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Wikipedia

Sanitation worker

A sanitation worker (or sanitary worker) is a person responsible for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying the equipment or technology at any step of the sanitation chain.[1]: 2  This is the definition used in the narrower sense within the WASH sector. More broadly speaking, sanitation workers may also be involved in cleaning streets, parks, public spaces, sewers, stormwater drains, and public toilets.[2] Another definition is: "The moment an individual’s waste is outsourced to another, it becomes sanitation work."[3]: 4  Some organizations use the term specifically for municipal solid waste collectors, whereas others exclude the workers involved in management of solid waste (rubbish, trash) sector from its definition.

Sanitation workers carrying out manual pit emptying (in Durban, South Africa) with personal protective equipment

Sanitation workers are essential in maintaining safe sanitation services in homes, schools, hospitals, and other settings and protecting public health but face many health risks in doing so, including from exposure to a wide range of biological and chemical agents. Additionally, they may be at risk of injury from heavy labor, poor and prolonged postures and positions and confined spaces, as well as psychosocial stress. These risks are exacerbated under conditions of poverty, illness, poor nutrition, poor housing, child labor, migration, drug and alcohol abuse, discrimination, social stigma and societal neglect. In many developing countries, sanitation workers are "more vulnerable due to unregulated or unenforced environmental and labor protections, and lack of occupational health and safety".[4]

Sanitation work can be grouped into formal employment and informal employment. Sanitation workers face many challenges. These relate to occupational safety and health (diseases related to contact with the excreta; injuries; the dangers of working in confined spaces, legal and institutional issues, as well as social and financial challenges.[1]: 7  One of the main issues is the social stigma attached to sanitation work. Sanitation workers are at an increased risk of becoming ill from waterborne diseases. To reduce this risk and protect against illness, such as diarrhea, safety measures should be put in place for workers and employers.

The working conditions, legal status, social aspects etc. are vastly different for sanitation workers in developing countries versus those in high income countries. Much of the current literature on sanitation workers focuses on the conditions in developing countries.[1]

Those workers who maintain and empty on-site sanitation systems (e.g. pit latrines, septic tanks) contribute to functional fecal sludge management systems. Without sanitation workers, the Sustainable Development Goal 6, Target 6.2 ("safely managed sanitation for all") cannot be achieved.[5] It is important to safeguard the dignity and health of sanitation workers.

Definition and terminology edit

A report by World Bank, International Labour Organization, WaterAid and WHO from 2019 defines "sanitation workers" to include toilet cleaners and caretakers in domestic, public, and institutional settings; those who empty pits from pit latrines and vaults of septic tanks and other fecal sludge handlers; those who clean sewers and manholes; and those who work at sewage treatment plants and fecal sludge treatment plants and disposal sites.[1]: 2 

Another definition is: "The moment an individual’s waste is outsourced to another, it becomes sanitation work."[3]: 4 

Since there are various definitions of sanitation, it is not surprising that there are various definitions of "sanitation worker".[3]: 4 

Regional differences in terminology edit

In the United States, the term "sanitation worker" tends to be used exclusively for municipal solid waste collectors: people who collect solid waste and take it to a transfer station, landfill, or incinerator.[6][7] People who work with excreta management are usually known as environmental engineers or environmental specialists. The importance of sanitation workers in the struggle for human rights is seen in the 1968 labor strike of the sanitation workers of Memphis, Tennessee: The Memphis sanitation strike, supported by Martin Luther King Jr., brought together both waste collectors and sewerage maintenance workers.[8]

Related terms edit

More commonly, a waste collector, also referred to a bin man, garbage collector, etc. deals with municipal solid waste.

Types of work and occupations edit

The types of work that sanitation workers carry out is shown in the table below.

Types of work and occupations along the sanitation chain (based on [1]: 3  but with further additions)
Toilet/containment Emptying Conveyance Treatment End use/Disposal
  • Manual disposal
  • Mechanical disposal

Types of employment edit

Sanitation workers work in different types of employment situations. They are either government-employed workers, workers of private service providers or informal workers.[10] Sanitation workers who are employed by the government usually have comparatively good infrastructure, tools and personal protective equipment (PPE), and face only moderate health and safety risks.[11]

For example, the tasks of unclogging of the main sewers or operating wastewater treatment plants are usually performed by formal government workers or private companies, whereas the unclogging of household sewer connections is performed by private companies and informal sanitation workers.[10]: 13 

Informal workers edit

In many developing countries, informal workers collect human excreta from certain types of toilet (such as bucket toilets and pit latrines) without mechanical equipment and without personal protective equipment. These workers are "scooping out feces from ‘dry’ latrines and overflowing pits".[12] They are usually working in the informal labour sector and are commonly referred to as "informal sanitation workers". They have weak legal protection results from working informally and do not follow occupational health and safety standards.[1]: 7 

Informal workers provide "manual emptying services to households, particularly where inaccessible to trucks and to the most vulnerable households".[11] They are not registered or legally recognized, and often work without any protection, facing discrimination and stigma.[11]

Number of sanitation workers edit

While the definition of sanitation workers encompasses a vast line of services, the number of sanitation workers globally is difficult to estimate because they often have multiple jobs or are categorized with other sectors (e.g., solid waste and healthcare facility management). Also, sanitation workers in developing countries are often informally employed which makes it difficult to determine how many there are.[4]

Estimates at country level include:

  • There are an estimated 5 to 6 million "sweepers" (a term used for sanitation workers) in Bangladesh.[1]: 31 
  • An estimate in 2018 put the number of "sanitation workers" in India at 5 million, and 50% of them being women.[1]: 35 

Challenges edit

A short video shedding light on the unsafe and undignified working conditions of many sanitation workers in India (2018)
 
Sanitation workers carrying out unsafe manual pit emptying of a pit latrine in Korogocho slums in Kenya

Sanitation workers provide a critical public service, essential for our daily lives and the environment. Yet their working conditions expose them to the worst consequences of poor sanitation such as debilitating infections, injuries, social stigma and even death every day.[13] The challenges faced by sanitation workers can be categorized as follows: occupational safety and health, legal and institutional issues, financial insecurity, and social issues.[1]: 7 

