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Sociology of sport

January 01, 1970

Sociology of sport, alternately referred to as sports sociology, is a sub-discipline of sociology which focuses on sports as social phenomena. It is an area of study concerned with the relationship between sociology and sports, and also various socio-cultural structures, patterns, and organizations or groups involved with sport. This area of study discusses the positive impact sports have on individual people and society as a whole economically, financially, and socially. Sociology of sport attempts to view the actions and behavior of sports teams and their players through the eyes of a sociologist.[1]

Football fan blowing a trumphet before the Uganda Vs Cape Verde Game

Sport is regulated by regulations and rules of behavior, spatial and time constraints, and has governing bodies. It is oriented towards a goal, which makes known both the winner and the loser. It is competitive, and ludic. All sports are culturally situated, intertwined with the value systems and power relations within the host society.[2]

The emergence of the sociology of sport (though not the name itself) dates from the end of the 19th century, when first social psychological experiments dealing with group effects of competition and pace-making took place. Besides cultural anthropology and its interest in games in the human culture, one of the first efforts to think about sports in a more general way was Johan Huizinga's Homo Ludens or Thorstein Veblen's Theory of the Leisure Class. Homo Ludens discusses the importance of the element of play in culture and society. Huizinga suggests that play, specifically sport, is primary to and a necessary condition of the generation of culture. These written works contributed to the rise of the study of sociology of sport. In 1970, sports sociology gained significant attention as an organized, legitimate field of study. The North American Society for the Sociology of Sport was formed in 1978 with the objective of studying the field. Its research outlet, the Sociology of Sport Journal, was formed in 1984.[3]

It is a common assumption that sports can be viewed as a ritual and a game at the same time. Sports as a result can be viewed as a parallel ritual process which is connected to leisure time and freedom. The symbolic effect of a ritual allows classification of social relationships among men and between women and men, as well as the impact sports has on nations. Some national sports like baseball in Cuba, cricket in the West Indies, and football in a majority of Latin American countries drive passion that goes past the ethnic status, regional origins, or class lines. Therefore, sport is an important field of analysis for achieving better understanding of the functioning of modern societies.[4]

Race and sports edit

1936 Berlin Games edit

There was controversy around the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, as the rhetoric and laws of the host country (Nazi Germany) encompassed, and indeed were largely based on, overt and extreme racism. Many Germans were dismayed that nonwhite athletes were allowed to compete; the "Nazis were deeply offended by sporting contacts with 'primitive' races and by competing against Negro athletes, in particular."[5]

Adolf Hitler agreed with the proposition people who had ancestors who "came from the jungle" were "primitive because their physiques were stronger than those of civilized whites."[5] and wanted to impose racial segregation on the games, but the Olympic Committee refused. The Nazi regime did, however, use any results they could to propagandize the superiority of what they called the Aryan race.

Historical racist theories edit

Sport has always been characterized by racial social relationships. The first scientific look at race came at the end of the 19th century, when count Arthur de Gobineau attempted to prove the physical and intellectual superiority of the white race. Darwin's theory of natural selection was used in service of racism as well. After the athletic ability of black sportspeople was proven, the theory shifted toward physical ability at the expense of intellect.[6]

 
Arthur de Gobineau

Several racist theories were advanced. Black people were athletically able because animals ate all the slow ones.[7] The myth of "middle passage" posited only the most athletically able of black people were able to survive the slave trade and plantation work.[8] The matriarchal theory suggested that absent fathers made black people channel their anger into sports, with coaches becoming father figures. The mandigo theory assumed that the most physically potent black men were bred with the most physically potent black women. The psychological theory claimed that black athletes did not have the intellectual capacity to assume leadership positions in sports. The "dumb jock theory" saw black people enrolling on sport scholarships as they were unable to find success in academia. Lastly, the genetic theory suggested that black sportspeople had more of certain muscle fibers.[9]

Current sociology edit

Young African-Americans see sports as means of upward social mobility, which is denied to them through conventional employment.[10] Race often interplays with class, gender and ethnicity to determine how accessible certain sports are, and how the athlete is perceived. For example, golf is inaccessible to African-Americans less because of race, and more because of the high economic and social capital needed.[11]

Race is often connected to gender, with women having less opportunities to access and succeed in sports. Once a woman does succeed, her race is downplayed and her sexuality is accentuated.[12] In certain cultures, especially Muslim ones, women are denied access to sports all-together.[13]

In team sports, white players are often placed in central positions which demand intelligence, decisiveness, leadership, calmness and reliability. Black players are in turn place in positions that demand athletic ability, physical strength, speed and explosiveness. For example, white players in the role of central midfielders and black players as wingers.[14]

Gender in sports edit

Female participation in sports is influenced by patriarchal ideologies surrounding the body, as well as ideas of femininity and sexuality. Physical exertion inevitably leads to development of muscle, which is connected to masculinity, which is in contrast to the idea of women as presented by modern consumer culture. Women who enter sports early are more likely to challenge these stereotypes.[15]

Television networks and corporations focus on showcasing female athlete which are considered as attractive, which trivializes the achievements of these sportswomen. Women's sports are less covered by news than male sports. During sporting events, the camera focuses on specifically on attractive women.[16] Allen Guttman argues that erotic component of sports cannot be rooted out, and as such remains one of its key components. Further, attractive male and female athletes will always be more sought after. The erotic component of sports should be researched, instead of being outright rejected.[17]

Jennifer Hargreaves sees three political strategies for women in sports:[18]

  • Co-option: this strategy rejects conservative claims of biological differences and traditional gender values. Liberal feminists believe women will gradually take over more roles within sport created and controlled by men.
  • Separatism: position held by radical feminists, which advocates self-realization through organization of sport events and governing bodies independent of men. It would further increase the number of women competing in various sports.
  • Cooperation: advocated by socialist feminists who believe that cooperation between men and women would help to establish new sporting models that would negate gender differences. They recognize the diversity of struggles within modern capitalist societies, and aims at liberation from them. Unlike separatism it engages with men, and is more extensive than co-option. Co-operation posits that men are not inherently oppressive, but are socialized into reproducing oppressive roles.

