). "Do Birds Sleep in Flight?". Naturwissenschaften. 93 (9): 413–425. Bibcode:2006NW.....93..413R. doi:10.1007/s00114-006-0120-3. PMID 16688436. S2CID 1736369.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ a b c Harrison, Colin; Greensmith, Alan (1993). "Non-Passerines". In Bunting, Edward (ed.). Birds of the World (First ed.). New York, NY: Dorling Kindersley. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-56458-295-9.
  17. ^ Wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans). arkive.org 15 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine/
  18. ^ "Encyclopedia of the Antarctic, v. 1 & v. 2. Beau Riffenburgh (Editor). Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-97024-2.
  19. ^ CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), ISBN 978-0-8493-4258-5.
  20. ^ Weimerskirch, H.; Shaffer, S. A.; Mabille, G.; Martin, J.; Boutard, O.; Rouanet, J. L. (2002). "Heart rate and energy expenditure of incubating wandering albatrosses: basal levels, natural variation, and the effects of human disturbance". Journal of Experimental Biology. 205 (4): 475–483. doi:10.1242/jeb.205.4.475. PMID 11893761. from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  21. ^ a b CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.
  22. ^ Shaffer, S. A., Costa, D. P., & Weimerskirch, H. (2003). Foraging effort in relation to the constraints of reproduction in free-ranging albatrosses. Functional Ecology, 66-74.
  23. ^ Weimerskirch, H., Cherel, Y., Cuenot-Chaillet, F., & Ridoux, V. (1997). Alternative foraging strategies and resource allocation by male and female wandering albatrosses. Ecology, 78(7), 2051-2063.
  24. ^ Xavier, J.; Croxall, J.; Trathan, P.; Rodhouse, P. (2003). "Inter-annual variation in the cephalopod component of the diet of the wandering albatross, Diomedea exulans, breeding at Bird Island, South Georgia". Marine Biology. 142 (3): 611–622. Bibcode:2003MarBi.142..611X. doi:10.1007/s00227-002-0962-y. S2CID 83466498.
  25. ^ Burg, T. M.; Croxall, J. P. (2004). "Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex". Molecular Ecology. 13 (8): 2345–2355. Bibcode:2004MolEc..13.2345B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2004.02232.x. PMID 15245406. S2CID 28479284.
  26. ^ Shirihai, Hadoram (2002) [2002]. "Great Albatrosses". Antarctic Wildlife The birds and mammals. Finland: Alula Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-951-98947-0-6.
  27. ^ Weimerskirch, Henri; Delord, Karine; Guitteaud, Audrey; Phillips, Richard A.; Pinet, Patrick (2015). "Extreme variation in migration strategies between and within snowy albatross populations during their sabbatical year and their fitness consequences". Scientific Reports. 5: 8853. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E8853W. doi:10.1038/srep08853. PMC 4352845. PMID 25747757.
  28. ^ Richardson, Michael (27 Sep 2002). "Endangered seabirds / New fishing techniques undercut an old talisman : Modern mariners pose rising threat to the albatross. 2009-02-21 at the Wayback Machine" Herald Tribune.
  29. ^ Imber, M.J. (1999). "Diet and Feeding Ecology of the Royal Albatross Diomedea epomophora – King of the Shelf Break and Inner Slope". Emu - Austral Ornithology. 99 (3): 200–211. Bibcode:1999EmuAO..99..200I. doi:10.1071/MU99023.
  30. ^ Croxall, J. P.; North, A. W.; Prince, P. A. (1 October 1988). "Fish prey of the Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans at South Georgia". Polar Biology. 9 (1): 9–16. Bibcode:1988PoBio...9....9C. doi:10.1007/BF00441760. ISSN 1432-2056. S2CID 27754838.
  31. ^ Weimerskirch, H; Wilson, RP (1992). "When do wandering albatrosses Diomedea exulans forage?". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 86: 297–300. Bibcode:1992MEPS...86..297W. doi:10.3354/meps086297. ISSN 0171-8630.
