fbpx
Wikipedia

Shrew

January 11, 2024

For other uses, see Shrew (disambiguation).

Shrews (family Soricidae) are small mole-like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla. True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews, otter shrews, elephant shrews, West Indies shrews, or marsupial shrews, which belong to different families or orders.

Shrews[1]
Temporal range: Middle Eocene–Recent
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Eulipotyphla
Family: Soricidae
G. Fischer, 1814
Type genus
Sorex
Subfamilies

Although its external appearance is generally that of a long-nosed mouse, a shrew is not a rodent, as mice are. It is, in fact, a much closer relative of hedgehogs and moles; shrews are related to rodents only in that both belong to the Boreoeutheria magnorder. Shrews have sharp, spike-like teeth, whereas rodents have gnawing front incisor teeth.

Shrews are distributed almost worldwide; among the major tropical and temperate land masses. Only New Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand have no native shrews; in South America shrews appeared only relatively recently, as a result of the Great American Interchange, and are present only in the northern Andes. The shrew family has 385 known species, making it the fourth-most species-diverse mammal family. The only mammal families with more species are the muroid rodent families (Muridae and Cricetidae) and the bat family Vespertilionidae. The shrew family also probably has the largest population of any mammal family: there are an estimated 100 billion shrews in the world, with an average of a few shrews per hectare of forest.[2]

Characteristics edit

All shrews are tiny, most no larger than a mouse. The largest species is the Asian house shrew (Suncus murinus) of tropical Asia, which is about 15 cm (6 in) long and weighs around 100 g (3+1⁄2 oz)[3] The Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus), at about 3.5 cm (1+3⁄8 in) and 1.8 grams (28 grains), is the smallest known living terrestrial mammal.

 
Water shrew skeleton

In general, shrews are terrestrial creatures that forage for seeds, insects, nuts, worms, and a variety of other foods in leaf litter and dense vegetation. e.g. grass, but some specialise in climbing trees, living underground, living under snow, or even hunting in water. They have small eyes and generally poor vision, but have excellent senses of hearing and smell.[4] They are very active animals, with voracious appetites. Shrews have unusually high metabolic rates, above that expected in comparable small mammals.[5] For this reason, they need to eat almost constantly like moles. Shrews in captivity can eat 1⁄2 to 2 times their own body weight in food daily.[6]

They do not hibernate, but some species are capable of entering torpor. In winter, many species undergo morphological changes that drastically reduce their body weight. Shrews can lose between 30% and 50% of their body weight, shrinking the size of bones, skull, and internal organs.[7]

Whereas rodents have gnawing incisors that grow throughout life, the teeth of shrews wear down throughout life, a problem made more extreme because they lose their milk teeth before birth, so have only one set of teeth throughout their lifetimes. In some species, exposed areas of the teeth are dark red due to the presence of iron in the tooth enamel. The iron reinforces the surfaces that are exposed to the most stress, which helps prolong the life of the teeth. This adaptation is not found in species with lower metabolism, which don't have to eat as much and therefore don't wear down the enamel to the same degree. The only other mammals’ teeth with pigmented enamel are the incisors of rodents.[8] Apart from the first pair of incisors, which are long and sharp, and the chewing molars at the back of the mouth, the teeth of shrews are small and peg-like, and may be reduced in number. The dental formula of shrews is:3.1.1-3.31-2.0-1.1.3

Shrews are fiercely territorial, driving off rivals, and coming together only to mate. Many species dig burrows for catching food and hiding from predators, although this is not universal.[4]

Female shrews can have up to 10 litters a year; in the tropics, they breed all year round; in temperate zones, they cease breeding only in the winter. Shrews have gestation periods of 17–32 days. The female often becomes pregnant within a day or so of giving birth, and lactates during her pregnancy, weaning one litter as the next is born.[4] Shrews live 12 to 30 months.[9]

