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Sulfate-reducing microorganism

March 17, 2023

Sulfate-reducing microorganisms (SRM) or sulfate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP) are a group composed of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and sulfate-reducing archaea (SRA), both of which can perform anaerobic respiration utilizing sulfate (SO2−
4) as terminal electron acceptor, reducing it to hydrogen sulfide (H2S).[1][2] Therefore, these sulfidogenic microorganisms "breathe" sulfate rather than molecular oxygen (O2), which is the terminal electron acceptor reduced to water (H2O) in aerobic respiration.

Desulfovibrio vulgaris is the best-studied sulfate-reducing microorganism species; the bar in the upper right is 0.5 micrometre long.

Most sulfate-reducing microorganisms can also reduce some other oxidized inorganic sulfur compounds, such as sulfite (SO2−
3), dithionite (S
2O2−
4), thiosulfate (S
2O2−
3), trithionate (S
3O2−
6), tetrathionate (S
4O2−
6), elemental sulfur (S8), and polysulfides (S2−
n). Depending on the context, "sulfate-reducing microorganisms" can be used in a broader sense (including all species that can reduce any of these sulfur compounds) or in a narrower sense (including only species that reduce sulfate, and excluding strict thiosulfate and sulfur reducers, for example).

Sulfate-reducing microorganisms can be traced back to 3.5 billion years ago and are considered to be among the oldest forms of microbes, having contributed to the sulfur cycle soon after life emerged on Earth.[3]

Many organisms reduce small amounts of sulfates in order to synthesize sulfur-containing cell components; this is known as assimilatory sulfate reduction. By contrast, the sulfate-reducing microorganisms considered here reduce sulfate in large amounts to obtain energy and expel the resulting sulfide as waste; this is known as dissimilatory sulfate reduction.[4] They use sulfate as the terminal electron acceptor of their electron transport chain.[5] Most of them are anaerobes; however, there are examples of sulfate-reducing microorganisms that are tolerant of oxygen, and some of them can even perform aerobic respiration.[6] No growth is observed when oxygen is used as the electron acceptor.[7] In addition, there are sulfate-reducing microorganisms that can also reduce other electron acceptors, such as fumarate, nitrate (NO−
3), nitrite (NO−
2), ferric iron (Fe3+), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).[1][8]

In terms of electron donor, this group contains both organotrophs and lithotrophs. The organotrophs oxidize organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, organic acids (such as formate, lactate, acetate, propionate, and butyrate), alcohols (methanol and ethanol), aliphatic hydrocarbons (including methane), and aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene).[9] The lithotrophs oxidize molecular hydrogen (H2), for which they compete with methanogens and acetogens in anaerobic conditions.[9] Some sulfate-reducing microorganisms can directly use metallic iron (Fe0, also known as zerovalent iron, or ZVI) as electron donor, oxidizing it to ferrous iron (Fe2+).[10]

Ecological importance and markers

Sulfate occurs widely in seawater, sediment, and water rich in decaying organic material.[5] Sulfate is also found in more extreme environments such as hydrothermal vents, acid mine drainage sites, oil fields, and the deep subsurface,[11] including the world's oldest isolated ground water.[12][13] Sulfate-reducing microorganisms are common in anaerobic environments where they aid in the degradation of organic materials.[14] In these anaerobic environments, fermenting bacteria extract energy from large organic molecules; the resulting smaller compounds such as organic acids and alcohols are further oxidized by acetogens and methanogens and the competing sulfate-reducing microorganisms.[5]

 
Sludge from a pond; the black color is due to metal sulfides that result from the action of sulfate-reducing microorganisms.