  32. ^ "What to expect on Royal Cam". www.doc.govt.nz. from the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  33. ^ Tickell, W. L. N. (23 March 2013), "The Biology of the Great Albatrosses, Diomedea Exulahs and Diomedea Epomophora", in Austin, Oliver L. (ed.), Antarctic Bird Studies, Antarctic Research Series, Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, pp. 1–56, doi:10.1029/ar012p0001, ISBN 978-1-118-66914-3, retrieved 14 February 2024
  34. ^ Berrow, Simon D.; Croxall, John P. (1 May 2001). "Provisioning Rate and Attendance Patterns of Wandering Albatrosses at Bird Island, South Georgia". The Condor. 103 (2): 230–239. doi:10.1093/condor/103.2.230. ISSN 0010-5422.
  35. ^ Is foraging efficiency a key parameter in aging? 16 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Physorg (23 March 2010)
  36. ^   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Albatross". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 491.
  37. ^ "Matau Toroa (Albatross hook)". Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  38. ^ "Koauau (flute)". Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  39. ^ "Uhi Ta Moko (tattooing instruments)". Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  40. ^ "Matau (fish hook)". Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. from the original on 24 May 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2010.

Further reading edit

  • Lindsey, Terence (1986). The Seabirds of Australia. Angus & Robertson. ISBN 978-0-207-15192-7.
  • Marchant, Stephen; Higgins, Peter Jeffrey (1990). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds: Ratites to ducks. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-553068-1.
  • Parmelee, David Freeland (1980). Bird Island in Antarctic Waters. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-0937-6.
  • Lindsey, Terence (22 June 2008). Albatrosses. Csiro Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-09852-7.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diomedea exulans.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Diomedea exulans.
  • Species factsheet – BirdLife International
  • – ARKive
  • Video, photos and sounds – Internet Bird Collection
  • Holotype photos – Collections Online, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
  • Do albatrosses have personalities? – Video, Te Papa Channel, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
  • Slide show – Expeditionsail

January 01, 1970
snowy, albatross, snowy, albatross, diomedea, exulans, also, known, white, winged, albatross, goonie, large, seabird, from, family, diomedeidae, they, have, circumpolar, range, southern, ocean, most, recently, described, species, albatross, long, considered, s. The snowy albatross Diomedea exulans also known as the white winged albatross or goonie is a large seabird from the family Diomedeidae they have a circumpolar range in the Southern Ocean It is the most recently described species of albatross and was long considered to be the same species as the Tristan albatross and the Antipodean albatross Together with the Amsterdam albatross it forms the wandering albatross species complex When the complex was split into four species the English name of the nominate form was changed from wandering albatross to snowy albatross Snowy albatross Conservation status Vulnerable IUCN 3 1 1 Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Aves Order Procellariiformes Family Diomedeidae Genus Diomedea Species D exulans Binomial name Diomedea exulansLinnaeus 1758 2 Synonyms Diomedea chionoptera The snowy albatross is one of the two largest members of the genus Diomedea the great albatrosses being similar in size to the southern royal albatross It has the greatest known wingspan of any living bird and is also one of the most far ranging birds Some individual snowy albatrosses are known to circumnavigate the Southern Ocean three times covering more than 120 000 km 75 000 mi in one year Contents 1 Taxonomy 2 Description 2 1 Size 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Behavior 4 1 Feeding 4 2 Reproduction 5 Relationship with humans 5 1 Conservation 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External linksTaxonomy editThe snowy albatross was first described as Diomedea exulans