Shrews are unusual among mammals in a number of respects. Unlike most mammals, some species of shrews are venomous. Shrew venom is not conducted into the wound by fangs, but by grooves in the teeth. The venom contains various compounds, and the contents of the venom glands of the American short-tailed shrew are sufficient to kill 200 mice by intravenous injection. One chemical extracted from shrew venom may be potentially useful in the treatment of high blood pressure, while another compound may be useful in the treatment of some neuromuscular diseases and migraines.[10][better source needed] The saliva of the northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) contains soricidin, a peptide which has been studied for use in treating ovarian cancer.[11] Also, along with the bats and toothed whales, some species of shrews use echolocation.[12] Unlike most other mammals, shrews lack zygomatic bones (also called the jugals), so have incomplete zygomatic arches.[13]

Echolocation edit

 
The northern short-tailed shrew is known to echolocate.

The only terrestrial mammals known to echolocate are two genera (Sorex and Blarina) of shrews, the tenrecs of Madagascar, bats, and the solenodons.[14] These include the Eurasian or common shrew (Sorex araneus) and the American vagrant shrew (Sorex vagrans) and northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda). These shrews emit series of ultrasonic squeaks.[15][16] By nature the shrew sounds, unlike those of bats, are low-amplitude, broadband, multiharmonic, and frequency modulated.[16] They contain no "echolocation clicks" with reverberations and would seem to be used for simple, close-range spatial orientation. In contrast to bats, shrews use echolocation only to investigate their habitats rather than additionally to pinpoint food.[16]

Except for large and thus strongly reflecting objects, such as a big stone or tree trunk, they probably are not able to disentangle echo scenes, but rather derive information on habitat type from the overall call reverberations. This might be comparable to human hearing whether one calls into a beech forest or into a reverberant wine cellar.[16]

Classification edit

The 385 shrew species are placed in 26 genera,[17] which are grouped into three living subfamilies: Crocidurinae (white-toothed shrews), Myosoricinae (African shrews), and Soricinae (red-toothed shrews). In addition, the family contains the extinct subfamilies Limnoecinae, Crocidosoricinae, Allosoricinae, and Heterosoricinae (although Heterosoricinae is also commonly considered a separate family).

References edit

  1. ^ Hutterer R (2005). Wilson D, Reeder D (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 223–300. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  2. ^ Kurta, Allen (1995). Mammals of the Great Lakes Region. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press. pp. 46–49. ISBN 978-0-472-06497-7.
  3. ^ Louch CD, Ghosh AK, Pal BC (1966). "Seasonal Changes in Weight and Reproductive Activity of Suncus murinus in West Bengal, India". Journal of Mammalogy. 47 (1): 73–78. doi:10.2307/1378070. JSTOR 1378070. PMID 5905563.
  4. ^ a b c Barnard CJ (1984). Macdonald DW (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. pp. 758–763. ISBN 0-87196-871-1.
  5. ^ William J, Platt WJ (1974). "Metabolic Rates of Short-Tailed Shrews". Physiological Zoology. 47 (2): 75–90. doi:10.1086/physzool.47.2.30155625. JSTOR 30155625. S2CID 87675441.
  6. ^ Reid F (2009). A Field Guide to the Mammals of Central America and Southeast Mexico. pp. 63–64.
  7. ^ Churchfield S (January 1990). The natural history of shrews. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2595-0.
  8. ^ Wible J (6 February 2018). "Why Do Some Shrews Have Dark Red Teeth?". Carnegie Museum.
  9. ^ Macdonald DW, ed. (2006). The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-920608-2.
  10. ^ Piper, Ross (30 August 2007). Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313339226.
  11. ^ . 8 Apr 2009. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  12. ^ Chai, Simin; Tian, Ran; Rong, Xinghua; Li, Guiting; Chen, Bingyao; Ren, Wenhua; Xu, Shixia; Yang, Guang (2020-02-25). "Evidence of Echolocation in the Common Shrew from Molecular Convergence with Other Echolocating Mammals". Zoological Studies. 59 (59): e4. doi:10.6620/ZS.2020.59-04. ISSN 1021-5506. PMC 7262541. PMID 32494297. S2CID 215414310.
  13. ^ "About the mammalian skull, and be able to define and/or identify on a specimen all underlined terms" (PDF).
  14. ^ "What is echolocation and which animals use it?". Discover Wildlife. Retrieved 2022-03-25.
  15. ^ Tomasi TE (1979). "Echolocation by the Short-Tailed Shrew Blarina brevicauda". Journal of Mammalogy. 60 (4): 751–9. doi:10.2307/1380190. JSTOR 1380190.
  16. ^ a b c d Siemers BM, Schauermann G, Turni H, von Merten S (October 2009). "Why do shrews twitter? Communication or simple echo-based orientation". Biology Letters. 5 (5): 593–6. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0378. PMC 2781971. PMID 19535367.
  17. ^ Wilson DE, Reeder DM (2011). "Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (ed.) Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness" (PDF). Zootaxa. 3148: 56–60. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3148.1.9.

