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Symphyla

January 01, 1970

Not to be confused with Symphyta.

Symphylans, also known as garden centipedes or pseudocentipedes, are soil-dwelling arthropods of the class Symphyla in the subphylum Myriapoda. Symphylans resemble centipedes, but are very small, non-venomous, and only distantly related to both centipedes and millipedes.[1][2] More than 200 species are known worldwide.[3]

Symphyla
Temporal range: 99–0 Ma Mid Cretaceous to Present
Scutigerella sp. (Scutigerellidae)
Scollopendrellid symphylan (Scolopendrellidae)
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Myriapoda
Class: Symphyla
Ryder, 1880
Families

Scutigerellidae
Scolopendrellidae

Symphyla are primarily herbivores and detritus feeders living deep in the soil, under stones, in decaying wood, and in other moist places.[4] They are rapid runners,[4] can move quickly through the pores between soil particles, and are typically found from the surface down to a depth of about 50 centimetres (20 in). They consume decaying vegetation, but can do considerable harm in an agricultural setting by consuming seeds, roots, and root hairs in cultivated soil.[1][2] For example, the garden symphylan, Scutigerella immaculata can be a pest of crops. A species of Hanseniella has been recorded as a pest of sugar cane and pineapples in Queensland.[5][6] A few species are found in trees[7][8] and in caves.[9] A species of Symphylella has been shown to be predominantly predatory,[10] and some species are saprophagous.

Description edit

 
Several individuals of Scutigerella sp., showing their small size

Symphyla are small, cryptic myriapods without eyes and without pigment.[4] The body is soft and generally 2 to 10 millimetres (0.08 to 0.4 in) long, divided into two body regions: head and trunk.[4] An exceptional size is reached in Hanseniella magna, which attains lengths of 25 to 30 mm (1.0 to 1.2 in).[11]

The head has long, segmented antennae, a postantennal organ, three pairs of mouthparts: mandibles, the long first maxillae, and the second pair of maxillae which are fused to form the lower lip or labium of the mouth. The antennae serve as sense organs. Disc-like organs of Tömösváry, which probably sense vibrations, are attached to the base of the antennae, as they are in centipedes.[2]

The trunk comprises 15–24 segments, which are protected by overlapping dorsal plates. Ten or twelve segments bear legs. The first segment is large and usually provided with a pair of legs, the last segment is slender, lacks legs, and possesses a pair of cerci. Symphylans have been reported as living up to four years, and moult throughout their life.[2] Immature individuals have six pairs of legs on hatching, but they add an additional pair at each moult until the adult instar, which usually has twelve pairs of legs.[12][13] This mode of development is known as hemianamorphosis.[14] Although most adult symphylans have twelve leg pairs, the first pair is absent or vestigial in some species (e.g., those in the genus Symphylella), so adults in some species have only eleven leg pairs.[15][16]

Symphylans have several features linking them to early insects, such as a labium (fused second maxillae), an identical number of head segments and certain features of their legs.[1] Each pair of legs is associated with an eversible structure, called a "coxal sac", that helps the animal absorb moisture, and a small stylus that may be sensory in function. Similar structures are found in the most primitive insects.

 
Life stages of symphylans: eggs, juvenile, and adult Scutigerella immaculata

Symphylans breathe through a pair of spiracles on the sides of their head, and are the only arthropods with spiracle openings on the head.[17] These are connected to a system of tracheae that branch through the head and the first three segments of the body only.[2]

The genital openings are located on the fourth body segment, but the animals do not copulate. Instead, the male deposits 150 to 450 packages of sperm, or spermatophores, on small stalks. The female then picks these up in her mouth, which contains special pouches for storing the sperm. She then lays her eggs, and attaches them to the sides of crevices or to moss or lichen with her mouth, smearing the sperm over them as she does so. The eggs are laid in groups of eight to twelve.[2]

Symphylans also have spinnerets whose secretions turn into a silk-like thread.[18] One fossil species, Symphylella patrickmuelleri, was found preserved in Burmese Amber releasing long threads of silk.[19] The silk plays a role in reproduction: the male deposits up to 450 spermatophores on stalks of silk.[20] Symphylans have also been reported releasing silk as a defense[21] and to suspend themselves in the air.[2]

Fossil record and evolution edit

The symphylan fossil record is poorly known, with only five species recorded, all placed in living genera. The oldest records of both families are found in Burmese amber from the middle Cretaceous, approximately 99 million years ago. As a result, both families are thought to have diverged before the end of the Mesozoic Era.[22][23][24]