In the case of India, the work of sanitation workers (especially those without formal employment contracts) has been described as: Drudgery, dangerous, dirty and dehumanizing.[14]

The five hidden dangers for people working as sanitation workers include health hazards, discrimination, psychological problems, low wages and lack of social security coverage.[15]

Occupational safety and health edit

Occupational safety and health issues for sanitation workers include: diseases related to contact with the excreta; injuries related to the physical effort of extracting and transporting the waste, including falls from height; injuries related to cuts from non-fecal waste (e.g. glass or needles) disposed of down the toilet.[16][17] There are also the general dangers of working in confined spaces, including lack of oxygen.[18]

Many sanitation workers in developing countries work without any form of personal protective equipment (PPE) and no or minimal formal training.[1]: 9  Physical and medical conditions directly associated with sanitation work that is carried out unsafely can include: "headaches, dizziness, fever, fatigue, asthma, gastroenteritis, cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, polio, cryptosporidiosis, schistosomiasis, eye and skin burn and other skin irritation, musculoskeletal disorders (including back pain), puncture wounds and cuts, blunt force".[1]: 8 

Sanitation workers are at an increased risk of becoming ill from waterborne diseases.[19] One specific disease that concerns workers in sewers is Leptospirosis, spread through contact with rat urine.[20]

The safety of sanitation workers is influenced by: Design and construction of the toilet or other piece of sanitation infrastructure, pressure by the customer or by the employer, as well as materials and equipment available to do the job.[21]: 47 

Estimating occupational health outcomes among sanitation workers edit

It is difficult to estimate the burden of disease for sanitation workers.[4] A systematic literature review with 65 studies showed the following: "There was an increased risk of adverse health across a range of outcomes. This is especially true in the case of hepatitis A infections [...]".[4] The review also showed "an increase in adverse gastrointestinal and respiratory conditions associated with sanitation work".[4] A few studies found some "adverse musculoskeletal and mental/social impacts". With regards to mortality, there was "inconsistent evidence on mortality".[4]

Governmental policies and other efforts can work together to mitigate these risks.[4] There are research gaps in characterizing the health risks of sanitation workers in three main areas: "low-income countries, among women and those under informal employment".[4]

Legal and institutional issues edit

In many developing countries, sanitation workers often have to work with weak legal protection, missing or weak standard operating procedures, weak law enforcement and few policies protecting their rights and health.[1]: x 

Financial insecurity edit

Sanitation workers in developing countries are typically poorly and irregularly paid.[1]: 9  This applies in particular to those who are employed on temporary or informal terms, as is common for many low grade jobs. Workers are also vulnerable to extortion in many countries.[1]: 10 

Social issues edit

In developing countries, low-grade, unskilled sanitation workers often face social stigma and discrimination.[1]: 10  This is especially true when sanitation is linked to a caste-based structure, such as in India and Bangladesh. This stigma can result in intergenerational discrimination, where children of sanitation workers often struggle to escape the vicious cycle of limited opportunities and sanitation work.[1]: 10 

There can be implicit or explicit discrimination, which hinders workers’ social inclusion, their opportunities to shift careers, and social mobility. Furthermore, alcoholism and drug addiction to evade the working conditions are common among some sanitation workers in developing countries.[1]: 10 

Sanitation workers, particularly those in information employment who manually empty septic tanks and pit latrines, are often subjected to social stigma for their work.[22]

Approaches for improvement edit

The main approaches used to improve the situation of sanitation workers in developing countries include the reform of policy, legislation and regulation to acknowledge and professionalize the sanitation workforce. Furthermore, operational guidelines to mitigate the occupational risks of all types of sanitation work are required. This includes standard operating procedures, enforcement of laws, personal protective equipment (PPE) for all aspects of sanitation work. A third approach is to build strong unions and associations to protect worker rights.[1]: x 

Motivated staff are needed to keep cities clean and functioning. Concerns like fair wages, medical and maternity benefits (for women staff), safety equipment, respect and security of employment must be addressed.[14] Overall, a "positive perception of sanitation workers in government as well as civil society" would be helpful.[14]

Operational guidelines edit

To reduce this risk and protect against illness, measures have been proposed for occupational health: Basic hygiene practices for workers (handwashing etc.); sanitation workers should be provided with proper personal protective equipment (PPE) and be trained on how to use it (i.e. goggles, face mask, overalls, gloves, boots); vaccinations (e.g. tetanus, polio, typhoid fever, hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccinations.[19]

Technology must match the needs of the workers. Workers are more likely to wear protective gear if they are given a choice of suitable clothing.[23]

History edit

 
Street sweeper with hand cart in Stockholm, Sweden in 1905

In European history the terms "nightsoil collectors" or "nightmen" and gong farmers were used. The current term for the safe collection of human excreta is fecal sludge management. Towns with sanitation systems based on pail closets (bucket toilets in outhouses) relied on frequent emptying, performed by workers driving "honeywagons", a precursor to the vacuum truck now used to pump out septage from septic tanks. The municipal emptying of pail toilets continued in Australia into the second half of the twentieth century; these were known as dunnies and the workers were dunnymen.

Society and culture edit

 
Garbage collectors from the Hysacam company in Douala, Cameroon

Income edit

Examples by country:

  • Sanitation workers typically earn an average monthly salary of $2,226 in the United States, although this figure can vary widely between states. As of 2022, the salary in New York could range between $47,371 and $89,339.[24] For instance, the state of New York provides total annual wages of up to $91,336 for sanitation workers after 20 years of service.[25] In 2020, some sanitation workers in New York City earned up to $300,000 as a result of shortage in staff and boosted pay due to snowstorms.[26]
  • Sanitation worker salaries in Zambia range from 870 ZMK ($42) per month as their minimum salary to 2,480 ZMK ($124) per month as maximum salary.[27]
  • In South Africa, public-sector sanitation workers are paid almost double compared to formal private-sector employees who are usually on a minimum wage only.[1]
  • In Tanzania, a casual laborer offering cleaning services (e.g., maintenance of toilet, occasional cleaning of drains and sewers) earns around 120,000 TSh per month ($ 52). A daily laborer employed for the assistance of a cesspit emptier earns around 210,000 TSh per month ($ 91).[10]: 20 