Further reading edit

  • Buchler ER (November 1976). "The use of echolocation by the wandering shrew (Sorex vagrans)". Animal Behaviour. 24 (4): 858–73. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(76)80016-4. S2CID 53160608.
  • Busnel RG, ed. (1963). Acoustic Behaviour of Animals. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company.
  • Forsman KA, Malmquist MG (1988). "Evidence for echolocation in the common shrew, Sorex araneus". Journal of Zoology. 216 (4): 655–662. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1988.tb02463.x.
  • Gould E (1962). Evidence for echolocation in shrews (Ph.D. thesis). Tulane University.
  • Gould E, Negus NC, Novick A (June 1964). "Evidence for echolocation in shrews". The Journal of Experimental Zoology. 156: 19–37. doi:10.1002/jez.1401560103. PMID 14189919.
  • Hutterer R (1976). Deskriptive und vergleichende Verhaltensstudien an der Zwergspitzmaus, Sorex minutus L., und der Waldspitzmaus, Sorex araneus L. (Soricidae - Insectivora - Mammalia) (Ph.D. Thesis) (in German). Univ. Wien. OCLC 716064334.
  • Hutterer R, Vogel P (1977). "Abwehrlaute afrikanischer Spitzmäuse der Gattung Crocidura Wagler, 1832 und ihre systematische Bedeutung" (PDF). Bonner zoologische Beiträge (in German). 28 (3/4): 218–27.
  • Hutterer R, Vogel P, Frey H, Genoud M (1979). "Vocalization of the shrews Suncus etruscus and Crocidura russula during normothermia and torpor". Acta Theriologica. 24 (21): 267–71. doi:10.4098/AT.arch.79-28.
  • Irwin DV, Baxter RM (1980). "Evidence against the use of echolocation by Crocidura f. flavescens (Soricidae)". Säugetierkundliche Mitteilungen. 28 (4): 323.
  • Kahmann H, Ostermann K (July 1951). "[Perception of production of high tones by small mammals]" [Perception of production of high tones by small mammals]. Experientia (in German). 7 (7): 268–9. doi:10.1007/BF02154548. PMID 14860152. S2CID 26738585.
  • Köhler D, Wallschläger D (1987). "Über die Lautäußerungen der Wasserspitzmaus, Neomys fodiens (Insectivora: Soricidae)" [On vocalization of the european water shrew Neomys fodiens (Insectivora: Soricidae)]. Zoologische Jahrbücher (in German). 91 (1): 89–99.
  • Sales G, Pye D (1974). Ultrasonic communication by animals. London.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

External links edit

  •   Media related to Soricidae at Wikimedia Commons
  • "Shrew" . The New Student's Reference Work . 1914.
  • The common shrew Sorex araneus shrinks its skull to survive winter (disc. 1949, August Dehnel)