Theories in sociology of sport edit

Functionalism edit

Structural functionalist theories see society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.[19] Sport itself developed from religious ceremonies, which served to promote social and moral solidarity of the community.[20]

Bromberger saw similarities between religious ceremonies and football matches. Matches are held in a particular spatial configuration, pitches are sacred and may not be polluted by pitch invaders, and lead to intense emotional states in fans. As with religious ceremonies, spectators are spatially distributed according to social distribution of power. Football seasons have a fixed calendar. Group roles on match day are ceremonial, with specially robed people performing intense ritual acts. As a church, football has an organizational network, from local to global levels. Matches have a sequential order that guides the actions of participants, from pre-match to post-match actions. Lastly, football rituals create a sense of communitas.[21] Songs and choreography can be seen as an immanent ceremony through which spectators transfer their strength to the team.[22]

Accounting for the fact that not all actions support the existing societal structure, Robert K. Merton saw five ways a person could react to the existing structure, which can be applied to sports as well: conformism, innovation, ritualism, withdrawal, and rebellion.[23]

Erving Goffman drew on Durkheim's conception of positive rituals, emphasizing the sacred status of an individual's "face". Positive (compliments, greetings, etc.) and negative (avoiding confrontation, apologies, etc.) rituals all serve to protect one's face.[24] Sport journalists, for example, utilize both the positive and negative rituals to protect the face of the athlete they wish to maintain good relations with. Birrell furthermore posits sport events are ritual competitions in which athletes show their character through a mix of bravery, good play and integrity. A good showing serves to reinforce the good face of the athlete.[25]

Interpretative sociology edit

Interpretative sociology explores the interrelations of social action to status, subjectivity, meaning, motives, identities and social change. It avoids explaining human groups through general laws and generalizations, preferring what Max Weber called verstehen - understanding and explaining individual motivations.[26] It allows for a more complete understanding of diverse social meanings, symbols and roles within sport. Sport allows for creation of various social identities within the framework of a single game or match, which may change during it or throughout the course of multiple matches.[27] Ones role as a sportsperson further affects how they act outside of a game or a match, i.e. acting out the role of a student athlete.[28]

Weber introduced the notion of rationalization. In modern society, relationship are organized to be as efficient as possible, based on technical knowledge, instead of moral and political principles. This creates bureaucracies that are efficient, impersonal and homogeneous.[29] Allen Guttmann identified several key aspects of rationalization, which can likewise be applied to sports:[30][31]

  • Secularization: modern sports have become independent of the religious institutions from which they have evolved. In the pre-modern societies, sport and religious festivities were interconnected. Religion does hold some importance in sports, which can be seen in the pre-match rituals, superstitions and prayer.
  • Meritocracy: Sports promote fair competition, while pre-modern sports were exclusive. For example, the ancient Olympics excluded women and non-citizens. In contrast, modern sports offer opportunities to the disadvantaged, while fair judging/refereeing offer a level playing field. Social status still plays a role in sport access and success. Richer countries will have more numerous and successful athletes, while the higher class will have access to better training and preparation.
  • Specialization: modern sports, just like industry, has a complex division of labor. Athletes have a very specialized role inside of a team, which they must learn and perform, i.e. the kicker in american football. This does not apply to all sports, as some value the ability to cover a number of roles as necessary.
  • Rationalization: modern sports identify the most efficient way to achieve the desired goal. On the other hand, Giulianotti points out that sports are dominated by irrational actions.
  • Bureaucratization: sports are controlled by organizations, committees and supervisory boards on local, continental and global levels. Leading positions are supposed to be given based on qualifications and experience, instead of charisma and nepotism. This is not always the case, as powerful and charismatic personage are often put in charge of said organizations and committees.
  • Quantification: Statistics measure and compare modern sport events, often throughout multiple generations, reducing complex events to understandable information which can be easily grasped by the mass public. Statistics are not the dominant factor in sport culture, with the socio-psychological and aesthetically pleasing factors still being the most important.

Neo-Marxism edit

Karl Marx saw sports as rooted in its economic context, subject to commodification and alienation. Neo-Marxism sees sport as an ideological tool of the bourgeoisie, used to deceive the masses, in order to maintain control. As laborers, athletes give up their labour power, and suffer the same fate as the alienated worker.[32] Aside from supporting industrial capitalism, sport propagates heavy physical exertion and overworking as something positive.[33]

Specialized division of labor force athletes to constantly perform the same movements, instead of playing creatively, experimentally and freely.[34] The athlete if often under the illusion of being free, unaware of losing control over his labor power.[35] Spectators themselves support the alienation of athletes' labor through their support and participation.[36]

Marxist theories have been used to research the commodification of sport, for example, how players themselves become goods or promote them,[37] the hyper-commercialization of sports during the 20th century,[38] how clubs become like traditional firms, and how sport organizations become brands.[39]

This approach has been criticized for their tendency toward raw economism,[40] and supposing that all current social structures function to maintain the existing capitalist order.[41] Supporting sport teams does not necessarily contradict the development of class consciousness and participating in the class struggle.[42] Sport events have a number of examples of political protest. Neo Marxist analysis of sports often underestimate the aesthetic side of sport as well.

Cultural studies edit

Hegemony research describes the relations of power, as well as methods and techniques used by dominant groups to achieve ideological consent, without resorting to physical coercion. This ideological consent aims to make the exploratory social order seem natural, guaranteeing that the subordinate groups live out their subordination. A hegemony is always open to contestation, and thus counter-hegemonic movements may emerge.[43]

The dominant groups may use sports to steer the use of the subordinate classes in the desired direction,[44] or towards consumerism.[45] However, the history of sport shows that colonized are not necessarily manipulated through sport,[46] while sport professionalization, and their own popular culture, helped the working class avoid mass subordination to bourgeois values.[47]

Resistance is a key concept in cultural studies, which describes how subordinate groups engage in particular cultural practices to resist their domination. Resistance can be overt and deliberate or latent and unconscious, but always counters the norms and conventions of the dominant groups.[48] John Fiske differentiated between confrontational semiotics and avoidance.[49]

Body and sports edit

Body became a subject of research in the 80s, with the work of Michel Foucault. For him, power is exercise in two different ways - through biopower and disciplinary power. Biopower centers on the political control of key biological aspects of the human body and whole populations, such as birth, reproduction, death, etc. Disciplinary power is exercised by means of the everyday disciplining of bodies, particularly through controlling time and space.[50][51]

Eichberg sees three different types of bodies as highlighting the difference between disciplined and undisciplined bodies in sport: the dialogic body, of different shapes and sizes, which are given to freeing oneself from control, and were the main type in pre-modern festivals and carnivals. The streamlined, improved body for sports accomplishment and competition. The healthy, straight body, which is shaped through disciplined regimes of fitness. The grotesque body could be seen in pre-modern festivals and carnivals, i.e. folk wrestling or three-legged race.[52] Modern sport pedagogy fluctuates between strictness and freedom, discipline and control, but the hierarchical relations of power and knowledge between the coach and athlete remain.[53]

Segel claimed that the cultural raise of sports reflected the wider turn of modern society toward physical expression, which revived militarism, war and fascism.[54] Some representatives of the Frankfurt school, saw sport as a cult of the fascistic idea of the body.[55] Tännsjö claimed that overly complimenting sport prowess reflects the fascistic elements in society, as it normalizes the ridicule of the weak and defeated.