Global goals edit

Improving the working conditions of sanitation workers is also important for reaching at least four of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations. The working conditions of sanitation workers relate to "end poverty in all its forms everywhere" (SDG 1) ; "ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages" (SDG 3); "ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all" (SDG 6); and "decent work and economic growth" (SDG 8).[1]: 2 

Impacts of Covid-19 pandemic edit

During the Covid-19 pandemic, sanitation workers in some countries have been designated as essential workers or even corona warriors to underscore their importance in the fight against COVID-19.[14] They often had higher workloads than before.[4] They might have had a higher risk of infection due to "the presence of the viruses in fecal sludge and sewage". However, as of 2022 there was "little if any evidence to date of actual transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus via waste".[4]

Country examples edit

Africa edit

South Africa edit

In South Africa, sanitation work is mostly formalized. The different types of sanitation work are carried out via different arrangements in South Africa: sewer maintenance is carried out by public sanitation workers, whereas pit emptying is contracted out to the private sector.[1]: 10  In the municipality of eThekwini (which includes Durban, the third largest city in South Africa), there are "approximately 100 pit emptiers on any given day through 15 private contractors, plus 800 municipal sanitation workers".[1]: 40 

Zambia edit

In Zambia, organizations such as the SNV Netherlands Development Organisation under their WASH SDG Programme and the Lusaka Water and Sanitation Company (LWSC) under a project known as the Lusaka Sanitation Programme (LSP) supported by international organizations including the German Corporation for International Cooperation GmbH, have been working on projects to "legalize and make sanitation workers more visible and create the recognition and respect that they so rightfully deserve."[5]

Lusaka is one of the fastest-growing cities in Africa and the majority of the population live in informal, peri-urban settlements. Various organizations in Lusaka attempt to make sanitation workers more visible and create more recognition and respect for them. They also aim to design projects and processes that improve their working environment and conditions, and help to provide the required investments to support their enterprises.[28]

Pit latrine emptiers empty the toilet pits and septic tanks in communities. They enter inspection holes and sewers to fix or unblock them and then transport the fecal waste to treatment plants, while maintaining the sanitation facilities. If septic tanks and pit latrines are not emptied regularly, waste flows into the groundwater, contaminating the environment and surrounding water supplies. The response from society towards pit emptiers is "stigmatized, lowly, and invalid" despite the importance of the work that they do.[29]

Asia edit

Bangladesh edit

Bangladesh has sanitation workers in formal arrangement as well as informal arrangement (called "sweepers"). There are an estimated 5 to 6 million sweepers in Bangladesh.[1]: 31  They use only basic tools, often without PPE. The informal “sweepers” in Bangladesh face financial and job insecurities, discrimination, and stigmatization. Many live in segregated "sweeper colonies", which are often slum-like. They tend to be dalits (low-caste Hindus) and Christian and Muslim Bengalis.

The permanent workers have more secure positions than the informal workers, with a guaranteed income and other benefits, such as membership in the government emptiers’ union.[1]: 31 

India edit

 
Sanitation workers in Pondicherry, India

“Sanitation workers” can be used as a translation for the Hindi word "safai karamcharis". This includes "manual scavengers", but also people who work as street sweepers, are employed to clean open spaces, collect solid waste, and clean open drains and public toilets.[30] Another commonly used term is "Pourakarmikas" which includes manual scavengers, sewer workers, sanitation workers.[31]

Sanitation workers in India are "overwhelmingly Dalits, and are in fact from ‘scavenging castes’".[32] Programs like Swachh Bharat exist to reduce caste-based discrimination in India, but so far have proven to be ineffective due to increased deaths of sanitation workers.[33]

An estimate in 2018 put the number of "sanitation workers" in India at 5 million (with 2 million working in high-risk conditions), and 50% of them being women.[1]: 35  Typically, women are involved in the containment process since it requires fewer technical skills and a lower degree of technology, resulting in employment as school toilet and drain cleaners.[34]

In India the term manual scavengers is used historically for a subsection of sanitation workers. The official definition in Indian law is "manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of, or otherwise handling, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pit".[35] The practice has officially been banned since 1993 but still continues.

Other regions edit

Haiti edit

In Haiti, sanitation workers in the informal sector are called bayakou, which comes from Haitian Creole.[36][37] The capital Port-au-Prince is one of the largest cities in the world without a sewer system.[38]

The following is analysis from VanRiper et al. about sanitation workers in Haiti:[39]

"A 2018 report estimated that the sanitation system of the Port-au-Prince, Haiti metropolitan area supports 270 manual excavation livelihoods.[40] Based on the population[41] and household density[42] of this metropolitan area, proportion of the regional urban population using latrines,[43] and a conservative latrine-emptying frequency of 4.5 years.[44] we estimate a ratio of 0.001 manual emptying professionals per latrine-using household. Furthermore, reports of manual excavators' team structure and working hours indicate an average team of three to four professionals working for two to three nights per latrine emptied.[45][46][47][48] Assuming 2.5 professionals per team and the population of urban Nord Department using latrines, we estimate 42,000 manual pit-emptying exposure events per year; and with 16 h per job, this translates to over 800,000 annual hours of direct exposure by manual emptying professionals in the urban areas of the Nord Department.

In contrast, Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods (SOIL) operates a container-based sanitation (CBS) service called that currently operates at a rate of 0.016 CBS excreta-handling professionals (collection and processing) per household.[39] Assuming an 86% increase in efficiency brought about by increases in scale and customer density,[49] if latrine-using households instead adopt CBS, this would yield a replacement ratio of two CBS excreta handlers per manual excavator.[39] Furthermore, based on urban Nord Department latrine users, the equivalent sanitation coverage, provided by CBS services, would support over 500 safe excreta-handling livelihoods. An additional 100 plus livelihoods would be created if CBS was extended to the 20% of Haitian households who currently lack sanitation altogether. Thus, a transition to CBS would replace unsafe labor conditions with safe and reliable livelihoods and potentially increase employment opportunities while dramatically reducing exposure to sanitation workers. These changes would lift multiple community members from circumstances undermining the human right to sanitation, as well as safe and dignified employment. Many previous international efforts to improve the working conditions of manual excavators have been deemed unsuccessful and abandoned.[50] While political systems may lack the enforcement resources to protect independent workers, CBS services provide a structure compatible with safety monitoring and worker protection, and confer dignity to employees.[51] CBS is gaining recognition around the world, and recent research has taken on the question of scaling these operations and integrating them with inclusive sanitation planning.[52][53][54] From a systems perspective, the social benefit of a stable and increased employment base in the community is created by CBS expansion."