January 11, 2024
shrew, other, uses, disambiguation, family, soricidae, small, mole, like, mammals, classified, order, eulipotyphla, true, shrews, confused, with, treeshrews, otter, shrews, elephant, shrews, west, indies, shrews, marsupial, shrews, which, belong, different, fa. For other uses see Shrew disambiguation Shrews family Soricidae are small mole like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews otter shrews elephant shrews West Indies shrews or marsupial shrews which belong to different families or orders Shrews 1 Temporal range Middle Eocene Recent PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaOrder EulipotyphlaFamily SoricidaeG Fischer 1814Type genusSorexSubfamiliesCrocidurinae Myosoricinae SoricinaeAlthough its external appearance is generally that of a long nosed mouse a shrew is not a rodent as mice are It is in fact a much closer relative of hedgehogs and moles shrews are related to rodents only in that both belong to the Boreoeutheria magnorder Shrews have sharp spike like teeth whereas rodents have gnawing front incisor teeth Shrews are distributed almost worldwide among the major tropical and temperate land masses Only New Guinea Australia and New Zealand have no native shrews in South America shrews appeared only relatively recently as a result of the Great American Interchange and are present only in the northern Andes The shrew family has 385 known species making it the fourth most species diverse mammal family The only mammal families with more species are the muroid rodent families Muridae and Cricetidae and the bat family Vespertilionidae The shrew family also probably has the largest population of any mammal family there are an estimated 100 billion shrews in the world with an average of a few shrews per hectare of forest 2 Contents 1 Characteristics 1 1 Echolocation 2 Classification 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External linksCharacteristics editAll shrews are tiny most no larger than a mouse The largest species is the Asian house shrew Suncus murinus of tropical Asia which is about 15 cm 6 in long and weighs around 100 g 3 1 2 oz 3 The Etruscan shrew Suncus etruscus at about 3 5 cm 1 3 8 in and 1 8 grams 28 grains is the smallest known living terrestrial mammal nbsp Water shrew skeletonIn general shrews are terrestrial creatures that forage for seeds insects nuts worms and a variety of other foods in leaf litter and dense vegetation e g grass but some specialise in climbing trees living underground living under snow or even hunting in water They have small eyes and generally poor vision but have excellent senses of hearing and smell 4 They are very active animals with voracious appetites Shrews have unusually high metabolic rates above that expected in comparable small mammals 5 For this reason they need to eat almost constantly like moles Shrews in captivity can eat 1 2 to 2 times their own body weight in food daily 6 They do not hibernate but some species are capable of entering torpor In winter many species undergo morphological changes that drastically reduce their body weight Shrews can lose between 30 and 50 of their body weight shrinking the size of bones skull and internal organs 7 Whereas rodents have gnawing incisors that grow throughout life the teeth of shrews wear down throughout life a problem made more extreme because they lose their milk teeth before birth so have only one set of teeth throughout their lifetimes In some species exposed areas of the teeth are dark red due to the presence of iron in the tooth enamel The iron reinforces the surfaces that are exposed to the most stress which helps prolong the life of the teeth This adaptation is not found in species with lower metabolism which don t have to eat as much and therefore don t wear down the enamel to the same degree The only other mammals teeth with pigmented enamel are the incisors of rodents 8 Apart from the first pair of incisors which are long and sharp and the chewing molars at the back of the mouth the teeth of shrews are small and peg like and may be reduced in number The dental formula of shrews is 3 1 1 3 3 1 2 0 1 1 3Shrews are fiercely territorial driving off rivals and coming together only