The toxic hydrogen sulfide is a waste product of sulfate-reducing microorganisms; its rotten egg odor is often a marker for the presence of sulfate-reducing microorganisms in nature.[14] Sulfate-reducing microorganisms are responsible for the sulfurous odors of salt marshes and mud flats. Much of the hydrogen sulfide will react with metal ions in the water to produce metal sulfides. These metal sulfides, such as ferrous sulfide (FeS), are insoluble and often black or brown, leading to the dark color of sludge.[2]

During the Permian–Triassic extinction event (250 million years ago) a severe anoxic event seems to have occurred where these forms of bacteria became the dominant force in oceanic ecosystems, producing copious amounts of hydrogen sulfide.[15]

Sulfate-reducing bacteria also generate neurotoxic methylmercury as a byproduct of their metabolism, through methylation of inorganic mercury present in their surroundings. They are known to be the dominant source of this bioaccumulative form of mercury in aquatic systems.[16]

Uses

Some sulfate-reducing microorganisms can reduce hydrocarbons, and they have been used to clean up contaminated soils. Their use has also been proposed for other kinds of contaminations.[3]

Sulfate-reducing microorganisms are considered a possible way to deal with acid mine waters that are produced by other microorganisms.[17]

Problems caused by sulfate-reducing microorganisms

In engineering, sulfate-reducing microorganisms can create problems when metal structures are exposed to sulfate-containing water: Interaction of water and metal creates a layer of molecular hydrogen on the metal surface; sulfate-reducing microorganisms then oxidize the hydrogen while creating hydrogen sulfide, which contributes to corrosion.

Hydrogen sulfide from sulfate-reducing microorganisms also plays a role in the biogenic sulfide corrosion of concrete. It also occurs in sour crude oil.[3]

Some sulfate-reducing microorganisms play a role in the anaerobic oxidation of methane:[3]

CH4 + SO42- → HCO3- + HS− + H2O

An important fraction of the methane formed by methanogens below the seabed is oxidized by sulfate-reducing microorganisms in the transition zone separating the methanogenesis from the sulfate reduction activity in the sediments. This process is also considered a major sink for sulfate in marine sediments.

In hydraulic fracturing, fluids are used to frack shale formations to recover methane (shale gas) and hydrocarbons. Biocide compounds are often added to water to inhibit the microbial activity of sulfate-reducing microorganisms, in order to but not limited to, avoid anaerobic methane oxidation and the generation of hydrogen sulfide, ultimately resulting in minimizing potential production loss.

Biochemistry

Main article: Dissimilatory sulfate reduction

Before sulfate can be used as an electron acceptor, it must be activated. This is done by the enzyme ATP-sulfurylase, which uses ATP and sulfate to create adenosine 5′-phosphosulfate (APS). APS is subsequently reduced to sulfite and AMP. Sulfite is then further reduced to sulfide, while AMP is turned into ADP using another molecule of ATP. The overall process, thus, involves an investment of two molecules of the energy carrier ATP, which must to be regained from the reduction.[1]

 
Overview of the three key enzymatic steps of the dissimilatory sulfate reduction pathway. Enzymes: sat and atps respectively stand for sulfate adenylyltransferase and ATP sulfurylase (EC 2.7.7.4); apr and aps are both used to adenosine-5'-phosphosulfate reductase (EC 1.8.4.8); and dsr is the dissimilatory (bi)sulfite reductase (EC 1.8.99.5);

The enzyme dissimilatory (bi)sulfite reductase, dsrAB (EC 1.8.99.5), that catalyzes the last step of dissimilatory sulfate reduction, is the functional gene most used as a molecular marker to detect the presence of sulfate-reducing microorganisms.[18]

Phylogeny

The sulfate-reducing microorganisms have been treated as a phenotypic group, together with the other sulfur-reducing bacteria, for identification purposes. They are found in several different phylogenetic lines.[19] As of 2009, 60 genera containing 220 species of sulfate-reducing bacteria are known.[3]

Among the Thermodesulfobacteriota the orders of sulfate-reducing bacteria include Desulfobacterales, Desulfovibrionales, and Syntrophobacterales. This accounts for the largest group of sulfate-reducing bacteria, about 23 genera.[1]

The second largest group of sulfate-reducing bacteria is found among the Bacillota, including the genera Desulfotomaculum, Desulfosporomusa, and Desulfosporosinus.