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y World Bank, ILO, WaterAid, and WHO (2019). Health, Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers: An Initial Assessment. World Bank, Washington, DC.
  2. ^ Akhilesh, Abhinav; Mehta, Meera; Juneja, Zara (April 10, 2020). "How can we support sanitation workers during COVID-19?". India Development Review (IDR). Retrieved April 23, 2020.
  3. ^ a b c PRIA (2019): Lived Realities of Women Sanitation Workers in India: Insights from a Participatory Research Conducted in Three Cities of India. Participatory Research in Asia, New Delhi, India
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Oza, Hemali Harish; Lee, Madison Gabriella; Boisson, Sophie; Pega, Frank; Medlicott, Kate; Clasen, Thomas (2022). "Occupational health outcomes among sanitation workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis". International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 240: 113907. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113907. PMC 8837624. PMID 34942466.
  5. ^ a b c Sperandeo, L., Srinivasan, S. (2020). The Heroes behind Sanitation - An insight into faecal sludge management workers in Zambia. BORDA, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Bonn, Germany
  6. ^ "Waste360". Retrieved March 18, 2020.
  7. ^ Benelli, Natalie (2011). "Sweeping the Streets of the Neoliberal City: Racial and Class Divisions among New York City's Sanitation Workers". Journal of Workplace Rights. 16 (3–4): 453–474. doi:10.2190/WR.16.3-4.l.
  8. ^ "Memphis Sanitation Workers Strike!". Memphis Public Library. February 12, 1968. Retrieved March 18, 2020.
  9. ^ Ramamoorthy, R., Pandey, K. D., Rajakuma, D. S., Ramasamy, N., Sharma, R. (2018). Desludging Operators in Tiruchirappalli: An Overview. Indian Institute for Human Settlements, India
  10. ^ a b c WaterAid (2022) Assessment of the Health, Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers in Dar es Salaam, Dodoma and Arusha, Tanzania February 2022
  11. ^ a b c WaterAid (2022). Protecting the health, safety, and dignity of sanitation workers in Tanzania (policy brief). WaterAid
  12. ^ Ray, I., Prasad, CS S. (2018). Where there are no Sewers - Photoessays on Sanitation Work in Urban India. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) secretariat at GIZ, Eschborn, Germany
  13. ^ "Health, safety and dignity of sanitation workers | WASH Matters". washmatters.wateraid.org. Retrieved September 29, 2020.
  14. ^ a b c d Salve, Pradeep S.; Jungari, Suresh (August 2, 2020). "Sanitation workers at the frontline: work and vulnerability in response to COVID-19". Local Environment. 25 (8): 627–630. doi:10.1080/13549839.2020.1792430. ISSN 1354-9839. S2CID 221178372.
  15. ^ Philipp, Jennifer (February 11, 2022). "5 Hidden Dangers Sanitation Workers Face". BORGEN. Retrieved September 19, 2022.
  16. ^ HSE (2011) Working with sewage - The health hazards: A guide for employers, Health and Safety Executive UK.
  17. ^ Labour Department (2006) Safety Guide for Work in Manholes Occupational Safety and Health Branch of the Labour Department, Hong Kong Government
  18. ^ HSE (2013). Confined spaces - A brief guide to working safely, Health and Safety Executive UK.
  19. ^ a b Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (September 29, 2020). "Guidance for Controlling Potential Risks to Workers Exposed" – via Department of Health and Human Services.
  20. ^ HSE (n.d.) Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease and Hardjo). Health and Safety Executive UK.
  21. ^ Eales, K., Blackett, I. (2019). FSM5 - Thematic Papers. Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association, Bremen, Germany
  22. ^ "Dirty Job Shows Why Cholera Still Kills in Haiti". VOA. December 28, 2016. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
  23. ^ SciDev.Net. "Dangers, health risks faced by sanitation workers exposed". SciDev.Net. Retrieved September 29, 2020.
  24. ^ "NYC Sanitation Exam". www.civilservicesuccess.com. Law Enforcement Service Systems Inc. & CivilServiceSuccess.com.
  25. ^ "12 Things New Yorkers Should Know About Their Garbage". cbcny.org. May 21, 2014. Retrieved July 2, 2020.
  26. ^ Duffy, Kate (December 13, 2021). "Some sanitation workers in NYC earned nearly $300,000 last year as staff shortages and snowstorms boosted overtime pay". Business Insider.
  27. ^ "Sanitation Worker Average Salary in Zambia 2020 - The Complete Guide". www.salaryexplorer.com. Retrieved September 29, 2020.
  28. ^ Lanz K, Bieri S, Fankhauser L (September 29, 2020). The Heroes behind Sanitation-An insight into faecal sludge management workers in Zambia (PDF) (Report) – via BORDA.
  29. ^ Sperandeo, Lior (July 9, 2020). "Giving a shit | Sanitation and Hygiene in Lusaka Zambia". Lior Sperandeo. Retrieved September 29, 2020.