to mate Many species dig burrows for catching food and hiding from predators although this is not universal 4 Female shrews can have up to 10 litters a year in the tropics they breed all year round in temperate zones they cease breeding only in the winter Shrews have gestation periods of 17 32 days The female often becomes pregnant within a day or so of giving birth and lactates during her pregnancy weaning one litter as the next is born 4 Shrews live 12 to 30 months 9 Shrews are unusual among mammals in a number of respects Unlike most mammals some species of shrews are venomous Shrew venom is not conducted into the wound by fangs but by grooves in the teeth The venom contains various compounds and the contents of the venom glands of the American short tailed shrew are sufficient to kill 200 mice by intravenous injection One chemical extracted from shrew venom may be potentially useful in the treatment of high blood pressure while another compound may be useful in the treatment of some neuromuscular diseases and migraines 10 better source needed The saliva of the northern short tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda contains soricidin a peptide which has been studied for use in treating ovarian cancer 11 Also along with the bats and toothed whales some species of shrews use echolocation 12 Unlike most other mammals shrews lack zygomatic bones also called the jugals so have incomplete zygomatic arches 13 Echolocation edit nbsp The northern short tailed shrew is known to echolocate The only terrestrial mammals known to echolocate are two genera Sorex and Blarina of shrews the tenrecs of Madagascar bats and the solenodons 14 These include the Eurasian or common shrew Sorex araneus and the American vagrant shrew Sorex vagrans and northern short tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda These shrews emit series of ultrasonic squeaks 15 16 By nature the shrew sounds unlike those of bats are low amplitude broadband multiharmonic and frequency modulated 16 They contain no echolocation clicks with reverberations and would seem to be used for simple close range spatial orientation In contrast to bats shrews use echolocation only to investigate their habitats rather than additionally to pinpoint food 16 Except for large and thus strongly reflecting objects such as a big stone or tree trunk they probably are not able to disentangle echo scenes but rather derive information on habitat type from the overall call reverberations This might be comparable to human hearing whether one calls into a beech forest or into a reverberant wine cellar 16 Classification editThe 385 shrew species are placed in 26 genera 17 which are grouped into three living subfamilies Crocidurinae white toothed shrews Myosoricinae African shrews and Soricinae red toothed shrews In addition the family contains the extinct subfamilies Limnoecinae Crocidosoricinae Allosoricinae and Heterosoricinae although Heterosoricinae is also commonly considered a separate family Family Soricidae Subfamily Crocidurinae Crocidura Diplomesodon Feroculus Palawanosorex Paracrocidura Ruwenzorisorex Scutisorex Solisorex Suncus Sylvisorex Subfamily Myosoricinae Congosorex Myosorex Surdisorex Subfamily Soricinae Tribe Anourosoricini Anourosorex Tribe Blarinellini Blarinella Tribe Blarinini Blarina Cryptotis Tribe Nectogalini Chimarrogale Chodsigoa Episoriculus Nectogale Neomys Asoriculus Nesiotites Soriculus Tribe Notiosoricini Megasorex Notiosorex Tribe Soricini SorexReferences edit Hutterer R 2005 Wilson D Reeder D eds Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 3rd ed Johns Hopkins University Press pp 223 300 ISBN 978 0 8018 8221 0 OCLC 62265494 Kurta Allen 1995 Mammals of the Great Lakes Region Ann Arbor MI The University of Michigan Press pp 46 49 ISBN 978 0 472 06497 7 Louch CD Ghosh AK Pal BC 1966 Seasonal Changes in Weight and Reproductive Activity of Suncus murinus in West Bengal India Journal of Mammalogy 47 1 73 78 doi 10 2307 1378070 JSTOR 1378070 PMID 5905563 a b c Barnard CJ 1984 Macdonald DW ed The Encyclopedia of Mammals New York Facts on File pp 758 763 ISBN 0 87196 871 1 William J Platt WJ 1974 Metabolic Rates of Short Tailed Shrews Physiological