In the Nitrospirota phylum we find sulfate-reducing Thermodesulfovibrio species.

Two more groups that include thermophilic sulfate-reducing bacteria are given their own phyla, the Thermodesulfobacteriota and Thermodesulfobium.

There are also three known genera of sulfate-reducing archaea: Archaeoglobus, Thermocladium and Caldivirga. They are found in hydrothermal vents, oil deposits, and hot springs.

In July 2019, a scientific study of Kidd Mine in Canada discovered sulfate-reducing microorganisms living 7,900 feet (2,400 m) below the surface. The sulfate reducers discovered in Kidd Mine are lithotrophs, obtaining their energy by oxidizing minerals such as pyrite rather than organic compounds.[20][21][22] Kidd Mine is also the site of the oldest known water on Earth.[23]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Muyzer, G.; Stams, A. J. (June 2008). (PDF). Nature Reviews Microbiology. 6 (6): 441–454. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1892. PMID 18461075. S2CID 22775967. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-25.
  2. ^ a b Ernst-Detlef Schulze; Harold A. Mooney (1993), Biodiversity and ecosystem function, Springer-Verlag, pp. 88–90, ISBN 9783540581031
  3. ^ a b c d e Barton, Larry L. & Fauque, Guy D. (2009). Biochemistry, Physiology and Biotechnology of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria. Advances in Applied Microbiology. Vol. 68. pp. 41–98. doi:10.1016/s0065-2164(09)01202-7. ISBN 9780123748034. PMID 19426853.
  4. ^ Rückert, Christian (2016). "Sulfate reduction in microorganisms—recent advances and biotechnological applications". Current Opinion in Microbiology. 33: 140–146. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2016.07.007. PMID 27461928.
  5. ^ a b c Larry Barton, ed. (1995), Sulfate-reducing bacteria, Springer, ISBN 9780306448577
  6. ^ Kasper U. Kjeldsen; Catherine Joulian & Kjeld Ingvorsen (2004). "Oxygen Tolerance of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria in Activated Sludge". Environmental Science and Technology. 38 (7): 2038–2043. Bibcode:2004EnST...38.2038K. doi:10.1021/es034777e. PMID 15112804.
  7. ^ "Simone Dannenberg; Michael Kroder; Dilling Waltraud & Heribert Cypionka (1992). "Oxidation of H2, organic compounds and inorganic sulfur compounds coupled to reduction of O2 or nitrate by sulfate-reducing bacteria". Archives of Microbiology. 158 (2): 93–99. doi:10.1007/BF00245211. S2CID 36923153.
  8. ^ Plugge, Caroline M.; Zhang, Weiwen; Scholten, Johannes C. M.; Stams, Alfons J. M. (2011). "Metabolic Flexibility of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria". Frontiers in Microbiology. 2: 81. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2011.00081. ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 3119409. PMID 21734907.
  9. ^ a b Liamleam, Warounsak; Annachhatre, Ajit P. (2007). "Electron donors for biological sulfate reduction". Biotechnology Advances. 25 (5): 452–463. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.05.002. PMID 17572039.