  30. ^ Walters, Vicky (January 2, 2019). "Parenting from the 'Polluted' Margins: Stigma, Education and Social (Im)Mobility for the Children of India's Out-Casted Sanitation Workers". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 42 (1): 51–68. doi:10.1080/00856401.2019.1556377. ISSN 0085-6401. S2CID 150965777.
  31. ^ Rangamani, Sukanya; Bheemappa Obalesha, Kannamedi; Gaitonde, Rakhal (2015). "Health issues of sanitation workers in a town in Karnataka: Findings from a lay health-monitoring study (Short Report)" (PDF). The National Medical Journal of India. 28 (2): 70.
  32. ^ "Treat Sanitation Workers Like Health Workers, Pay Them At Least Rs 20,000 Per Month". The Wire. April 22, 2020. Retrieved April 23, 2020.
  33. ^ Akhilesh, Pragya (January 18, 2022). "A Failed Attempt to Create an Equally Sanitary India". The Wire.
  34. ^ CS Sharada Prasad and Seema Thomas (July 29, 2020). "Technology's impingement on the urban female sanitation worker in India". Harvard's Kennedy School of Government's Gender Policy Journal.
  35. ^ The Employment Of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993. Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Govt. of India.
  36. ^ Curnutte, Mark (2011). A Promise in Haiti: A Reporter's Notes on Families and Daily Lives. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University Press. p. 81. ISBN 9780826517852.
  37. ^ Vilsaint, Féquière; Berret, Jean-Evens (2005). English Haitian Creole Dictionary (2nd ed.). Coconut Creek, Florida: Educa Vision Inc. p. 149. ISBN 9781584322139.
  38. ^ Knox, Richard (April 13, 2012). "Port-Au-Prince: A City Of Millions, With No Sewer System". NPR. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
  39. ^ a b c VanRiper, Froggi; Russel, Kory C.; Tillias, Daniel; Tilt, Jenna; Laporte, Jessica (March 1, 2022). "Container-based sanitation in urban Haiti: how can it improve human rights as a component of citywide inclusive sanitation?". H2Open Journal. 5 (1): 135–152. doi:10.2166/h2oj.2022.037. from the original on March 25, 2023. Retrieved June 11, 2023.
  40. ^ Bank, World (December 12, 2017). "Looking Beyond Government-Led Delivery of Water Supply and Sanitation Services". hdl:10986/28997. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  41. ^ (PDF). November 6, 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 6, 2015. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
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  43. ^ "JMP". washdata.org. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
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  45. ^ "Emergency excreta disposal standards and options for Haiti - Resources • SuSanA". www.susana.org. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
  46. ^ Neiburg, F. & Nicaise, N. 2011 Garbage. Stigmatization, Commerce, Politics (Déchets. Stigmatisations, Commerces, Politiques). Interuniversity Institute for Research and Development, Rio de Janeiro.
  47. ^ Lozano-Gracia, Marisa; Garcia Lozano, Nancy (eds.). "Haitian cities : actions for today with an eye on tomorrow". World Bank. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
  48. ^ Bank, World; ILO; WaterAid; WHO (November 1, 2019). "Health, Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers". doi:10.1596/32640. S2CID 212915688. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  49. ^ Boyer, Kenneth K.; Prud'homme, Andrea M.; Chung, Wenming (March 2009). "The Last Mile Challenge: Evaluating the Effects of Customer Density and Delivery Window Patterns". Journal of Business Logistics. 30 (1): 185–201. doi:10.1002/j.2158-1592.2009.tb00104.x.
  50. ^ "People practicing open defecation (% of population) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
  51. ^ Tilmans, Sebastien; Russel, Kory; Sklar, Rachel; Page, Leah; Kramer, Sasha; Davis, Jennifer (April 2015). "Container-based sanitation: assessing costs and effectiveness of excreta management in Cap Haitien, Haiti". Environment and Urbanization. 27 (1): 89–104. doi:10.1177/0956247815572746. ISSN 0956-2478. PMC 4461065. PMID 26097288.
  52. ^ Shepard, J., Stevens, C. & Mikhael, G. 2017. The World Can't Wait for Sewers: Advancing Container-Based Sanitation Businesses as a Viable Answer to the Global Sanitation Crisis. Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor; EY, p.11. Available from: https://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2756-7-1490187791.pdf
  53. ^ Russel, Kory C.; Hughes, Kelvin; Roach, Mary; Auerbach, David; Foote, Andrew; Kramer, Sasha; Briceño, Raúl (2019). "Taking Container-Based Sanitation to Scale: Opportunities and Challenges". Frontiers in Environmental Science. 7. doi:10.3389/fenvs.2019.00190. ISSN 2296-665X.
  54. ^ "How cost analysis dispels myths about container-based sanitation". www.ey.com. Retrieved October 11, 2022.