Zoology 47 2 75 90 doi 10 1086 physzool 47 2 30155625 JSTOR 30155625 S2CID 87675441 Reid F 2009 A Field Guide to the Mammals of Central America and Southeast Mexico pp 63 64 Churchfield S January 1990 The natural history of shrews Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 2595 0 Wible J 6 February 2018 Why Do Some Shrews Have Dark Red Teeth Carnegie Museum Macdonald DW ed 2006 The Encyclopedia of Mammals Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 920608 2 Piper Ross 30 August 2007 Extraordinary Animals An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0313339226 BioProspecting NB Inc s novel ovarian cancer treatment found effective in animal cancer model 8 Apr 2009 Archived from the original on 16 July 2011 Retrieved 23 May 2010 Chai Simin Tian Ran Rong Xinghua Li Guiting Chen Bingyao Ren Wenhua Xu Shixia Yang Guang 2020 02 25 Evidence of Echolocation in the Common Shrew from Molecular Convergence with Other Echolocating Mammals Zoological Studies 59 59 e4 doi 10 6620 ZS 2020 59 04 ISSN 1021 5506 PMC 7262541 PMID 32494297 S2CID 215414310 About the mammalian skull and be able to define and or identify on a specimen all underlined terms PDF What is echolocation and which animals use it Discover Wildlife Retrieved 2022 03 25 Tomasi TE 1979 Echolocation by the Short Tailed Shrew Blarina brevicauda Journal of Mammalogy 60 4 751 9 doi 10 2307 1380190 JSTOR 1380190 a b c d Siemers BM Schauermann G Turni H von Merten S October 2009 Why do shrews twitter Communication or simple echo based orientation Biology Letters 5 5 593 6 doi 10 1098 rsbl 2009 0378 PMC 2781971 PMID 19535367 Wilson DE Reeder DM 2011 Class Mammalia Linnaeus 1758 In Zhang Z Q ed Animal biodiversity An outline of higher level classification and survey of taxonomic richness PDF Zootaxa 3148 56 60 doi 10 11646 zootaxa 3148 1 9 Further reading editBuchler ER November 1976 The use of echolocation by the wandering shrew Sorex vagrans Animal Behaviour 24 4 858 73 doi 10 1016 S0003 3472 76 80016 4 S2CID 53160608 Busnel RG ed 1963 Acoustic Behaviour of Animals Amsterdam Elsevier Publishing Company Forsman KA Malmquist MG 1988 Evidence for echolocation in the common shrew Sorex araneus Journal of Zoology 216 4 655 662 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7998 1988 tb02463 x Gould E 1962 Evidence for echolocation in shrews Ph D thesis Tulane University Gould E Negus NC Novick A June 1964 Evidence for echolocation in shrews The Journal of Experimental Zoology 156 19 37 doi 10 1002 jez 1401560103 PMID 14189919 Hutterer R 1976 Deskriptive und vergleichende Verhaltensstudien an der Zwergspitzmaus Sorex minutusL und der Waldspitzmaus Sorex araneusL Soricidae Insectivora Mammalia Ph D Thesis in German Univ Wien OCLC 716064334 Hutterer R Vogel P 1977 Abwehrlaute afrikanischer Spitzmause der Gattung Crocidura Wagler 1832 und ihre systematische Bedeutung PDF Bonner zoologische Beitrage in German 28 3 4 218 27 Hutterer R Vogel P Frey H Genoud M 1979 Vocalization of the shrews Suncus etruscus and Crocidura russula during normothermia and torpor Acta Theriologica 24 21 267 71 doi 10 4098 AT arch 79 28 Irwin DV Baxter RM 1980 Evidence against the use of echolocation by Crocidura f flavescens Soricidae Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 28 4 323 Kahmann H Ostermann K July 1951 Perception of production of high tones by small mammals Perception of production of high tones by small mammals Experientia in German 7 7 268 9 doi 10 1007 BF02154548 PMID 14860152 S2CID 26738585 Kohler D Wallschlager D 1987 Uber die Lautausserungen der Wasserspitzmaus Neomys fodiens Insectivora Soricidae On vocalization of the european water shrew Neomys fodiens Insectivora Soricidae Zoologische Jahrbucher in German 91 1 89 99 Sales G Pye D 1974 Ultrasonic communication by animals London a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link External links edit nbsp Media related to Soricidae at Wikimedia Commons Shrew The New Student s Reference Work 1914 The common shrew Sorex araneus shrinks its skull to survive winter disc 1949 August Dehnel Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Shrew amp oldid 1191515983, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.