  10. ^ Kato, Souichiro (2016-03-01). "Microbial extracellular electron transfer and its relevance to iron corrosion". Microbial Biotechnology. 9 (2): 141–148. doi:10.1111/1751-7915.12340. ISSN 1751-7915. PMC 4767289. PMID 26863985.
  11. ^ Muyzer G, Stams AJ (June 2008). "The ecology and biotechnology of sulphate-reducing bacteria". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 6 (6): 441–54. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1892. PMID 18461075. S2CID 22775967.
  12. ^ Lollar, Garnet S.; Warr, Oliver; Telling, Jon; Osburn, Magdalena R.; Lollar, Barbara Sherwood (18 July 2019). "'Follow the Water': Hydrogeochemical Constraints on Microbial Investigations 2.4 km Below Surface at the Kidd Creek Deep Fluid and Deep Life Observatory". Geomicrobiology Journal. 36 (10): 859–872. doi:10.1080/01490451.2019.1641770. S2CID 199636268.
  13. ^ "World's Oldest Groundwater Supports Life Through Water-Rock Chemistry". Deep Carbon Observatory. 29 July 2019. Retrieved 13 September 2019.
  14. ^ a b Dexter Dyer, Betsey (2003). A Field Guide to Bacteria. Comstock Publishing Associates/Cornell University Press.
  15. ^ Peter D. Ward (October 2006), "Impact from the Deep", Scientific American
  16. ^ G.C. Compeau & R. Bartha (August 1985), "Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria: Principal Methylators of Mercury in Anoxic Estuarine Sediment", Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 50 (2): 498–502, Bibcode:1985ApEnM..50..498C, doi:10.1128/AEM.50.2.498-502.1985, PMC 238649, PMID 16346866
  17. ^ Ayangbenro, Ayansina S.; Olanrewaju, Oluwaseyi S.; Babalola, Olubukola O. (22 August 2018). "Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria as an Effective Tool for Sustainable Acid Mine Bioremediation". Frontiers in Microbiology. 9: 1986. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.01986. PMC 6113391. PMID 30186280.
  18. ^ Müller, Albert Leopold; Kjeldsen, Kasper Urup; Rattei, Thomas; Pester, Michael; Loy, Alexander (2014-10-24). "Phylogenetic and environmental diversity of DsrAB-type dissimilatory (bi)sulfite reductases". The ISME Journal. 9 (5): 1152–1165. doi:10.1038/ismej.2014.208. ISSN 1751-7370. PMC 4351914. PMID 25343514.
  19. ^ Pfennig N.; Biebel H. (1986), "The dissimilatory sulfate-reducing bacteria", in Starr; et al. (eds.), The Prokaryotes: a handbook on habitats, isolation and identification of bacteria, Springer
  20. ^ 'Follow the Water': Hydrogeochemical Constraints on Microbial Investigations 2.4 km Below Surface at the Kidd Creek Deep Fluid and Deep Life Observatory, Garnet S. Lollar, Oliver Warr, Jon Telling, Magdalena R. Osburn & Barbara Sherwood Lollar, Received 15 Jan 2019, Accepted 01 Jul 2019, Published online: 18 Jul 2019.
  21. ^ World's Oldest Groundwater Supports Life Through Water-Rock Chemistry, July 29, 2019, deepcarbon.net.
  22. ^ Strange life-forms found deep in a mine point to vast 'underground Galapagos', By Corey S. Powell, Sept. 7, 2019, nbcnews.com.
  23. ^ Oldest Water on Earth Found Deep Within the Canadian Shield, December 14, 2016, Maggie Romuld