Sports and injury edit

Prizefighting allows research into the violent body. Prizefighters transform their bodily capital into prizefighting capital, for the purpose of winning fame, status and wealth.[56] Their bodies are exploited by managers, of which they are aware, describing themselves alternatively as prostitutes, slaves and stallions.[57] Prizefighters accept the routine damage their bodies sustain, while at the same time fearing the effects of such damage. A frequent response to this is attempting to turn themselves into heroic personalities. All contact sports have violence as part of strategy to a certain extent.[58] Sports violence is not individual, but is a product of socialization. Finn see footballers as socializing into a culture of quasi-violence, which accentuates different values than those in regular life. It accepts violence as central to the game.[59]

Physical injury of sportspeople can be seen through Beck's theory of a "risk society". A risk society is characterized by reflexive modernity, where members of society are well informed, critical and participate in the shaping of social structures. Unlike the routine risk of traditional society, modern societies identify and minimize risks.[60] Reflexive modernity in sports is evinced in isolation, minimizing and removal of causes of physical injury, while at the same time keeping the techniques and strategies particular to those sports. The lower classes have lower access to risk assessment and avoidance, and as such have a higher rate of participation in riskier sports.[61]

Despite this, athletes are still thought to ignore and attempt to overcome pain, as overcoming pain is seen as brave and heroic. The capacity of the athlete to make the body seem invincible is an integral part of sports professionalism.[62] This ignoring of pain is often a key part of some sport subcultures.[63] Children are also often exposed to acute pain and injuries, i.e. gymnastics.[64]

Emotion in sports edit

Emotion has always been a huge part of sports as it can affect both athletes and the spectators themselves. Theorists and sociologists who study the impact of emotions in sports try to classify emotions into categories. Controversial, debated, and discussed intensely, these classifications are not definitive or set in stone. Emotion is very important in sports; athletes can use them to convey specific and significant information to their teammates and coaches and they can use emotion to send false signals to confuse their opponents. In addition to athletes using emotion to their advantage, emotion can also have a negative impact on athletes and their performances. For example, "stage fright," or nervousness and apprehension, can impact their performance in their sport, be it in a positive or negative way.[65]

Depending on the level of sports, the level of emotion differs. In professional sports, emotions can be extremely intense because there are many more people in many distinct roles who are involved. There are the professional athletes, the coaching staff, the referees, the television crew, the commentators, and last but not least, the fans and spectators. There is much more public press, pressure, and self-pressure. It is extremely difficult to not get emotionally invested in sports; sports are very good at bringing out the worst qualities in people. There have been violent brawls when one team beats another in an intense game, loud fighting and yelling, and intense verbal arguments as well. Emotion is also highly contagious, especially if there are many emotional people in one space.[66]

Binary divisions within sports edit

There are many perspectives through which sport can be viewed. Therefore, very often some binary divisions are stressed, and many sports sociologists have shown that those divisions can create constructs within the ideologies of gender and affect the relationships between genders, as well as advocate or challenge social and racial class structures.[67] Some of these binary divisions include: professional vs. amateur, mass vs. top-level, active vs. passive/spectator, men vs. women, sports vs. play (as an antithesis to organized and institutionalized activity).

Not only can binary divisions be seen within sports themselves, but they are also seen in the research of sports. The field of research has mainly been dominated by men because many[citation needed] believe that women's input or research is inauthentic compared to men's research. Some women researchers also feel as though they have to "earn" their place within the sports research field whereas men, for the most part, do not. While women researchers in this field do have to deal with gender-related issues when it comes to their research, it does not prevent them from being able to gather and understand the data they are collecting. Sports sociologists believe that women can have a unique perspective when gathering research on sports since they are able to more closely look at and understand the female fan side of sporting events.[68]

Following feminist or other reflexive and tradition-breaking paradigms, sports are sometimes studied as contested activities, i.e. as activities in the center of various people/groups interests (connection of sports and gender, mass media, or state-politics). These perspectives provide people with different ways to think about sports and figure out the differences between the binary divisions. Sports have always been of tremendous impact to the world as a whole, as well as individual societies and the people within them. There are so many positive aspects to the world of sport, specifically, organized sport. Sports involve community values, attempting to establish and exercise good morals and ethics. Spectator sports provide watchers with an enlivenment through key societal values displayed in the "game". Becoming a fan teaches you a large variety of skills as well that are a very important part of everyday life in the office, at home, and on the go. Some of these skills include teamwork, leadership, creativity, and individuality.[citation needed]