Despite their common name, morphological studies commonly place symphylans as more closely related to millipedes and pauropods than the centipedes, in the clade Progoneata.[25][26] Molecular studies have shown conflicting results, with some supporting the Progoneata clade, others aligning symphylans with centipedes or other arthropods, although some are weakly supported.[27][25] The clade is believed to be monophyletic.[28]

References edit

  1. ^ a b c C. Gillott (2005). Entomology, 3rd Edition. Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-1-4020-3182-3.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 817–818. ISBN 978-0-03-056747-6.
  3. ^ "ITIS - Report: Symphyla". www.itis.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-28.
  4. ^ a b c d Penny Greenslade (2002-03-31). . Australian Faunal Directory. Australian National University. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24.
  5. ^ H. Boyle (1981). "Symphyla control in young plant cane". Cane Growers' Quarterly Bulletin. 44: 115–116.
  6. ^ D. A. H. Murray & D. Smith (1983). "Effect of Symphyla, Hanseniella sp., on establishment of pineappes in south-east Queensland". Queensland Journal of Agricultural Science. 40: 121–123.
  7. ^ J. Adis & U. Scheller (1984). "On the natural history and ecology of Hanseniella arborea (Myriapoda, Symphyla, Scutigerellidae), a migrating symphylan from an Amazonian black-water inundation forest". Pedobiologia. 27: 35–41. doi:10.1016/S0031-4056(23)05818-3. S2CID 89444581.
  8. ^ S. Clark & P. Greenslade (1996). "Review of Tasmanian Hanseniella Bagnall (Symphyla: Scutigerellidae)". Invertebrate Taxonomy. 10 (1): 189–212. doi:10.1071/IT9960189.
  9. ^ Eberhard, S.M. & Spate (1995). "Cave Invertebrate Survey; toward an atlas of NSW Cave Fauna". A Report Prepared Under NSW Heritage Assistance Program NEP. 94: 765.
  10. ^ D. E. Walter, J. C. Moore & S. Loring (1989). "Symphylella sp. (Symphyla: Scolopendrellidae predators of arthropods and nematodes in grassland soils". Pedobiologia. 33: 113–116.
  11. ^ Minelli, Alessandro; Sergei I. Golovatch (2001). (PDF). In Simon A. Levin (ed.). Encyclopedia of Biodiversity. pp. 291–303. ISBN 978-0122268656. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-21.
  12. ^ . Integrated Pest Management on Peppermint-IPMP3.0. Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 2007-08-03. Retrieved 2007-07-02.
  13. ^ "Symphylans". Entry: Symphylans. Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Retrieved 2021-05-29.
  14. ^ Fusco, Giuseppe (December 2005). "Trunk segment numbers and sequential segmentation in myriapods". Evolution & Development. 7 (6): 608–617. doi:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2005.05064.x. PMID 16336414. S2CID 21401688. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
  15. ^ Szucsich, Nikola; Scheller, Ulf (2011). "Symphyla". In Minelli, Alessandro (ed.). The Myriapoda. Volume 1. Leiden: Brill. pp. 445–466. ISBN 978-90-04-18826-6. OCLC 812207443.
  16. ^ Minelli, Alessandro; Golovatch, Sergei I. (2013-01-01), "Myriapods", in Levin, Simon A (ed.), Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), Waltham: Academic Press, pp. 421–432, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-384719-5.00208-2, ISBN 978-0-12-384720-1, retrieved 2022-02-28
  17. ^ BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE FUNDAMENTALS AND SYSTEMATICS - Volum III
  18. ^ "X: The Symphyla" (PDF). Arthropod Anatomy. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctvn1tb6g.14.
  19. ^ Moritz, Leif; Wesener, Thomas (2018-04-01). "Symphylella patrickmuelleri sp. nov. (Myriapoda: Symphyla): The oldest known Symphyla and first fossil record of Scolopendrellidae from Cretaceous Burmese amber". Cretaceous Research. 84: 258–263. Bibcode:2018CrRes..84..258M. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2017.11.018. ISSN 0195-6671.
  20. ^ "Symphylans". Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Retrieved 2023-05-02. For reproduction, males do not copulate with the female. Rather, they deposit 150 to 450 sperm packets (spermatophores) on top of short stalks of silk on the ground.
  21. ^ Schulze, L. (Jan 1975), Structure, composition and properties of spun products
  22. ^ Moritz, Leif; Wesener, Thomas (2017). "Symphylella patrickmuelleri sp. nov. (Myriapoda: Symphyla): The oldest known Symphyla and first fossil record of Scolopendrellidae from Cretaceous Burmese amber". Cretaceous Research. 84: 258–263. Bibcode:2018CrRes..84..258M. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2017.11.018.
  23. ^ Minelli, Alessandro (2011). Treatise on Zoology - Anatomy, Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda. BRILL. p. 459. ISBN 978-90-04-15611-1.
  24. ^ Wesener, Thomas; Moritz, Leif (2018-12-17). "Checklist of the Myriapoda in Cretaceous Burmese amber and a correction of the Myriapoda identified by Zhang (2017)" (PDF). Check List. 14 (6): 1131–1140. doi:10.15560/14.6.1131. ISSN 1809-127X.
  25. ^ a b Shear, William A.; Edgecombe, Gregory D. (2010). "The geological record and phylogeny of the Myriapoda". Arthropod Structure & Development. 39 (2–3): 174–190. doi:10.1016/j.asd.2009.11.002. PMID 19944188.
  26. ^ Gai, Yonghua; Song, Daxiang; Sun, Hongying; Yang, Qun; Zhou, Kaiya (2008). "The complete mitochondrial genome of Symphylella sp. (Myriapoda: Symphyla): Extensive gene order rearrangement and evidence in favor of Progoneata". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 49 (2): 574–585. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.08.010. PMID 18782622.
  27. ^ Regier, Jerome C.; Wilson, Heather M.; Shultz, Jeffrey W. (2005). "Phylogenetic analysis of Myriapoda using three nuclear protein-coding genes". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 34 (1): 147–158. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.09.005. PMID 15579388.
  28. ^ Jin, Ya-Li; Godeiro, Nerivania Nunes; Bu, Yun (2023-05-04). "Description of the first species of Scutigerella (Symphyla, Scutigerellidae) from China, with mitogenomic and genetic divergence analysis". ZooKeys (1157): 145–161. doi:10.3897/zookeys.1157.99686. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 10193434. PMID 37215163.