External links

  • 'Follow the Water': Hydrogeochemical Constraints on Microbial Investigations 2.4 km Below Surface at the Kidd Creek Deep Fluid and Deep Life Observatory, Garnet S. Lollar, Oliver Warr, Jon Telling, Magdalena R. Osburn & Barbara Sherwood Lollar, Received 15 Jan 2019, Accepted 01 Jul 2019, Published online: 18 Jul 2019.
  • Deep fracture fluids isolated in the crust since the Precambrian era, G. Holland, B. Sherwood Lollar, L. Li, G. Lacrampe-Couloume, G. F. Slater & C. J. Ballentine, Nature volume 497, pages 357–360 (16 May 2013)
  • Sulfur mass-independent fractionation in subsurface fracture waters indicates a long-standing sulfur cycle in Precambrian rocks, by L. Li, B. A. Wing, T. H. Bui, J. M. McDermott, G. F. Slater, S. Wei, G. Lacrampe-Couloume & B. Sherwood Lollar October 27, 2016. Nature Communications volume 7, Article number: 13252 (2016.)
  • Earth's mysterious 'deep biosphere' may harbor millions of undiscovered species, By Brandon Specktor, Live Science, December 11, 2018, published online at nbcnews.com.

March 17, 2023
sulfate, reducing, microorganism, sulfate, reducing, prokaryotes, group, composed, sulfate, reducing, bacteria, sulfate, reducing, archaea, both, which, perform, anaerobic, respiration, utilizing, sulfate, terminal, electron, acceptor, reducing, hydrogen, sulf. Sulfate reducing microorganisms SRM or sulfate reducing prokaryotes SRP are a group composed of sulfate reducing bacteria SRB and sulfate reducing archaea SRA both of which can perform anaerobic respiration utilizing sulfate SO2 4 as terminal electron acceptor reducing it to hydrogen sulfide H2S 1 2 Therefore these sulfidogenic microorganisms breathe sulfate rather than molecular oxygen O2 which is the terminal electron acceptor reduced to water H2O in aerobic respiration Desulfovibrio vulgaris is the best studied sulfate reducing microorganism species the bar in the upper right is 0 5 micrometre long Most sulfate reducing microorganisms can also reduce some other oxidized inorganic sulfur compounds such as sulfite SO2 3 dithionite S2 O2 4 thiosulfate S2 O2 3 trithionate S3 O2 6 tetrathionate S4 O2 6 elemental sulfur S8 and polysulfides S2 n Depending on the context sulfate reducing microorganisms can be used in a broader sense including all species that can reduce any of these sulfur compounds or in a narrower sense including only species that reduce sulfate and excluding strict thiosulfate and sulfur reducers for example Sulfate reducing microorganisms can be traced back to 3 5 billion years ago and are considered to be among the oldest forms of microbes having contributed to the sulfur cycle soon after life emerged on Earth 3 Many organisms reduce small amounts of sulfates in order to synthesize sulfur containing cell components this is known as assimilatory sulfate reduction By contrast the sulfate reducing microorganisms considered here reduce sulfate in large amounts to obtain energy and expel the resulting sulfide as waste this is known as dissimilatory sulfate reduction 4 They use sulfate as the terminal electron acceptor of their electron transport chain 5 Most of them are anaerobes however there are examples of sulfate reducing microorganisms that are tolerant of oxygen and some of them can even perform aerobic respiration 6 No growth is observed when oxygen is used as the electron acceptor 7 In addition there are sulfate reducing microorganisms that can also reduce other electron acceptors such as fumarate nitrate NO 3 nitrite NO 2 ferric iron Fe3 and dimethyl sulfoxide DMSO 1 8 In terms of electron donor this group contains both organotrophs and lithotrophs The organotrophs oxidize organic compounds such as carbohydrates organic acids such as formate lactate acetate propionate and butyrate alcohols methanol and ethanol aliphatic hydrocarbons including methane and aromatic hydrocarbons benzene toluene ethylbenzene and xylene 9 The lithotrophs oxidize molecular hydrogen H2 for which they compete with methanogens and acetogens in anaerobic conditions 9 Some sulfate reducing microorganisms