by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 based on a specimen from the Cape of Good Hope 3 Diomedea refers to Diomedes from Greek mythology whose companions turned to birds and exulans or exsul are Latin for exile or wanderer referring to its extensive flights 4 The type locality has been restricted to South Georgia 5 Some experts considered there to be four subspecies of D exulans which they elevated to species status and use the term wandering albatross to refer to a species complex that includes the proposed species D antipodensis D dabbenena D exulans and D gibsoni 6 Description editThe plumage varies with age with the juveniles starting chocolate brown As they age they become whiter 3 The adults have white bodies with black and white wings Males have whiter wings than females with just the tips and trailing edges of the wings black The snowy albatross is the whitest of the wandering albatross species complex the other species having a great deal more brown and black on the wings and body very closely resembling immature wandering albatrosses The large bill is pink as are the feet 7 They also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe They excrete a high saline solution from their nose which is a probable cause for the pink yellow stain seen on some animals necks 8 9 Size edit nbsp In flight The snowy albatross has the longest wingspan of any living bird reaching upwards of 3 5 m 11 ft 10 11 with a mean span of 3 1 m 10 ft 2 in in Bird Island South Georgia Wingspan measured an average of 3 m 9 ft 10 in in 123 birds measured off the coast of Malabar New South Wales 3 12 13 On the Crozet Islands adults averaged 3 05 m 10 ft 0 in in wingspan 14 The longest winged specimens have been about 3 7 m 12 ft 2 in 13 Two specimens have been reported having wingspans of 4 22 m 13 ft 10 in and 5 3 m 17 ft 5 in but these reports remain unverified 13 As a result of its large wingspan it is capable of remaining in the air without flapping its wings for several hours at a time traveling 22m for every meter of drop 15 The length of the body is about 107 to 135 cm 3 ft 6 in to 4 ft 5 in 12 with females being slightly smaller than males 16 7 Adults can weigh from 5 9 to 12 7 kg 13 to 28 lb although most will weigh 6 35 to 11 91 kg 14 0 to 26 3 lb 3 13 17 18 On Macquarie Island three males averaged 8 4 kg 19 lb and three females averaged 6 2 kg 14 lb 19 In parts of the Crozet Islands males averaged 9 44 kg 20 8 lb while females averaged 7 84 kg 17 3 lb 14 However 10 unsexed adults from the Crozet Islands averaged 9 6 kg 21 lb 20 On South Georgia 52 males were found to average 9 11 kg 20 1 lb while 53 females were found to average 7 27 kg 16 0 lb 21 On Ile de la Possession adult male snowy albatrosses averaged 10 92 kg 24 1 lb while adult females averaged 8 87 kg 19 6 lb 22 Another sampling of adult body masses from the same colony found males to average 11 09 kg 24 4 lb and females to average 9 1 kg 20 lb 23 Immature birds have been recorded weighing as much as 16 1 kg 35 lb during their first flights at which time they may still have fat reserves that will be shed as they continue to fly 13 On South Georgia fledglings were found to average 10 9 kg 24 lb 24 Albatrosses from outside the snowy wandering albatross group D exulans are smaller but are now generally deemed to belong to different species 21 25 Distribution and habitat editThe snowy albatross breeds on South Georgia Island Crozet Islands Kerguelen Islands Prince Edward Islands and Macquarie Island is seen feeding year round off the Kaikōura Peninsula on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand 26 and ranges in all the southern oceans from 28 to 60 1 Some individual snowy albatrosses are known to circumnavigate the Southern Ocean three times covering more than 120 000 km 75 000 mi in one year 27 Snowy albatrosses spend most of their life in flight landing only to breed and feed Distances traveled each year are difficult to measure but one banded bird was recorded traveling 6 000 km 3 700 mi in twelve days 7 28 Behavior editFeeding edit nbsp Snowy albatrosses have the longest wingspan of any living bird Snowy albatrosses travel vast distances and tend to feed further out in open oceans whereas other albatross such as the related royal albatross in general tend to forage in somewhat shallower