Further reading edit

  • C. A. Edwards (1990). "Symphyla". In Daniel L. Dindal (ed.). Soil Biology Guide. New York: Wiley. pp. 891–910. ISBN 978-0-471-04551-9.
  • U. Scheller (1961). "A review of the Australian Symphyla (Myriapoda)". Australian Journal of Zoology. 9 (1): 140–171. doi:10.1071/ZO9610140.
  • U. Scheller (1982). "Symphyla". In Sybil P. Parker (ed.). Synopsis and Classification of Living Organisms. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 688–689. ISBN 978-0-07-079031-5.
  • R. J. Tillyard (1930). "The evolution of the class Insecta". Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania. 1930: 1–89.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Symphyla.
  •   Data related to Symphyla at Wikispecies

January 01, 1970
symphyla, confused, with, symphyta, also, known, garden, centipedes, pseudocentipedes, soil, dwelling, arthropods, class, subphylum, myriapoda, resemble, centipedes, very, small, venomous, only, distantly, related, both, centipedes, millipedes, more, than, spe. Not to be confused with Symphyta Symphylans also known as garden centipedes or pseudocentipedes are soil dwelling arthropods of the class Symphyla in the subphylum Myriapoda Symphylans resemble centipedes but are very small non venomous and only distantly related to both centipedes and millipedes 1 2 More than 200 species are known worldwide 3 SymphylaTemporal range 99 0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Mid Cretaceous to Present Scutigerella sp Scutigerellidae Scollopendrellid symphylan Scolopendrellidae Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Myriapoda Class SymphylaRyder 1880 Families Scutigerellidae Scolopendrellidae Symphyla are primarily herbivores and detritus feeders living deep in the soil under stones in decaying wood and in other moist places 4 They are rapid runners 4 can move quickly through the pores between soil particles and are typically found from the surface down to a depth of about 50 centimetres 20 in They consume decaying vegetation but can do considerable harm in an agricultural setting by consuming seeds roots and root hairs in cultivated soil 1 2 For example the garden symphylan Scutigerella immaculata can be a pest of crops A species of Hanseniella has been recorded as a pest of sugar cane and pineapples in Queensland 5 6 A few species are found in trees 7 8 and in caves 9 A species of Symphylella has been shown to be predominantly predatory 10 and some species are saprophagous Contents 1 Description 2 Fossil record and evolution 3 References 3 1 Further reading 4 External linksDescription edit nbsp Several individuals of Scutigerella sp showing their small size Symphyla are small cryptic myriapods without eyes and without pigment 4 The body is soft and generally 2 to 10 millimetres 0 08 to 0 4 in long divided into two body regions head and trunk 4 An exceptional size is reached in Hanseniella magna which attains lengths of 25 to 30 mm 1 0 to 1 2 in 11 The head has long segmented antennae a postantennal organ three pairs of mouthparts mandibles the long first maxillae and the second pair of maxillae which are fused to form the lower lip or labium of the mouth The antennae serve as sense organs Disc like organs of Tomosvary which probably sense vibrations are attached to the base of the antennae as they are in centipedes 2 The trunk comprises 15 24 segments which are protected by overlapping dorsal plates Ten or twelve segments bear legs The first segment is large and usually provided with a pair of legs the last segment is slender lacks legs and possesses a pair of cerci Symphylans have been reported as living up to four years and moult throughout their life 2 Immature individuals have six pairs of legs on hatching but they add an additional pair at each moult until the adult instar which usually has twelve pairs of legs 12 13 This mode of development is known as hemianamorphosis 14 Although most adult symphylans have twelve leg pairs the first pair is absent or vestigial in some species e g those in the genus Symphylella so adults in some species have only