can directly use metallic iron Fe0 also known as zerovalent iron or ZVI as electron donor oxidizing it to ferrous iron Fe2 10 Contents 1 Ecological importance and markers 2 Uses 3 Problems caused by sulfate reducing microorganisms 4 Biochemistry 5 Phylogeny 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksEcological importance and markers EditSulfate occurs widely in seawater sediment and water rich in decaying organic material 5 Sulfate is also found in more extreme environments such as hydrothermal vents acid mine drainage sites oil fields and the deep subsurface 11 including the world s oldest isolated ground water 12 13 Sulfate reducing microorganisms are common in anaerobic environments where they aid in the degradation of organic materials 14 In these anaerobic environments fermenting bacteria extract energy from large organic molecules the resulting smaller compounds such as organic acids and alcohols are further oxidized by acetogens and methanogens and the competing sulfate reducing microorganisms 5 Sludge from a pond the black color is due to metal sulfides that result from the action of sulfate reducing microorganisms The toxic hydrogen sulfide is a waste product of sulfate reducing microorganisms its rotten egg odor is often a marker for the presence of sulfate reducing microorganisms in nature 14 Sulfate reducing microorganisms are responsible for the sulfurous odors of salt marshes and mud flats Much of the hydrogen sulfide will react with metal ions in the water to produce metal sulfides These metal sulfides such as ferrous sulfide FeS are insoluble and often black or brown leading to the dark color of sludge 2 During the Permian Triassic extinction event 250 million years ago a severe anoxic event seems to have occurred where these forms of bacteria became the dominant force in oceanic ecosystems producing copious amounts of hydrogen sulfide 15 Sulfate reducing bacteria also generate neurotoxic methylmercury as a byproduct of their metabolism through methylation of inorganic mercury present in their surroundings They are known to be the dominant source of this bioaccumulative form of mercury in aquatic systems 16 Uses EditSome sulfate reducing microorganisms can reduce hydrocarbons and they have been used to clean up contaminated soils Their use has also been proposed for other kinds of contaminations 3 Sulfate reducing microorganisms are considered a possible way to deal with acid mine waters that are produced by other microorganisms 17 Problems caused by sulfate reducing microorganisms EditIn engineering sulfate reducing microorganisms can create problems when metal structures are exposed to sulfate containing water Interaction of water and metal creates a layer of molecular hydrogen on the metal surface sulfate reducing microorganisms then oxidize the hydrogen while creating hydrogen sulfide which contributes to corrosion Hydrogen sulfide from sulfate reducing microorganisms also plays a role in the biogenic sulfide corrosion of concrete It also occurs in sour crude oil 3 Some sulfate reducing microorganisms play a role in the anaerobic oxidation of methane 3 CH4 SO42 HCO3 HS H2OAn important fraction of the methane formed by methanogens below the seabed is oxidized by sulfate reducing microorganisms in the transition zone separating the methanogenesis from the sulfate reduction activity in the sediments This process is also considered a major sink for sulfate in marine sediments In hydraulic fracturing fluids are used to frack shale formations to recover methane shale gas and hydrocarbons Biocide compounds are often added to water to inhibit the microbial activity of sulfate reducing microorganisms in order to but not limited to avoid anaerobic methane oxidation and the generation of hydrogen sulfide ultimately resulting in minimizing potential production loss Biochemistry EditMain article Dissimilatory sulfate reduction Before sulfate can be used as an electron acceptor it must be activated This is done by the enzyme ATP sulfurylase which uses ATP and sulfate to create adenosine 