waters and closer to continental shelves 29 At flight speeds of 135 km h 84 mph have been recorded 11 They also tend to forage in colder waters further south than other albatrosses They feed on cephalopods small fish and crustaceans 3 30 They are prone to following ships They can also make shallow dives 31 Reproduction edit nbsp Egg of Diomedea exulans The snowy albatross mates for life and breeds every other year 16 At breeding time they occupy loose colonies on isolated island groups in the Southern Ocean When courting they will spread their wings wave their heads and rap their bills together while braying 7 Wanderers have a large range of displays from screams and whistles to grunts and bill clapping 3 They lay one egg that is white with a few spots and is about 10 cm 3 9 in long They lay between 10 December and 5 January The nests are large bowls built of grassy vegetation and soil peat 3 that is 1 meter wide at the base and half a meter wide at the apex Incubation takes about 11 weeks and both parents are involved 16 The 11 week incubation period is among the longest of any bird 32 During the early stages of the chick s development the parents take turns sitting on the nest while the other searches for food Later both adults search for food and visit the chick at irregular intervals 33 Researchers previously assumed that chicks went without food for the whole winter after a weaning period of roughly 12 to 16 weeks Later studies disproved this concept as chicks were found to be feeding during this period 34 They are a monogamous species usually for life Adolescents return to the colony within six years however they will not start breeding until 11 to 15 years 12 About 31 5 of fledglings survive 3 They can live for over 50 years 35 Relationship with humans editThis section s tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia See Wikipedia s guide to writing better articles for suggestions March 2024 Learn how and when to remove this template message source source source source source source Individual taking off Sailors used to capture the birds for their long wing bones from which they made tobacco pipe stems The early explorers of the great Southern Sea were cheered by the companionship of the albatross in their dreary solitudes and the evil fate of him who shot with his cross bow the bird of good omen is familiar to readers of Coleridge s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner The metaphor of an albatross around his neck also comes from the poem and indicates an unwanted burden causing anxiety or hindrance In the days of sail the bird often accompanied ships for days not merely following it but wheeling in wide circles around it without ever being observed to land on the water It continued its flight apparently untired in tempestuous as well as moderate weather 36 The Maori of New Zealand used albatrosses as a food source They caught them by baiting hooks 37 Because the wing bones of albatross were light but very strong Maori used these to create a number of different items including kōauau flutes 38 needles tattooing chisel blades 39 and barbs for fish hooks 40 Conservation edit nbsp Snowy albatross at South Georgia Island The IUCN lists the snowy albatross as vulnerable status 1 Adult mortality is 5 to 7 8 per year as of 2003 3 It has an occurrence range of 64 700 000 km2 25 000 000 sq mi although its breeding range is only 1 900 km2 730 sq mi 7 The biggest threat to their survival is longline fishing however pollution mainly plastics and fishing hooks is also taking a toll The CCAMLR has introduced measures to reduce bycatch of albatrosses around South Georgia by 99 and other regional fishing commissions are taking similar measures to reduce fatalities The Prince Edward Islands are a nature preserve and the Macquarie Islands are a World Heritage site Finally large parts of the Crozet Islands and the Kerguelen Islands are nature reserves 7 References edit a b c BirdLife International 2018 Diomedea exulans IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018 e T22698305A132640680 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2018 2 RLTS T22698305A132640680 en Retrieved 19 November 2021 Brands Sheila 14 August 2008 Systema Naturae 2000 Classification Diomedea subg Diomedea Project The Taxonomicon