eleven leg pairs 15 16 Symphylans have several features linking them to early insects such as a labium fused second maxillae an identical number of head segments and certain features of their legs 1 Each pair of legs is associated with an eversible structure called a coxal sac that helps the animal absorb moisture and a small stylus that may be sensory in function Similar structures are found in the most primitive insects nbsp Life stages of symphylans eggs juvenile and adult Scutigerella immaculata Symphylans breathe through a pair of spiracles on the sides of their head and are the only arthropods with spiracle openings on the head 17 These are connected to a system of tracheae that branch through the head and the first three segments of the body only 2 The genital openings are located on the fourth body segment but the animals do not copulate Instead the male deposits 150 to 450 packages of sperm or spermatophores on small stalks The female then picks these up in her mouth which contains special pouches for storing the sperm She then lays her eggs and attaches them to the sides of crevices or to moss or lichen with her mouth smearing the sperm over them as she does so The eggs are laid in groups of eight to twelve 2 Symphylans also have spinnerets whose secretions turn into a silk like thread 18 One fossil species Symphylella patrickmuelleri was found preserved in Burmese Amber releasing long threads of silk 19 The silk plays a role in reproduction the male deposits up to 450 spermatophores on stalks of silk 20 Symphylans have also been reported releasing silk as a defense 21 and to suspend themselves in the air 2 Fossil record and evolution editThe symphylan fossil record is poorly known with only five species recorded all placed in living genera The oldest records of both families are found in Burmese amber from the middle Cretaceous approximately 99 million years ago As a result both families are thought to have diverged before the end of the Mesozoic Era 22 23 24 Despite their common name morphological studies commonly place symphylans as more closely related to millipedes and pauropods than the centipedes in the clade Progoneata 25 26 Molecular studies have shown conflicting results with some supporting the Progoneata clade others aligning symphylans with centipedes or other arthropods although some are weakly supported 27 25 The clade is believed to be monophyletic 28 References edit a b c C Gillott 2005 Entomology 3rd Edition Springer Verlag ISBN 978 1 4020 3182 3 a b c d e f g Barnes Robert D 1982 Invertebrate Zoology Philadelphia PA Holt Saunders International pp 817 818 ISBN 978 0 03 056747 6 ITIS Report Symphyla www itis gov Retrieved 2024 02 28 a b c d Penny Greenslade 2002 03 31 Class Symphyla Australian Faunal Directory Australian National University Archived from the original on 2015 09 24 H Boyle 1981 Symphyla control in young plant cane Cane Growers Quarterly Bulletin 44 115 116 D A H Murray amp D Smith 1983 Effect of Symphyla Hanseniella sp on establishment of pineappes in south east Queensland Queensland Journal of Agricultural Science 40 121 123 J Adis amp U Scheller 1984 On the natural history and ecology of Hanseniella arborea Myriapoda Symphyla Scutigerellidae a migrating symphylan from an Amazonian black water inundation forest Pedobiologia 27 35 41 doi 10 1016 S0031 4056 23 05818 3 S2CID 89444581 S Clark amp P Greenslade 1996 Review of Tasmanian Hanseniella Bagnall Symphyla Scutigerellidae Invertebrate Taxonomy 10 1 189 212 doi 10 1071 IT9960189 Eberhard S M amp Spate 1995 Cave Invertebrate Survey toward an atlas of NSW Cave Fauna A Report Prepared Under NSW Heritage Assistance Program NEP 94 765 D E Walter J C Moore amp S Loring 1989 Symphylella sp Symphyla Scolopendrellidae predators of arthropods and nematodes in grassland soils Pedobiologia 33 113 116 Minelli Alessandro Sergei I Golovatch 2001 Myriapods PDF In Simon A Levin ed Encyclopedia of Biodiversity pp 291 303 ISBN 978 0122268656 Archived from the original PDF on 2014 02 21 Garden Symphylans Integrated Pest Management on Peppermint