External links edit

  • Sanitation Workers Knowledge and Learning Hub
  • Sanitation Workers in India - a 5-month long study of sanitation workers across India carried out in 2017

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A sanitation worker or sanitary worker is a person responsible for cleaning maintaining operating or emptying the equipment or technology at any step of the sanitation chain 1 2 This is the definition used in the narrower sense within the WASH sector More broadly speaking sanitation workers may also be involved in cleaning streets parks public spaces sewers stormwater drains and public toilets 2 Another definition is The moment an individual s waste is outsourced to another it becomes sanitation work 3 4 Some organizations use the term specifically for municipal solid waste collectors whereas others exclude the workers involved in management of solid waste rubbish trash sector from its definition Sanitation workers carrying out manual pit emptying in Durban South Africa with personal protective equipmentSanitation workers are essential in maintaining safe sanitation services in homes schools hospitals and other settings and protecting public health but face many health risks in doing so including from exposure to a wide range of biological and chemical agents Additionally they may be at risk of injury from heavy labor poor and prolonged postures and positions and confined spaces as well as psychosocial stress These risks are exacerbated under conditions of poverty illness poor nutrition poor housing child labor migration drug and alcohol abuse discrimination social stigma and societal neglect In many developing countries sanitation workers are more vulnerable due to unregulated or unenforced environmental and labor protections and lack of occupational health and safety 4 Sanitation work can be grouped into formal employment and informal employment Sanitation workers face many challenges These relate to occupational safety and health diseases related to contact with the excreta injuries the dangers of working in confined spaces legal and institutional issues as well as social and financial challenges 1 7 One of the main issues is the social stigma attached to sanitation work Sanitation workers are at an increased risk of becoming ill from waterborne diseases To reduce this risk and protect against illness such as diarrhea safety measures should be put in place for workers and employers The working conditions legal status social aspects etc are vastly different for sanitation workers in developing countries versus those in high income countries Much of the current literature on sanitation workers focuses on the conditions in developing countries 1 Those workers who maintain and empty on site sanitation systems e g pit latrines septic tanks contribute to functional fecal sludge management systems Without sanitation workers the Sustainable Development Goal 6 Target 6 2 safely managed sanitation for all cannot be achieved 5 It is important to safeguard the dignity and health of sanitation workers Contents 1 Definition and terminology 1 1 Regional differences in terminology 1 2 Related terms 2 Types of work and occupations 3 Types of employment 3 1 Informal workers 4 Number of sanitation workers 5 Challenges 5 1 Occupational safety and health 5 1 1 Estimating occupational health outcomes among sanitation workers 5 2 Legal and institutional issues 5 3 Financial insecurity 5 4 Social issues 6 Approaches for improvement 6 1 Operational guidelines 7 History 8 Society and culture 8 1 Income 8 2 Global goals 8 3 Impacts of Covid 19 pandemic 9 Country examples 9 1 Africa 9 1 1 South Africa 9 1 2 Zambia 9 2 Asia 9 2 1 Bangladesh 9 2 2 India 9 3 Other regions 9 3 1 Haiti 10 See also 11 References 12 External linksDefinition and terminology editA report by World Bank International Labour Organization WaterAid and WHO from 2019 defines sanitation workers to include toilet cleaners and caretakers in domestic public and institutional settings those who empty pits from pit latrines and vaults of septic tanks and other fecal sludge handlers those who clean sewers and manholes and those who work at sewage treatment plants and fecal sludge treatment plants and disposal sites 1 2 Another definition is The moment an individual s waste is outsourced to another it becomes sanitation work 3 4 Since there are various definitions of sanitation it is not surprising that there are various definitions of sanitation worker 3 4 Regional differences in terminology edit In the United States the term sanitation worker tends to be used exclusively for municipal solid waste collectors people who collect solid waste and take it to a transfer station landfill or incinerator 6 7 People who work with excreta management are usually known as environmental engineers or environmental specialists The importance of sanitation workers in the struggle for human rights is seen in the 1968 labor strike of the sanitation workers of Memphis Tennessee The Memphis sanitation strike supported by Martin Luther King Jr brought together both waste collectors and sewerage maintenance workers 8 Related terms edit More commonly a waste collector also referred to a bin man garbage collector etc deals with municipal solid waste Types of work and occupations editThe types of work that sanitation workers carry out is shown in the table below Types of work and occupations along the sanitation chain based on 1 3 but with further additions Toilet containment Emptying Conveyance Treatment End use DisposalJanitor Restroom attendant public toilets Sweeping Latrine or pit latrine cleaning Domestic work domestic worker Community public toilet keeping School toilet cleaning Municipalities government and private offices cleaning commercial cleaning Vacuum truck operator Desludging operator 9 Fecal sludge management worker 5 Manual emptier Mechanical emptier including septic tank desludging Manual transport Mechanical transport Sewer cleaning Sewer and pumping station maintenance Manhole cleaning Wastewater treatment plant operator Sewage treatment plant cleaning Wastewater and sludge handling at sewage treatment plants Manual disposal Mechanical disposalTypes of employment editSanitation workers work in different types of employment situations They are either government employed workers workers of private service providers or informal workers 10 Sanitation workers who are employed by the government usually have comparatively good infrastructure tools and personal protective equipment PPE and face only moderate health and safety risks 11 For example the tasks of unclogging of the main sewers or operating wastewater treatment plants are usually performed by formal government workers or private companies whereas the unclogging of household sewer connections is performed by private companies and informal sanitation workers 10 13 Informal workers edit In many developing countries informal workers collect human excreta from certain types of toilet such as bucket toilets and pit latrines without mechanical equipment and without personal protective equipment These workers are scooping out feces from dry latrines and overflowing pits 12 They are usually working in the informal labour sector and are commonly referred to as informal sanitation workers They have weak legal protection results from working informally and do not follow occupational health and safety standards 1 7 Informal workers provide manual emptying services to households particularly where inaccessible to trucks and to the most vulnerable households 11 They are not registered or legally recognized and often work without any protection facing discrimination and stigma 11 Number of sanitation workers editWhile the definition of sanitation workers encompasses a vast line of services the number of sanitation workers globally is difficult to estimate because they often have multiple jobs or are categorized with other sectors e g solid waste and healthcare facility management Also sanitation workers in developing countries are often informally employed which makes it difficult to determine how many there are 4 Estimates at country level include There are an estimated 5 to 6 million sweepers a term used for sanitation workers in Bangladesh 1 31 An estimate in 2018 put the number of sanitation workers in India at 5 million and 50 of them being women 1 35 Challenges edit source source source source source source source source A short video shedding light on the unsafe and undignified working conditions of many sanitation workers in India 2018 nbsp Sanitation workers carrying out unsafe manual pit emptying of a pit latrine in Korogocho slums in KenyaSanitation workers provide a critical public service essential for our daily lives and the environment Yet their working conditions expose them to the worst consequences of poor sanitation such as debilitating infections injuries social stigma and even death every day 