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

  • Bourdieu, Pierre (1993). How can one be a sports fan?. London: Routledge In The Cultural Studies Reader, During, S. (ed.). pp. 339–355. ISBN 0-415-07708-7. OCLC 28818343.
  • Cashmore, Ernest (2000). Sports Culture: An A-Z Guide. London, UK; New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18169-0. OCLC 41548336.
  • Coakley, Jay J. (2004). Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies (8th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-255657-9. OCLC 51631598.
  • Collins, Michael F. and Tess Kay (2003). Sport and Social Exclusion. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25959-2. OCLC 51527713. - Examines how social factors that exclude participation in sports, including poverty, age, ethnicity, gender, etc.
  • Danielson, Michael N. (1997). Home Team: Professional Sports and the American Metropolis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03650-0. OCLC 35397761.
  • Dunning, Eric; Malcolm, Dominic (2003). Sport: Critical Concepts in Sociology. London, UK; New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26292-5. OCLC 51222256.
  • Dyck, Noel (2000). Games, Sports and Cultures. Oxford: Berg. ISBN 1-85973-312-3. OCLC 44485325.
  • Dunleavy, Aidan O.; Andrew W. Miracle & C. Roger Rees (1982). Studies in the Sociology of Sport. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press. ISBN 0-912646-78-0. OCLC 8762539.
  • Eitzen, D. Stanley and George Harvey Sage (2003). Sociology of North American Sport (7th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-235400-3. OCLC 49276709.
  • Giulianotti, Richard (2005). Sport: A Critical Sociology. Oxford, UK; Malden, MA: Polity. ISBN 0-7456-2545-2. OCLC 56659449.
  • Giulianotti, Richard (2004). Sport and Modern Social Theorists. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-80078-8. OCLC 55095622.
  • Guttmann, Allen (2004). From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (Updated with a new afterword ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13341-3. OCLC 54503875.
  • Guttmann, Allen (1994). Games and Empires. Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10042-6. OCLC 30036883.
  • Heywood, Leslie, and Shari L. Dworkin (2003). Built to Win: The Female Athlete as Cultural Icon. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3623-0. OCLC 51304091.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Houlihan, Barrie, ed. (2003). Sport and Society: A Student Introduction. London, UK; Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ISBN 0-7619-7033-9. OCLC 52460691.
  • Jarvie, Grant & Maguire, Joseph (1994). Sport and Leisure in Social Thought. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07703-6. OCLC 30030487.
  • Jarvie, Grant (2006). Sport, Culture and Society. An Introduction. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-30647-7. OCLC 60650865.
  • Jay, Kathryn (2004). More than just a Game: Sports in American Life since 1945. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12534-8. OCLC 54503879.
  • Johnson, Jay and Margery Jean Holman (2004). Making the Team: Inside the World of Sport Initiations and Hazing. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars' Press. ISBN 1-55130-247-0. OCLC 55973445.
  • Jones, Robyn L.; Armour, Kathleen M. (2000). Sociology of Sport: Theory and Practice. Harlow, Essex, England: Longman. ISBN 0-582-41912-3. OCLC 46486583.
  • Laker, Anthony (2002). The Sociology of Sport and Physical Education: An Introductory Reader. London, UK; New York, NY: RoutledgeFalmer. ISBN 0-415-23593-6. OCLC 46732587.
  • Lenskyj, Helen Jefferson (2003). Out on the Field: Gender, Sport and Sexualities. Toronto: Women's Press. ISBN 9780889614161.
  • Loland, Sigmund; Skirstad, Berit; Waddington, Ivan (2006). Pain and Injury in Sport: Social and Ethical Analysis. London, UK; New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-35703-9. OCLC 60453764.
  • Maguire, Joseph A. (2002). Sport Worlds: A Sociological Perspective. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. ISBN 0-88011-972-1. OCLC 48162875.
  • Joseph A. Maguire; Kevin Young, eds. (2002). Theory, Sport & Society. Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Boston, MA: JAI. ISBN 0-7623-0742-0. OCLC 48837757.
  • Nixon, Howard L. (2008). Sport in a Changing World. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59451-442-5. OCLC 181368766.
  • Scambler, Graham (2005). Sport and Society: History, Power and Culture. Maidenhead, England; New York, NY: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-21071-6. OCLC 58554471.
  • Scraton, Sheila and Anne Flintoff (2002). Gender and Sport: A Reader. London, UK; New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25952-5. OCLC 47255389.
  • Sugden, John Peter and Alan Tomlinson (2002). Power Games: A Critical Sociology of Sport. London, England; New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25100-1. OCLC 50291216.
  • Tomlinson, Alan (2005). Sport and Leisure Cultures. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3382-7. OCLC 57000964.
  • Tomlinson, Alan and Christopher Young (2006). National Identity and Global Sports Events: Culture, Politics, and Spectacle in the Olympics and the Football World Cup. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-6615-9. OCLC 57349033.
  • Waddington, Ivan (2000). Sport, Health and Drugs: A Critical Sociological Perspective. London, UK; New York, NY: E & FN Spon. ISBN 0-419-25190-1. OCLC 42692125.
  • Woods, Ron B. (2007). Social Issues in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. ISBN 978-0-7360-5872-8. OCLC 70673116.
  • Yiannakis, Andrew and Merrill J. Melnick (2001). Contemporary Issues in Sociology of Sport (Revised ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. ISBN 0-7360-3710-1. OCLC 45207842.
  • Young, Kevin and Kevin B. Wamsley (2005). Global Olympics: Historical and Sociological Studies of the Modern Games. Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Oxford, UK: Elsevier JAI. ISBN 978-0-7623-1181-1. OCLC 62133166.
  • Young, Kevin and Philip White (2007). Sport and Gender in Canada (2nd ed.). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-541987-0. OCLC 70062619.

External links edit

  • International Sociology of Sport Association
  • North American Society for the Sociology of Sport
  • Sociology of Sport Journal