IPMP3 0 Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2007 08 03 Retrieved 2007 07 02 Symphylans Entry Symphylans Encyclopedia of Arkansas Retrieved 2021 05 29 Fusco Giuseppe December 2005 Trunk segment numbers and sequential segmentation in myriapods Evolution amp Development 7 6 608 617 doi 10 1111 j 1525 142X 2005 05064 x PMID 16336414 S2CID 21401688 Retrieved 25 August 2020 Szucsich Nikola Scheller Ulf 2011 Symphyla In Minelli Alessandro ed The Myriapoda Volume 1 Leiden Brill pp 445 466 ISBN 978 90 04 18826 6 OCLC 812207443 Minelli Alessandro Golovatch Sergei I 2013 01 01 Myriapods in Levin Simon A ed Encyclopedia of Biodiversity Second Edition Waltham Academic Press pp 421 432 doi 10 1016 b978 0 12 384719 5 00208 2 ISBN 978 0 12 384720 1 retrieved 2022 02 28 BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE FUNDAMENTALS AND SYSTEMATICS Volum III X The Symphyla PDF Arthropod Anatomy JSTOR 10 7591 j ctvn1tb6g 14 Moritz Leif Wesener Thomas 2018 04 01 Symphylella patrickmuelleri sp nov Myriapoda Symphyla The oldest known Symphyla and first fossil record of Scolopendrellidae from Cretaceous Burmese amber Cretaceous Research 84 258 263 Bibcode 2018CrRes 84 258M doi 10 1016 j cretres 2017 11 018 ISSN 0195 6671 Symphylans Encyclopedia of Arkansas Retrieved 2023 05 02 For reproduction males do not copulate with the female Rather they deposit 150 to 450 sperm packets spermatophores on top of short stalks of silk on the ground Schulze L Jan 1975 Structure composition and properties of spun products Moritz Leif Wesener Thomas 2017 Symphylella patrickmuelleri sp nov Myriapoda Symphyla The oldest known Symphyla and first fossil record of Scolopendrellidae from Cretaceous Burmese amber Cretaceous Research 84 258 263 Bibcode 2018CrRes 84 258M doi 10 1016 j cretres 2017 11 018 Minelli Alessandro 2011 Treatise on Zoology Anatomy Taxonomy Biology The Myriapoda BRILL p 459 ISBN 978 90 04 15611 1 Wesener Thomas Moritz Leif 2018 12 17 Checklist of the Myriapoda in Cretaceous Burmese amber and a correction of the Myriapoda identified by Zhang 2017 PDF Check List 14 6 1131 1140 doi 10 15560 14 6 1131 ISSN 1809 127X a b Shear William A Edgecombe Gregory D 2010 The geological record and phylogeny of the Myriapoda Arthropod Structure amp Development 39 2 3 174 190 doi 10 1016 j asd 2009 11 002 PMID 19944188 Gai Yonghua Song Daxiang Sun Hongying Yang Qun Zhou Kaiya 2008 The complete mitochondrial genome of Symphylella sp Myriapoda Symphyla Extensive gene order rearrangement and evidence in favor of Progoneata Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 49 2 574 585 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2008 08 010 PMID 18782622 Regier Jerome C Wilson Heather M Shultz Jeffrey W 2005 Phylogenetic analysis of Myriapoda using three nuclear protein coding genes Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 34 1 147 158 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2004 09 005 PMID 15579388 Jin Ya Li Godeiro Nerivania Nunes Bu Yun 2023 05 04 Description of the first species of Scutigerella Symphyla Scutigerellidae from China with mitogenomic and genetic divergence analysis ZooKeys 1157 145 161 doi 10 3897 zookeys 1157 99686 ISSN 1313 2970 PMC 10193434 PMID 37215163 Further reading edit C A Edwards 1990 Symphyla In Daniel L Dindal ed Soil Biology Guide New York Wiley pp 891 910 ISBN 978 0 471 04551 9 U Scheller 1961 A review of the Australian Symphyla Myriapoda Australian Journal of Zoology 9 1 140 171 doi 10 1071 ZO9610140 U Scheller 1982 Symphyla In Sybil P Parker ed Synopsis and Classification of Living Organisms New York McGraw Hill pp 688 689 ISBN 978 0 07 079031 5 R J Tillyard 1930 The evolution of the class Insecta Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 1930 1 89 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Symphyla nbsp Arthropods portal nbsp Data related to Symphyla at Wikispecies Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Symphyla amp oldid 1210750847, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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