5 phosphosulfate APS APS is subsequently reduced to sulfite and AMP Sulfite is then further reduced to sulfide while AMP is turned into ADP using another molecule of ATP The overall process thus involves an investment of two molecules of the energy carrier ATP which must to be regained from the reduction 1 Overview of the three key enzymatic steps of the dissimilatory sulfate reduction pathway Enzymes sat and atps respectively stand for sulfate adenylyltransferase and ATP sulfurylase EC 2 7 7 4 apr and aps are both used to adenosine 5 phosphosulfate reductase EC 1 8 4 8 and dsr is the dissimilatory bi sulfite reductase EC 1 8 99 5 The enzyme dissimilatory bi sulfite reductase dsrAB EC 1 8 99 5 that catalyzes the last step of dissimilatory sulfate reduction is the functional gene most used as a molecular marker to detect the presence of sulfate reducing microorganisms 18 Phylogeny EditThe sulfate reducing microorganisms have been treated as a phenotypic group together with the other sulfur reducing bacteria for identification purposes They are found in several different phylogenetic lines 19 As of 2009 60 genera containing 220 species of sulfate reducing bacteria are known 3 Among the Thermodesulfobacteriota the orders of sulfate reducing bacteria include Desulfobacterales Desulfovibrionales and Syntrophobacterales This accounts for the largest group of sulfate reducing bacteria about 23 genera 1 The second largest group of sulfate reducing bacteria is found among the Bacillota including the genera Desulfotomaculum Desulfosporomusa and Desulfosporosinus In the Nitrospirota phylum we find sulfate reducing Thermodesulfovibrio species Two more groups that include thermophilic sulfate reducing bacteria are given their own phyla the Thermodesulfobacteriota and Thermodesulfobium There are also three known genera of sulfate reducing archaea Archaeoglobus Thermocladium and Caldivirga They are found in hydrothermal vents oil deposits and hot springs In July 2019 a scientific study of Kidd Mine in Canada discovered sulfate reducing microorganisms living 7 900 feet 2 400 m below the surface The sulfate reducers discovered in Kidd Mine are lithotrophs obtaining their energy by oxidizing minerals such as pyrite rather than organic compounds 20 21 22 Kidd Mine is also the site of the oldest known water on Earth 23 See also EditAnaerobic respiration Deep biosphere Extremophile Microbial metabolism Microorganism Quinone interacting membrane bound oxidoreductase Sulfur cycleReferences Edit a b c d Muyzer G Stams A J June 2008 The ecology and biotechnology of sulphate reducing bacteria PDF Nature Reviews Microbiology 6 6 441 454 doi 10 1038 nrmicro1892 PMID 18461075 S2CID 22775967 Archived from the original PDF on 2012 04 25 a b Ernst Detlef Schulze Harold A Mooney 1993 Biodiversity and ecosystem function Springer Verlag pp 88 90 ISBN 9783540581031 a b c d e Barton Larry L amp Fauque Guy D 2009 Biochemistry Physiology and Biotechnology of Sulfate Reducing Bacteria Advances in Applied Microbiology Vol 68 pp 41 98 doi 10 1016 s0065 2164 09 01202 7 ISBN 9780123748034 PMID 19426853 Ruckert Christian 2016 Sulfate reduction in microorganisms recent advances and biotechnological applications Current Opinion in Microbiology 33 140 146 doi 10 1016 j mib 2016 07 007 PMID 27461928 a b c Larry Barton ed 1995 Sulfate reducing bacteria Springer ISBN 9780306448577 Kasper U Kjeldsen Catherine Joulian amp Kjeld Ingvorsen 2004 Oxygen Tolerance of Sulfate Reducing Bacteria in Activated Sludge Environmental Science and Technology 38 7 2038 2043 Bibcode 2004EnST 38 2038K doi 10 1021 es034777e PMID 15112804 Simone Dannenberg Michael Kroder Dilling Waltraud amp Heribert Cypionka 1992 Oxidation of H2 organic compounds and inorganic sulfur compounds coupled to reduction of O2 or nitrate by sulfate reducing bacteria Archives of Microbiology 158 2 93 99 doi 10 1007 BF00245211 S2CID 36923153 Plugge Caroline M Zhang Weiwen Scholten Johannes C M Stams Alfons J M 2011 Metabolic Flexibility of Sulfate Reducing Bacteria Frontiers in Microbiology 2 81 