January 01, 1970
sociology, sport, alternately, referred, sports, sociology, discipline, sociology, which, focuses, sports, social, phenomena, area, study, concerned, with, relationship, between, sociology, sports, also, various, socio, cultural, structures, patterns, organiza. Sociology of sport alternately referred to as sports sociology is a sub discipline of sociology which focuses on sports as social phenomena It is an area of study concerned with the relationship between sociology and sports and also various socio cultural structures patterns and organizations or groups involved with sport This area of study discusses the positive impact sports have on individual people and society as a whole economically financially and socially Sociology of sport attempts to view the actions and behavior of sports teams and their players through the eyes of a sociologist 1 Football fan blowing a trumphet before the Uganda Vs Cape Verde Game Sport is regulated by regulations and rules of behavior spatial and time constraints and has governing bodies It is oriented towards a goal which makes known both the winner and the loser It is competitive and ludic All sports are culturally situated intertwined with the value systems and power relations within the host society 2 The emergence of the sociology of sport though not the name itself dates from the end of the 19th century when first social psychological experiments dealing with group effects of competition and pace making took place Besides cultural anthropology and its interest in games in the human culture one of the first efforts to think about sports in a more general way was Johan Huizinga s Homo Ludens or Thorstein Veblen s Theory of the Leisure Class Homo Ludens discusses the importance of the element of play in culture and society Huizinga suggests that play specifically sport is primary to and a necessary condition of the generation of culture These written works contributed to the rise of the study of sociology of sport In 1970 sports sociology gained significant attention as an organized legitimate field of study The North American Society for the Sociology of Sport was formed in 1978 with the objective of studying the field Its research outlet the Sociology of Sport Journal was formed in 1984 3 It is a common assumption that sports can be viewed as a ritual and a game at the same time Sports as a result can be viewed as a parallel ritual process which is connected to leisure time and freedom The symbolic effect of a ritual allows classification of social relationships among men and between women and men as well as the impact sports has on nations Some national sports like baseball in Cuba cricket in the West Indies and football in a majority of Latin American countries drive passion that goes past the ethnic status regional origins or class lines Therefore sport is an important field of analysis for achieving better understanding of the functioning of modern societies 4 Contents 1 Race and sports 1 1 1936 Berlin Games 1 2 Historical racist theories 1 3 Current sociology 2 Gender in sports 3 Theories in sociology of sport 3 1 Functionalism 3 2 Interpretative sociology 3 3 Neo Marxism 3 4 Cultural studies 4 Body and sports 4 1 Sports and injury 5 Emotion in sports 6 Binary divisions within sports 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksRace and sports edit1936 Berlin Games edit There was controversy around the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games as the rhetoric and laws of the host country Nazi Germany encompassed and indeed were largely based on overt and extreme racism Many Germans were dismayed that nonwhite athletes were allowed to compete the Nazis were deeply offended by sporting contacts with primitive races and by competing against Negro athletes in particular 5 Adolf Hitler agreed with the proposition people who had ancestors who came from the jungle were primitive because their physiques were stronger than those of civilized whites 5 and wanted to impose racial segregation on the games but the Olympic Committee refused The Nazi regime did however use any results they could to propagandize the superiority of what they called the Aryan race Historical racist theories edit Sport has always been characterized by racial social relationships The first scientific look at race came at the end of the 19th century when count Arthur de Gobineau attempted to prove the physical and intellectual superiority of the white race Darwin s theory of natural selection was used in service of racism as well After the athletic ability of black sportspeople was proven the theory shifted toward physical ability at the expense of intellect 6 nbsp Arthur de Gobineau Several racist theories were advanced Black people were athletically able because animals ate all the slow ones 7 The myth of middle passage posited only the most athletically able of black people were able to survive the slave trade and plantation work 8 The matriarchal theory suggested that absent fathers made black people channel their anger into sports with coaches becoming father figures The mandigo theory assumed that the most physically potent black men were bred with the most physically potent black women The psychological theory claimed that black athletes did not have the intellectual capacity to assume leadership positions in sports The dumb jock theory saw black people enrolling on sport scholarships as they were unable to find success in academia Lastly the genetic theory suggested that black sportspeople had more of certain muscle fibers 9 Current sociology edit Young African Americans see sports as means of upward social mobility which is denied to them through conventional employment 10 Race often interplays with class gender and ethnicity to determine how accessible certain sports are and how the athlete is perceived For example golf is inaccessible to African Americans less because of race and more because of the high economic and social capital needed 11 Race is often connected to gender with women having less opportunities to access and succeed in sports Once a woman does succeed her race is downplayed and her sexuality is accentuated 12 In certain cultures especially Muslim ones women are denied access to sports all together 13 In team sports white players are often placed in central positions which demand intelligence decisiveness leadership calmness and reliability Black players are in turn place in positions that demand athletic ability physical strength speed and explosiveness For example white players in the role of central midfielders and black players as wingers 14 Gender in sports editFemale participation in sports is influenced by patriarchal ideologies surrounding the body as well as ideas of femininity and sexuality Physical exertion inevitably leads to development of muscle which is connected to masculinity which is in contrast to the idea of women as presented by modern consumer culture Women who enter sports early are more likely to challenge these stereotypes 15 Television networks and corporations focus on showcasing female athlete which are considered as attractive which trivializes the achievements of these sportswomen Women s sports are less covered by news than male sports During sporting events the camera focuses on specifically on attractive women 16 Allen Guttman argues that erotic component of sports cannot be rooted out and as such remains one of its key components Further attractive male and female athletes will always be more sought after The erotic component of sports should be researched instead of being outright rejected 17 Jennifer Hargreaves sees three political strategies for women in sports 18 Co option this strategy rejects conservative claims of biological differences and traditional gender values Liberal feminists believe women will gradually take over more roles within sport created and controlled by men Separatism position held by radical feminists which advocates self realization through organization of sport events and governing bodies independent of men It would further increase the number of women competing in various sports Cooperation advocated by socialist feminists who believe that cooperation between men and women would help to establish new sporting models that would negate gender differences They recognize the diversity of struggles within modern capitalist societies and aims at liberation from them Unlike separatism it engages with men and is more extensive than co option Co operation posits that men are not inherently oppressive but are socialized into reproducing oppressive roles Theories in sociology of sport editFunctionalism edit Structural functionalist theories see society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability 19 Sport