13 The challenges faced by sanitation workers can be categorized as follows occupational safety and health legal and institutional issues financial insecurity and social issues 1 7 In the case of India the work of sanitation workers especially those without formal employment contracts has been described as Drudgery dangerous dirty and dehumanizing 14 The five hidden dangers for people working as sanitation workers include health hazards discrimination psychological problems low wages and lack of social security coverage 15 Occupational safety and health edit Occupational safety and health issues for sanitation workers include diseases related to contact with the excreta injuries related to the physical effort of extracting and transporting the waste including falls from height injuries related to cuts from non fecal waste e g glass or needles disposed of down the toilet 16 17 There are also the general dangers of working in confined spaces including lack of oxygen 18 Many sanitation workers in developing countries work without any form of personal protective equipment PPE and no or minimal formal training 1 9 Physical and medical conditions directly associated with sanitation work that is carried out unsafely can include headaches dizziness fever fatigue asthma gastroenteritis cholera typhoid hepatitis polio cryptosporidiosis schistosomiasis eye and skin burn and other skin irritation musculoskeletal disorders including back pain puncture wounds and cuts blunt force 1 8 Sanitation workers are at an increased risk of becoming ill from waterborne diseases 19 One specific disease that concerns workers in sewers is Leptospirosis spread through contact with rat urine 20 The safety of sanitation workers is influenced by Design and construction of the toilet or other piece of sanitation infrastructure pressure by the customer or by the employer as well as materials and equipment available to do the job 21 47 Estimating occupational health outcomes among sanitation workers edit It is difficult to estimate the burden of disease for sanitation workers 4 A systematic literature review with 65 studies showed the following There was an increased risk of adverse health across a range of outcomes This is especially true in the case of hepatitis A infections 4 The review also showed an increase in adverse gastrointestinal and respiratory conditions associated with sanitation work 4 A few studies found some adverse musculoskeletal and mental social impacts With regards to mortality there was inconsistent evidence on mortality 4 Governmental policies and other efforts can work together to mitigate these risks 4 There are research gaps in characterizing the health risks of sanitation workers in three main areas low income countries among women and those under informal employment 4 Legal and institutional issues edit In many developing countries sanitation workers often have to work with weak legal protection missing or weak standard operating procedures weak law enforcement and few policies protecting their rights and health 1 x Financial insecurity edit Sanitation workers in developing countries are typically poorly and irregularly paid 1 9 This applies in particular to those who are employed on temporary or informal terms as is common for many low grade jobs Workers are also vulnerable to extortion in many countries 1 10 Social issues edit In developing countries low grade unskilled sanitation workers often face social stigma and discrimination 1 10 This is especially true when sanitation is linked to a caste based structure such as in India and Bangladesh This stigma can result in intergenerational discrimination where children of sanitation workers often struggle to escape the vicious cycle of limited opportunities and sanitation work 1 10 There can be implicit or explicit discrimination which hinders workers social inclusion their opportunities to shift careers and social mobility Furthermore alcoholism and drug addiction to evade the working conditions are common among some sanitation workers in developing countries 1 10 Sanitation workers particularly those in information employment who manually empty septic tanks and pit latrines are often subjected to social stigma for their work 22 Approaches for improvement editThe main approaches used to improve the situation of sanitation workers in developing countries include the reform of policy legislation and regulation to acknowledge and professionalize the sanitation workforce Furthermore operational guidelines to mitigate the occupational risks of all types of sanitation work are required This includes standard operating procedures enforcement of laws personal protective equipment PPE for all aspects of sanitation work A third approach is to build strong unions and associations to protect worker rights 1 x Motivated staff are needed to keep cities clean and functioning Concerns like fair wages medical and maternity benefits for women staff safety equipment respect and security of employment must be addressed 14 Overall a positive perception of sanitation workers in government as well as civil society would be helpful 14 Operational guidelines edit To reduce this risk and protect against illness measures have been proposed for occupational health Basic hygiene practices for workers handwashing etc sanitation workers should be provided with proper personal protective equipment PPE and be trained on how to use it i e goggles face mask overalls gloves boots vaccinations e g tetanus polio typhoid fever hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccinations 19 Technology must match the needs of the workers Workers are more likely to wear protective gear if they are given a choice of suitable clothing 23 History edit nbsp Street sweeper with hand cart in Stockholm Sweden in 1905In European history the terms nightsoil collectors or nightmen and gong farmers were used The current term for the safe collection of human excreta is fecal sludge management Towns with sanitation systems based on pail closets bucket toilets in outhouses relied on frequent emptying performed by workers driving honeywagons a precursor to the vacuum truck now used to pump out septage from septic tanks The municipal emptying of pail toilets continued in Australia into the second half of the twentieth century these were known as dunnies and the workers were dunnymen Society and culture edit nbsp Garbage collectors from the Hysacam company in Douala CameroonIncome edit Examples by country Sanitation workers typically earn an average monthly salary of 2 226 in the United States although this figure can vary widely between states As of 2022 the salary in New York could range between 47 371 and 89 339 24 For instance the state of New York provides total annual wages of up to 91 336 for sanitation workers after 20 years of service 25 In 2020 some sanitation workers in New York City earned up to 300 000 as a result of shortage in staff and boosted pay due to snowstorms 26 Sanitation worker salaries in Zambia range from 870 ZMK 42 per month as their minimum salary to 2 480 ZMK 124 per month as maximum salary 27 In South Africa public sector sanitation workers are paid almost double compared to formal private sector employees who are usually on a minimum wage only 1 In Tanzania a casual laborer offering cleaning services e g maintenance of toilet occasional cleaning of drains and sewers earns around 120 000 TSh per month 52 A daily laborer employed for the assistance of a cesspit emptier earns around 210 000 TSh per month 91 10 20 Global goals edit Improving the working conditions of sanitation workers is also important for reaching at least four of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals SDGs of the United Nations The working conditions of sanitation workers relate to end poverty in all its forms everywhere SDG 1 ensure healthy lives and promote well being for all at all ages SDG 3 ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all SDG 6 and decent work and economic growth SDG 8 1 2 Impacts of Covid 19 pandemic edit During the Covid 19 pandemic sanitation workers in some countries have been designated as essential workers or even corona warriors to underscore their importance in the fight against COVID 19 14 They often had higher workloads than before 4 They might have had a higher risk of infection due to the presence of the viruses in fecal sludge and sewage However as of 2022 there was little if any evidence to date of actual transmission of the SARS CoV 2 virus via waste 4 Country examples editAfrica edit Further information Water supply and sanitation in Sub Saharan Africa South Africa edit Further information Water supply and sanitation in South Africa In South Africa sanitation work is mostly formalized The different types of sanitation work are carried out via different arrangements in South Africa sewer maintenance is carried out by public sanitation workers whereas pit emptying is