Archived from the original on 21 February 2009 Retrieved 12 February 2009 a b c d e f g h i Robertson C J R 2003 Albatrosses Diomedeidae In Hutchins Michael ed Grzimek s Animal Life Encyclopedia Vol 8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins 2nd ed Farmington Hills MI Gale Group pp 113 116 118 119 ISBN 978 0 7876 5784 0 Gotch A F 1995 1979 Albatrosses Fulmars Shearwaters and Petrels Latin Names Explained A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles Birds amp Mammals New York NY Facts on File p 191 ISBN 978 0 8160 3377 5 Schodde Richard Tennyson Alan J D Groth Jeff G Lai Jonas Scofield Paul Steinheimer Frank D 2017 Settling the name Diomedea exulans Linnaeus 1758 for the Wandering Albatross by neotypification Zootaxa 4236 1 135 doi 10 11646 zootaxa 4236 1 7 PMID 28264342 Burg T M Croxall J P 2004 Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex PDF Molecular Ecology 13 8 2345 2355 Bibcode 2004MolEc 13 2345B doi 10 1111 j 1365 294X 2004 02232 x PMID 15245406 S2CID 28479284 a b c d e f BirdLife International 2008 Wandering Albatross BirdLife Species Factsheet Data Zone Archived from the original on 2 January 2009 Retrieved 17 February 2009 Ehrlich Paul R Dobkin David S Wheye Darryl 1988 The Birders Handbook First ed New York NY Simon amp Schuster pp 29 31 ISBN 978 0 671 65989 9 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Tickell W L N 2011 Plumage contamination on Wandering Albatrosses an aerodynamic model Sea Swallow 60 67 69 Sanchez Gerardo Salazar Ryan D Hassanalian Mostafa Abdelkefi Abdessattar 8 January 2018 Sizing and performance analysis of albatross inspired tilt wing unmanned air vehicle Dynamic Loads Response and Stability of Aerospace Vehicles American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics doi 10 2514 6 2018 1445 ISBN 978 1 62410 532 6 a b Barwell Graham 15 October 2013 Albatross Reaktion Books pp 12 14 ISBN 978 1 78023 214 0 a b c Dunn Jon L Alderfer Jonathon 2006 Accidentals Extinct Species In Levitt Barbara ed National Geographic Field Guide to the Birds of North America fifth ed Washington D C National Geographic Society p 467 ISBN 978 0 7922 5314 3 a b c d e Wood Gerald 1983 The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats Guinness Superlatives ISBN 978 0 85112 235 9 a b Shaffer S A Weimerskirch H Costa D P 2001 Functional significance of sexual dimorphism in Wandering Albatrosses Diomedea exulans Functional Ecology 15 2 203 210 Bibcode 2001FuEco 15 203S doi 10 1046 j 1365 2435 2001 00514 x S2CID 49358426 Rattenborg Niels C 2006 Do Birds Sleep in Flight Naturwissenschaften 93 9 413 425 Bibcode 2006NW 93 413R doi 10 1007 s00114 006 0120 3 PMID 16688436 S2CID 1736369 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c Harrison Colin Greensmith Alan 1993 Non Passerines In Bunting Edward ed Birds of the World First ed New York NY Dorling Kindersley p 48 ISBN 978 1 56458 295 9 Wandering albatross Diomedea exulans arkive org Archived 15 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedia of the Antarctic v 1 amp v 2 Beau Riffenburgh Editor Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 97024 2 CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B Dunning Jr Editor CRC Press 1992 ISBN 978 0 8493 4258 5 Weimerskirch H Shaffer S A Mabille G Martin J Boutard O Rouanet J L 2002 Heart rate and energy expenditure of incubating wandering albatrosses basal levels natural variation and the effects of human disturbance Journal of Experimental Biology 205 4 475 483 doi 10 1242 jeb 205 4 475 PMID 11893761 Archived from the original on 29 November 2021 Retrieved 19 February 2022 a b CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses 2nd Edition by John B Dunning Jr Editor CRC Press 2008 ISBN 978 1 4200 6444 5 Shaffer S A Costa D P amp Weimerskirch H 2003 Foraging effort in relation to the constraints of reproduction in free ranging albatrosses Functional Ecology 66 74 Weimerskirch H Cherel Y Cuenot Chaillet F amp Ridoux V 1997 Alternative foraging strategies and resource allocation by male and female wandering albatrosses Ecology 78 7 2051 2063 Xavier J Croxall J Trathan P Rodhouse P 2003 Inter annual variation in the cephalopod component of the diet of the wandering albatross Diomedea exulans breeding at Bird Island South Georgia Marine Biology 142 3 611 