itself developed from religious ceremonies which served to promote social and moral solidarity of the community 20 Bromberger saw similarities between religious ceremonies and football matches Matches are held in a particular spatial configuration pitches are sacred and may not be polluted by pitch invaders and lead to intense emotional states in fans As with religious ceremonies spectators are spatially distributed according to social distribution of power Football seasons have a fixed calendar Group roles on match day are ceremonial with specially robed people performing intense ritual acts As a church football has an organizational network from local to global levels Matches have a sequential order that guides the actions of participants from pre match to post match actions Lastly football rituals create a sense of communitas 21 Songs and choreography can be seen as an immanent ceremony through which spectators transfer their strength to the team 22 Accounting for the fact that not all actions support the existing societal structure Robert K Merton saw five ways a person could react to the existing structure which can be applied to sports as well conformism innovation ritualism withdrawal and rebellion 23 Erving Goffman drew on Durkheim s conception of positive rituals emphasizing the sacred status of an individual s face Positive compliments greetings etc and negative avoiding confrontation apologies etc rituals all serve to protect one s face 24 Sport journalists for example utilize both the positive and negative rituals to protect the face of the athlete they wish to maintain good relations with Birrell furthermore posits sport events are ritual competitions in which athletes show their character through a mix of bravery good play and integrity A good showing serves to reinforce the good face of the athlete 25 Interpretative sociology edit Interpretative sociology explores the interrelations of social action to status subjectivity meaning motives identities and social change It avoids explaining human groups through general laws and generalizations preferring what Max Weber called verstehen understanding and explaining individual motivations 26 It allows for a more complete understanding of diverse social meanings symbols and roles within sport Sport allows for creation of various social identities within the framework of a single game or match which may change during it or throughout the course of multiple matches 27 Ones role as a sportsperson further affects how they act outside of a game or a match i e acting out the role of a student athlete 28 Weber introduced the notion of rationalization In modern society relationship are organized to be as efficient as possible based on technical knowledge instead of moral and political principles This creates bureaucracies that are efficient impersonal and homogeneous 29 Allen Guttmann identified several key aspects of rationalization which can likewise be applied to sports 30 31 Secularization modern sports have become independent of the religious institutions from which they have evolved In the pre modern societies sport and religious festivities were interconnected Religion does hold some importance in sports which can be seen in the pre match rituals superstitions and prayer Meritocracy Sports promote fair competition while pre modern sports were exclusive For example the ancient Olympics excluded women and non citizens In contrast modern sports offer opportunities to the disadvantaged while fair judging refereeing offer a level playing field Social status still plays a role in sport access and success Richer countries will have more numerous and successful athletes while the higher class will have access to better training and preparation Specialization modern sports just like industry has a complex division of labor Athletes have a very specialized role inside of a team which they must learn and perform i e the kicker in american football This does not apply to all sports as some value the ability to cover a number of roles as necessary Rationalization modern sports identify the most efficient way to achieve the desired goal On the other hand Giulianotti points out that sports are dominated by irrational actions Bureaucratization sports are controlled by organizations committees and supervisory boards on local continental and global levels Leading positions are supposed to be given based on qualifications and experience instead of charisma and nepotism This is not always the case as powerful and charismatic personage are often put in charge of said organizations and committees Quantification Statistics measure and compare modern sport events often throughout multiple generations reducing complex events to understandable information which can be easily grasped by the mass public Statistics are not the dominant factor in sport culture with the socio psychological and aesthetically pleasing factors still being the most important Neo Marxism edit Karl Marx saw sports as rooted in its economic context subject to commodification and alienation Neo Marxism sees sport as an ideological tool of the bourgeoisie used to deceive the masses in order to maintain control As laborers athletes give up their labour power and suffer the same fate as the alienated worker 32 Aside from supporting industrial capitalism sport propagates heavy physical exertion and overworking as something positive 33 Specialized division of labor force athletes to constantly perform the same movements instead of playing creatively experimentally and freely 34 The athlete if often under the illusion of being free unaware of losing control over his labor power 35 Spectators themselves support the alienation of athletes labor through their support and participation 36 Marxist theories have been used to research the commodification of sport for example how players themselves become goods or promote them 37 the hyper commercialization of sports during the 20th century 38 how clubs become like traditional firms and how sport organizations become brands 39 This approach has been criticized for their tendency toward raw economism 40 and supposing that all current social structures function to maintain the existing capitalist order 41 Supporting sport teams does not necessarily contradict the development of class consciousness and participating in the class struggle 42 Sport events have a number of examples of political protest Neo Marxist analysis of sports often underestimate the aesthetic side of sport as well Cultural studies edit Hegemony research describes the relations of power as well as methods and techniques used by dominant groups to achieve ideological consent without resorting to physical coercion This ideological consent aims to make the exploratory social order seem natural guaranteeing that the subordinate groups live out their subordination A hegemony is always open to contestation and thus counter hegemonic movements may emerge 43 The dominant groups may use sports to steer the use of the subordinate classes in the desired direction 44 or towards consumerism 45 However the history of sport shows that colonized are not necessarily manipulated through sport 46 while sport professionalization and their own popular culture helped the working class avoid mass subordination to bourgeois values 47 Resistance is a key concept in cultural studies which describes how subordinate groups engage in particular cultural practices to resist their domination Resistance can be overt and deliberate or latent and unconscious but always counters the norms and conventions of the dominant groups 48 John Fiske differentiated between confrontational semiotics and avoidance 49 Body and sports editBody became a subject of research in the 80s with the work of Michel Foucault For him power is exercise in two different ways through biopower and disciplinary power Biopower centers on the political control of key biological aspects of the human body and whole populations such as birth reproduction death etc Disciplinary power is exercised by means of the everyday disciplining of bodies particularly through controlling time and space 50 51 Eichberg sees three different types of bodies as highlighting the difference between disciplined and undisciplined bodies in sport the dialogic body of different shapes and sizes which are given to freeing oneself from control and were the main type in pre modern festivals and carnivals The streamlined improved body for sports accomplishment and competition The healthy straight body which is shaped through disciplined regimes of fitness The grotesque body could be seen in pre modern festivals and carnivals i e folk wrestling or three legged race 52 Modern sport pedagogy fluctuates between strictness and freedom discipline and