doi 10 3389 fmicb 2011 00081 ISSN 1664 302X PMC 3119409 PMID 21734907 a b Liamleam Warounsak Annachhatre Ajit P 2007 Electron donors for biological sulfate reduction Biotechnology Advances 25 5 452 463 doi 10 1016 j biotechadv 2007 05 002 PMID 17572039 Kato Souichiro 2016 03 01 Microbial extracellular electron transfer and its relevance to iron corrosion Microbial Biotechnology 9 2 141 148 doi 10 1111 1751 7915 12340 ISSN 1751 7915 PMC 4767289 PMID 26863985 Muyzer G Stams AJ June 2008 The ecology and biotechnology of sulphate reducing bacteria Nature Reviews Microbiology 6 6 441 54 doi 10 1038 nrmicro1892 PMID 18461075 S2CID 22775967 Lollar Garnet S Warr Oliver Telling Jon Osburn Magdalena R Lollar Barbara Sherwood 18 July 2019 Follow the Water Hydrogeochemical Constraints on Microbial Investigations 2 4 km Below Surface at the Kidd Creek Deep Fluid and Deep Life Observatory Geomicrobiology Journal 36 10 859 872 doi 10 1080 01490451 2019 1641770 S2CID 199636268 World s Oldest Groundwater Supports Life Through Water Rock Chemistry Deep Carbon Observatory 29 July 2019 Retrieved 13 September 2019 a b Dexter Dyer Betsey 2003 A Field Guide to Bacteria Comstock Publishing Associates Cornell University Press Peter D Ward October 2006 Impact from the Deep Scientific American G C Compeau amp R Bartha August 1985 Sulfate Reducing Bacteria Principal Methylators of Mercury in Anoxic Estuarine Sediment Applied and Environmental Microbiology 50 2 498 502 Bibcode 1985ApEnM 50 498C doi 10 1128 AEM 50 2 498 502 1985 PMC 238649 PMID 16346866 Ayangbenro Ayansina S Olanrewaju Oluwaseyi S Babalola Olubukola O 22 August 2018 Sulfate Reducing Bacteria as an Effective Tool for Sustainable Acid Mine Bioremediation Frontiers in Microbiology 9 1986 doi 10 3389 fmicb 2018 01986 PMC 6113391 PMID 30186280 Muller Albert Leopold Kjeldsen Kasper Urup Rattei Thomas Pester Michael Loy Alexander 2014 10 24 Phylogenetic and environmental diversity of DsrAB type dissimilatory bi sulfite reductases The ISME Journal 9 5 1152 1165 doi 10 1038 ismej 2014 208 ISSN 1751 7370 PMC 4351914 PMID 25343514 Pfennig N Biebel H 1986 The dissimilatory sulfate reducing bacteria in Starr et al eds The Prokaryotes a handbook on habitats isolation and identification of bacteria Springer Follow the Water Hydrogeochemical Constraints on Microbial Investigations 2 4 km Below Surface at the Kidd Creek Deep Fluid and Deep Life Observatory Garnet S Lollar Oliver Warr Jon Telling Magdalena R Osburn amp Barbara Sherwood Lollar Received 15 Jan 2019 Accepted 01 Jul 2019 Published online 18 Jul 2019 World s Oldest Groundwater Supports Life Through Water Rock Chemistry July 29 2019 deepcarbon net Strange life forms found deep in a mine point to vast underground Galapagos By Corey S Powell Sept 7 2019 nbcnews com Oldest Water on Earth Found Deep Within the Canadian Shield December 14 2016 Maggie RomuldExternal links Edit Follow the Water Hydrogeochemical Constraints on Microbial Investigations 2 4 km Below Surface at the Kidd Creek Deep Fluid and Deep Life Observatory Garnet S Lollar Oliver Warr Jon Telling Magdalena R Osburn amp Barbara Sherwood Lollar Received 15 Jan 2019 Accepted 01 Jul 2019 Published online 18 Jul 2019 Deep fracture fluids isolated in the crust since the Precambrian era G Holland B Sherwood Lollar L Li G Lacrampe Couloume G F Slater amp C J Ballentine Nature volume 497 pages 357 360 16 May 2013 Sulfur mass independent fractionation in subsurface fracture waters indicates a long standing sulfur cycle in Precambrian rocks by L Li B A Wing T H Bui J M McDermott G F Slater S Wei G Lacrampe Couloume amp B Sherwood Lollar October 27 2016 Nature Communications volume 7 Article number 13252 2016 Earth s mysterious deep biosphere may harbor millions of undiscovered species By Brandon Specktor Live Science December 11 2018 published online at nbcnews com Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sulfate reducing microorganism amp oldid 1140943080, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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