622 Bibcode 2003MarBi 142 611X doi 10 1007 s00227 002 0962 y S2CID 83466498 Burg T M Croxall J P 2004 Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex Molecular Ecology 13 8 2345 2355 Bibcode 2004MolEc 13 2345B doi 10 1111 j 1365 294x 2004 02232 x PMID 15245406 S2CID 28479284 Shirihai Hadoram 2002 2002 Great Albatrosses Antarctic Wildlife The birds and mammals Finland Alula Press p 90 ISBN 978 951 98947 0 6 Weimerskirch Henri Delord Karine Guitteaud Audrey Phillips Richard A Pinet Patrick 2015 Extreme variation in migration strategies between and within snowy albatross populations during their sabbatical year and their fitness consequences Scientific Reports 5 8853 Bibcode 2015NatSR 5E8853W doi 10 1038 srep08853 PMC 4352845 PMID 25747757 Richardson Michael 27 Sep 2002 Endangered seabirds New fishing techniques undercut an old talisman Modern mariners pose rising threat to the albatross Archived 2009 02 21 at the Wayback Machine Herald Tribune Imber M J 1999 Diet and Feeding Ecology of the Royal Albatross Diomedea epomophora King of the Shelf Break and Inner Slope Emu Austral Ornithology 99 3 200 211 Bibcode 1999EmuAO 99 200I doi 10 1071 MU99023 Croxall J P North A W Prince P A 1 October 1988 Fish prey of the Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans at South Georgia Polar Biology 9 1 9 16 Bibcode 1988PoBio 9 9C doi 10 1007 BF00441760 ISSN 1432 2056 S2CID 27754838 Weimerskirch H Wilson RP 1992 When do wandering albatrosses Diomedea exulans forage Marine Ecology Progress Series 86 297 300 Bibcode 1992MEPS 86 297W doi 10 3354 meps086297 ISSN 0171 8630 What to expect on Royal Cam www doc govt nz Archived from the original on 29 January 2022 Retrieved 14 February 2022 Tickell W L N 23 March 2013 The Biology of the Great Albatrosses Diomedea Exulahs and Diomedea Epomophora in Austin Oliver L ed Antarctic Bird Studies Antarctic Research Series Washington D C American Geophysical Union pp 1 56 doi 10 1029 ar012p0001 ISBN 978 1 118 66914 3 retrieved 14 February 2024 Berrow Simon D Croxall John P 1 May 2001 Provisioning Rate and Attendance Patterns of Wandering Albatrosses at Bird Island South Georgia The Condor 103 2 230 239 doi 10 1093 condor 103 2 230 ISSN 0010 5422 Is foraging efficiency a key parameter in aging Archived 16 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Physorg 23 March 2010 nbsp This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Albatross Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 1 11th ed Cambridge University Press p 491 Matau Toroa Albatross hook Collections Online Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Archived from the original on 24 October 2012 Retrieved 17 July 2010 Koauau flute Collections Online Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Archived from the original on 24 October 2012 Retrieved 17 July 2010 Uhi Ta Moko tattooing instruments Collections Online Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Archived from the original on 24 October 2012 Retrieved 17 July 2010 Matau fish hook Collections Online Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Archived from the original on 24 May 2010 Retrieved 17 July 2010 Further reading editLindsey Terence 1986 The Seabirds of Australia Angus amp Robertson ISBN 978 0 207 15192 7 Marchant Stephen Higgins Peter Jeffrey 1990 Handbook of Australian New Zealand and Antarctic Birds Ratites to ducks Vol 1 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 553068 1 Parmelee David Freeland 1980 Bird Island in Antarctic Waters University of Minnesota Press ISBN 978 0 8166 0937 6 Lindsey Terence 22 June 2008 Albatrosses Csiro Publishing ISBN 978 0 643 09852 7 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diomedea exulans nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Diomedea exulans Species factsheet BirdLife International Fact file ARKive Video photos and sounds Internet Bird Collection Holotype photos Collections Online Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Do albatrosses have personalities Video Te Papa Channel Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Slide show Expeditionsail Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Snowy albatross amp oldid 1217691362, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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