control but the hierarchical relations of power and knowledge between the coach and athlete remain 53 Segel claimed that the cultural raise of sports reflected the wider turn of modern society toward physical expression which revived militarism war and fascism 54 Some representatives of the Frankfurt school saw sport as a cult of the fascistic idea of the body 55 Tannsjo claimed that overly complimenting sport prowess reflects the fascistic elements in society as it normalizes the ridicule of the weak and defeated Sports and injury edit Prizefighting allows research into the violent body Prizefighters transform their bodily capital into prizefighting capital for the purpose of winning fame status and wealth 56 Their bodies are exploited by managers of which they are aware describing themselves alternatively as prostitutes slaves and stallions 57 Prizefighters accept the routine damage their bodies sustain while at the same time fearing the effects of such damage A frequent response to this is attempting to turn themselves into heroic personalities All contact sports have violence as part of strategy to a certain extent 58 Sports violence is not individual but is a product of socialization Finn see footballers as socializing into a culture of quasi violence which accentuates different values than those in regular life It accepts violence as central to the game 59 Physical injury of sportspeople can be seen through Beck s theory of a risk society A risk society is characterized by reflexive modernity where members of society are well informed critical and participate in the shaping of social structures Unlike the routine risk of traditional society modern societies identify and minimize risks 60 Reflexive modernity in sports is evinced in isolation minimizing and removal of causes of physical injury while at the same time keeping the techniques and strategies particular to those sports The lower classes have lower access to risk assessment and avoidance and as such have a higher rate of participation in riskier sports 61 Despite this athletes are still thought to ignore and attempt to overcome pain as overcoming pain is seen as brave and heroic The capacity of the athlete to make the body seem invincible is an integral part of sports professionalism 62 This ignoring of pain is often a key part of some sport subcultures 63 Children are also often exposed to acute pain and injuries i e gymnastics 64 Emotion in sports editEmotion has always been a huge part of sports as it can affect both athletes and the spectators themselves Theorists and sociologists who study the impact of emotions in sports try to classify emotions into categories Controversial debated and discussed intensely these classifications are not definitive or set in stone Emotion is very important in sports athletes can use them to convey specific and significant information to their teammates and coaches and they can use emotion to send false signals to confuse their opponents In addition to athletes using emotion to their advantage emotion can also have a negative impact on athletes and their performances For example stage fright or nervousness and apprehension can impact their performance in their sport be it in a positive or negative way 65 Depending on the level of sports the level of emotion differs In professional sports emotions can be extremely intense because there are many more people in many distinct roles who are involved There are the professional athletes the coaching staff the referees the television crew the commentators and last but not least the fans and spectators There is much more public press pressure and self pressure It is extremely difficult to not get emotionally invested in sports sports are very good at bringing out the worst qualities in people There have been violent brawls when one team beats another in an intense game loud fighting and yelling and intense verbal arguments as well Emotion is also highly contagious especially if there are many emotional people in one space 66 Binary divisions within sports editThere are many perspectives through which sport can be viewed Therefore very often some binary divisions are stressed and many sports sociologists have shown that those divisions can create constructs within the ideologies of gender and affect the relationships between genders as well as advocate or challenge social and racial class structures 67 Some of these binary divisions include professional vs amateur mass vs top level active vs passive spectator men vs women sports vs play as an antithesis to organized and institutionalized activity Not only can binary divisions be seen within sports themselves but they are also seen in the research of sports The field of research has mainly been dominated by men because many citation needed believe that women s input or research is inauthentic compared to men s research Some women researchers also feel as though they have to earn their place within the sports research field whereas men for the most part do not While women researchers in this field do have to deal with gender related issues when it comes to their research it does not prevent them from being able to gather and understand the data they are collecting Sports sociologists believe that women can have a unique perspective when gathering research on sports since they are able to more closely look at and understand the female fan side of sporting events 68 Following feminist or other reflexive and tradition breaking paradigms sports are sometimes studied as contested activities i e as activities in the center of various people groups interests connection of sports and gender mass media or state politics These perspectives provide people with different ways to think about sports and figure out the differences between the binary divisions Sports have always been of tremendous impact to the world as a whole as well as individual societies and the people within them There are so many positive aspects to the world of sport specifically organized sport Sports involve community values attempting to establish and exercise good morals and ethics Spectator sports provide watchers with an enlivenment through key societal values displayed in the game Becoming a fan teaches you a large variety of skills as well that are a very important part of everyday life in the office at home and on the go Some of these skills include teamwork leadership creativity and individuality citation needed See also editHistory of sport Women s sport Anti jock Movement Physical cultural studies Harry Edwards Physical culture Fitness culture Sports strategy Sociology of the body The Outsourced Self Quantified self Exercise trendsReferences edit Macri Kenneth Not Just a Game Sport and Society in the United States inquiriesjournal com Retrieved February 25 2019 McPherson Barry D Curtis James E Loy John W 1989 The Social Significance of Sport An Introduction to the Sociology of Sport Champaign Illinois Human Kinetics pp 15 17 ISBN 978 0873222358 About NASSS nasss org Retrieved 3 February 2021 Archetti Eduardo P The Meaning of Sport in Anthropology A View from Latin America Revista Europea de Estudios Latinoamericanos y Del Caribe European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies no 65 1998 91 103 http www jstor org stable 25675799 a b Edelman Robert Wilson Wayne 2017 The Oxford handbook of sports history New York NY Oxford University Press p 31 ISBN 9780199858910 Miller Patrick B 1998 The Anatomy of Scientific Racism Racialist Responses to Black Athletic Achievement Journal of Sport History 25 1 119 151 JSTOR 43606920 Retrieved 1 February 2021 Olson James Roberts Randy 1989 Winning is the Only Thing Sports in America since 1945 Baltimore Maryland Johns Hopkins University Press pp 45 ISBN 9780801838309 Hoberman John Milton 1997 Darwin s Athletes How Sport Has Damaged Black America and Preserved the Myth of Race Boston Massachusetts Houghton Mifflin Harcourt pp 194 195 ISBN 9780395822920 Sailes Gary A 1998 The African American Athlete In Sailes Gary A ed African Americans in Sports Abingdon Routledge pp 190 196 ISBN 9780765804402 Giulianotti Richard November 2015 Sport A Critical Sociology 2nd Edition 2nd ed Cambridge Polity Press p 73 ISBN 978 0 745 66993 9 Lapchick Richard B 1991 Five Minutes to Midnight Race and Sport in the 1990s Seattle Madison Books p 290 Captain Gwendolyn Vertinsky Patricia September 1998 More Myth than History American Culture and Representations of the Black Female s Athletic Ability Journal of Sport History 25 3 552 553 Retrieved 1 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Retrieved 1 February 2021 Hargreaves Jennifer 1994 Sporting Females Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women s Sports Abingdon Routledge p 17 ISBN 9780415070287 Gruneau Richard S 1983 Class Sports and Social Development Amherst Massachusetts University of Massachusetts Press p 140 ISBN 9780870233876 Miliband Ralph 1977 Marxism and Politics Oxford Oxford University Press pp 52 53 Williams Raymond 1977 Marxism and Literature Oxford Oxford University Press pp 110 111 Clarke J Critcher C 1985 The Devil Makes Work Leisure in Capitalist Britain Champaign Illinois University of Illinois Press p 228 Hargreaves Jennifer 1994 Sporting Females Critical Issues in the History and Sociology of Women s Sports Abingdon Routledge p 228 ISBN 9780415070287 Guttman Allen 1995 Games and Empires Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism New York Columbia University Press pp 178 179 ISBN 9780231100427 Tranter Neil 1998 Sport Economy and Society in Britain 1750 1914 Cambridge Cambridge University 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London The Johns Hopkins University Press Hoberman John M 1984 Sport and Political Ideology Austin U of Texas Press pp 244 245 Wacquant Loic J D 1995 The Pugilistic Point of View How Boxers Think and Feel about Their Trade Theory and Society 24 4 66 67 doi 10 1007 BF00993521 JSTOR 657882 S2CID 144506344 Retrieved 2 February 2021 Wacquant LoIc 2001 Whores Slaves and Stallions Languages of Exploitation and Accommodation among Boxers Body amp Society 7 2 3 181 194 doi 10 1177 1357034X0100700210 S2CID 144030276 Retrieved 2 February 2021 Wacquant Loic J D 995 Pugs at Work Bodily Capital and Bodily Labour among Professional Boxers Body amp Society 1 1 65 93 doi 10 1177 1357034X95001001005 S2CID 145591779 Retrieved 2 February 2021 Messner Michael A 1992 Power at Play Sports and the Problem of Masculinity Boston Beacon Press p 71 ISBN 9780807041055 Beck Ulrich 1992 Risk Society Towards a New Modernity Thousand Oaks SAGE ISBN 9781446223420 Giulianotti Richard 2008 Sport kriticka sociologija Beograd Clio pp 172 173 Howe David September 2001 An ethnography of pain and injury in professional rugby union The Case of Pontypridd RFC International Review for the Sociology of Sport 36 3 doi 10 1177 101269001036003003 S2CID 146277415 Retrieved 2 February 2021 Albert Edward 1999 DEALING WITH DANGER The Normalization of Risk in Cycling International Review for the Sociology of Sport 34 2 doi 10 1177 101269099034002005 S2CID 143774370 Retrieved 2 February 2021 Ryan Joan 2000 Little Girls in Pretty Boxes The Making and Breaking of Elite Gymnasts and Figure Skaters New York Warner Books p 11 ISBN 9780446676823 Sports Emotions Sports Psychology IResearchNet Retrieved 2019 10 30 Sports Sociology of sports Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved 2019 10 30 Eckstein Rick Moss Dana M Delaney Kevin J 1 September 2010 Sports Sociology s Still Untapped Potential Sociological Forum 25 3 500 519 doi 10 1111 j 1573 7861 2010 01193 x Richards Jessica 1 March 2015 Which player do you fancy then Locating the female ethnographer in the field of the sociology of sport Soccer and Society 16 2 3 393 404 doi 10 1080 14660970 2014 961379 S2CID 144986873 Further reading editBourdieu Pierre 1993 How can one be a sports fan London Routledge In The Cultural Studies Reader During S ed pp 339 355 ISBN 0 415 07708 7 OCLC 28818343 Cashmore Ernest 2000 Sports Culture An A Z Guide London UK New York NY Routledge ISBN 0 415 18169 0 OCLC 41548336 Coakley Jay J 2004 Sport in Society Issues and Controversies 8th ed Boston MA McGraw Hill ISBN 0 07 255657 9 OCLC 51631598 Collins Michael F and Tess Kay 2003 Sport and Social Exclusion London Routledge ISBN 0 415 25959 2 OCLC 51527713 Examines how social factors that exclude participation in sports including poverty age ethnicity gender etc Danielson Michael N 1997 Home Team Professional Sports and the American Metropolis Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 0 691 03650 0 OCLC 35397761 Dunning Eric Malcolm Dominic 2003 Sport Critical Concepts in Sociology London UK New York NY Routledge ISBN 0 415 26292 5 OCLC 51222256 Dyck Noel 2000 Games Sports and Cultures Oxford Berg ISBN 1 85973 312 3 OCLC 44485325 Dunleavy Aidan O Andrew W Miracle amp C Roger Rees 1982 Studies in the Sociology of Sport Fort Worth Texas Christian University Press ISBN 0 912646 78 0 OCLC 8762539 Eitzen D Stanley and George Harvey Sage 2003 Sociology of North American Sport 7th ed Boston MA McGraw Hill ISBN 0 07 235400 3 OCLC 49276709 Giulianotti Richard 2005 Sport A Critical Sociology Oxford UK Malden MA Polity ISBN 0 7456 2545 2 OCLC 56659449 Giulianotti Richard 2004 Sport and Modern Social Theorists New York NY Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 0 333 80078 8 OCLC 55095622 Guttmann Allen 2004 From Ritual to Record The Nature of Modern Sports Updated with a new afterword ed New York NY Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 13341 3 OCLC 54503875 Guttmann Allen 1994 Games and Empires Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism New York Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 10042 6 OCLC 30036883 Heywood Leslie and Shari L Dworkin 2003 Built to Win The Female Athlete as Cultural Icon Minneapolis MN University of Minnesota Press ISBN 0 8166 3623 0 OCLC 51304091 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Houlihan Barrie ed 2003 Sport and Society A Student Introduction London UK Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications ISBN 0 7619 7033 9 OCLC 52460691 Jarvie Grant amp Maguire Joseph 1994 Sport and Leisure in Social Thought London Routledge ISBN 0 415 07703 6 OCLC 30030487 Jarvie Grant 2006 Sport Culture and Society An Introduction London Routledge ISBN 0 415 30647 7 OCLC 60650865 Jay Kathryn 2004 More than just a Game Sports in American Life since 1945 New York NY Columbia University Press ISBN 0 231 12534 8 OCLC 54503879 Johnson Jay and Margery Jean Holman 2004 Making the Team Inside the World of Sport Initiations and Hazing Toronto Canada Canadian Scholars Press ISBN 1 55130 247 0 OCLC 55973445 Jones Robyn L Armour Kathleen M 2000 Sociology of Sport Theory and Practice Harlow Essex England Longman ISBN 0 582 41912 3 OCLC 46486583 Laker Anthony 2002 The Sociology of Sport and Physical Education An Introductory Reader London UK New York NY RoutledgeFalmer ISBN 0 415 23593 6 OCLC 46732587 Lenskyj Helen Jefferson 2003 Out on the Field Gender Sport and Sexualities Toronto Women s Press ISBN 9780889614161 Loland Sigmund Skirstad Berit Waddington Ivan 2006 Pain and Injury in Sport Social and Ethical Analysis London UK New York NY Routledge ISBN 0 415 35703 9 OCLC 60453764 Maguire Joseph A 2002 Sport Worlds A Sociological Perspective Champaign IL Human Kinetics ISBN 0 88011 972 1 OCLC 48162875 Joseph A Maguire Kevin Young eds 2002 Theory Sport amp Society Amsterdam the Netherlands Boston MA JAI ISBN 0 7623 0742 0 OCLC 48837757 Nixon Howard L 2008 Sport in a Changing World Boulder CO Paradigm Publishers ISBN 978 1 59451 442 5 OCLC 181368766 Scambler Graham 2005 Sport and Society History Power and Culture Maidenhead England New York NY Open University Press ISBN 0 335 21071 6 OCLC 58554471 Scraton Sheila and Anne Flintoff 2002 Gender and Sport A Reader London UK New York NY Routledge ISBN 0 415 25952 5 OCLC 47255389 Sugden John Peter and Alan Tomlinson 2002 Power Games A Critical Sociology of Sport London England New York NY Routledge ISBN 0 415 25100 1 OCLC 50291216 Tomlinson Alan 2005 Sport and Leisure Cultures Minneapolis MN University of Minnesota Press ISBN 0 8166 3382 7 OCLC 57000964 Tomlinson Alan and Christopher Young 2006 National Identity and Global Sports Events Culture Politics and Spectacle in the Olympics and the Football World Cup Albany NY State University of New York Press ISBN 0 7914 6615 9 OCLC 57349033 Waddington Ivan 2000 Sport Health and Drugs A Critical Sociological Perspective London UK New York NY E amp FN Spon ISBN 0 419 25190 1 OCLC 42692125 Woods Ron B 2007 Social Issues in Sport Champaign IL Human Kinetics ISBN 978 0 7360 5872 8 OCLC 70673116 Yiannakis Andrew and Merrill J Melnick 2001 Contemporary Issues in Sociology of Sport Revised ed Champaign IL Human Kinetics ISBN 0 7360 3710 1 OCLC 45207842 Young Kevin and Kevin B Wamsley 2005 Global Olympics Historical and Sociological Studies of the Modern Games Amsterdam the Netherlands Oxford UK Elsevier JAI ISBN 978 0 7623 1181 1 OCLC 62133166 Young Kevin and Philip White 2007 Sport and Gender in Canada 2nd ed Don Mills ON Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 541987 0 OCLC 70062619 External links editInternational Sociology of Sport Association North American Society for the Sociology of Sport Sociology of Sport Journal Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sociology of sport amp oldid 1192768808, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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