contracted out to the private sector 1 10 In the municipality of eThekwini which includes Durban the third largest city in South Africa there are approximately 100 pit emptiers on any given day through 15 private contractors plus 800 municipal sanitation workers 1 40 Zambia edit Further information Water supply and sanitation in Zambia In Zambia organizations such as the SNV Netherlands Development Organisation under their WASH SDG Programme and the Lusaka Water and Sanitation Company LWSC under a project known as the Lusaka Sanitation Programme LSP supported by international organizations including the German Corporation for International Cooperation GmbH have been working on projects to legalize and make sanitation workers more visible and create the recognition and respect that they so rightfully deserve 5 Lusaka is one of the fastest growing cities in Africa and the majority of the population live in informal peri urban settlements Various organizations in Lusaka attempt to make sanitation workers more visible and create more recognition and respect for them They also aim to design projects and processes that improve their working environment and conditions and help to provide the required investments to support their enterprises 28 Pit latrine emptiers empty the toilet pits and septic tanks in communities They enter inspection holes and sewers to fix or unblock them and then transport the fecal waste to treatment plants while maintaining the sanitation facilities If septic tanks and pit latrines are not emptied regularly waste flows into the groundwater contaminating the environment and surrounding water supplies The response from society towards pit emptiers is stigmatized lowly and invalid despite the importance of the work that they do 29 Asia edit Bangladesh edit Further information Water supply and sanitation in Bangladesh Bangladesh has sanitation workers in formal arrangement as well as informal arrangement called sweepers There are an estimated 5 to 6 million sweepers in Bangladesh 1 31 They use only basic tools often without PPE The informal sweepers in Bangladesh face financial and job insecurities discrimination and stigmatization Many live in segregated sweeper colonies which are often slum like They tend to be dalits low caste Hindus and Christian and Muslim Bengalis The permanent workers have more secure positions than the informal workers with a guaranteed income and other benefits such as membership in the government emptiers union 1 31 India edit nbsp Sanitation workers in Pondicherry IndiaFurther information Water supply and sanitation in India Sanitation workers can be used as a translation for the Hindi word safai karamcharis This includes manual scavengers but also people who work as street sweepers are employed to clean open spaces collect solid waste and clean open drains and public toilets 30 Another commonly used term is Pourakarmikas which includes manual scavengers sewer workers sanitation workers 31 Sanitation workers in India are overwhelmingly Dalits and are in fact from scavenging castes 32 Programs like Swachh Bharat exist to reduce caste based discrimination in India but so far have proven to be ineffective due to increased deaths of sanitation workers 33 An estimate in 2018 put the number of sanitation workers in India at 5 million with 2 million working in high risk conditions and 50 of them being women 1 35 Typically women are involved in the containment process since it requires fewer technical skills and a lower degree of technology resulting in employment as school toilet and drain cleaners 34 In India the term manual scavengers is used historically for a subsection of sanitation workers The official definition in Indian law is manually cleaning carrying disposing of or otherwise handling human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pit 35 The practice has officially been banned since 1993 but still continues Other regions edit Haiti edit Main article Bayakou trade In Haiti sanitation workers in the informal sector are called bayakou which comes from Haitian Creole 36 37 The capital Port au Prince is one of the largest cities in the world without a sewer system 38 The following is analysis from VanRiper et al about sanitation workers in Haiti 39 A 2018 report estimated that the sanitation system of the Port au Prince Haiti metropolitan area supports 270 manual excavation livelihoods 40 Based on the population 41 and household density 42 of this metropolitan area proportion of the regional urban population using latrines 43 and a conservative latrine emptying frequency of 4 5 years 44 we estimate a ratio of 0 001 manual emptying professionals per latrine using household Furthermore reports of manual excavators team structure and working hours indicate an average team of three to four professionals working for two to three nights per latrine emptied 45 46 47 48 Assuming 2 5 professionals per team and the population of urban Nord Department using latrines we estimate 42 000 manual pit emptying exposure events per year and with 16 h per job this translates to over 800 000 annual hours of direct exposure by manual emptying professionals in the urban areas of the Nord Department In contrast Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods SOIL operates a container based sanitation CBS service called that currently operates at a rate of 0 016 CBS excreta handling professionals collection and processing per household 39 Assuming an 86 increase in efficiency brought about by increases in scale and customer density 49 if latrine using households instead adopt CBS this would yield a replacement ratio of two CBS excreta handlers per manual excavator 39 Furthermore based on urban Nord Department latrine users the equivalent sanitation coverage provided by CBS services would support over 500 safe excreta handling livelihoods An additional 100 plus livelihoods would be created if CBS was extended to the 20 of Haitian households who currently lack sanitation altogether Thus a transition to CBS would replace unsafe labor conditions with safe and reliable livelihoods and potentially increase employment opportunities while dramatically reducing exposure to sanitation workers These changes would lift multiple community members from circumstances undermining the human right to sanitation as well as safe and dignified employment Many previous international efforts to improve the working conditions of manual excavators have been deemed unsuccessful and abandoned 50 While political systems may lack the enforcement resources to protect independent workers CBS services provide a structure compatible with safety monitoring and worker protection and confer dignity to employees 51 CBS is gaining recognition around the world and recent research has taken on the question of scaling these operations and integrating them with inclusive sanitation planning 52 53 54 From a systems perspective the social benefit of a stable and increased employment base in the community is created by CBS expansion See also editFecal sludge management Memphis sanitation strikeReferences edit a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y World Bank ILO WaterAid and WHO 2019 Health Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers An Initial Assessment World Bank Washington DC Akhilesh Abhinav Mehta Meera Juneja Zara April 10 2020 How can we support sanitation workers during COVID 19 India Development Review IDR Retrieved April 23 2020 a b c PRIA 2019 Lived Realities of Women Sanitation Workers in India Insights from a Participatory Research Conducted in Three Cities of India Participatory Research in Asia New Delhi India a b c d e f g h i j Oza Hemali Harish Lee Madison Gabriella Boisson Sophie Pega Frank Medlicott Kate Clasen Thomas 2022 Occupational health outcomes among sanitation workers A systematic review and meta analysis International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 240 113907 doi 10 1016 j ijheh 2021 113907 PMC 8837624 PMID 34942466 a b c Sperandeo L Srinivasan S 2020 The Heroes behind Sanitation An insight into faecal sludge management workers in Zambia BORDA Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit GIZ GmbH Bonn Germany Waste360 Retrieved March 18 2020 Benelli Natalie 2011 Sweeping the Streets of the Neoliberal City Racial and Class Divisions among New York City s Sanitation Workers Journal of Workplace Rights 16 3 4 453 474 doi 10 2190 WR 16 3 4 l Memphis Sanitation Workers Strike Memphis Public Library February 12 1968 Retrieved March 18 2020 Ramamoorthy R Pandey K D Rajakuma D S Ramasamy N Sharma R 2018 Desludging Operators in Tiruchirappalli An Overview Indian Institute for Human Settlements India a b c WaterAid 2022 Assessment of the Health Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers in Dar es Salaam Dodoma and Arusha Tanzania February 2022 a b c WaterAid 2022 Protecting the health safety and dignity of sanitation workers in Tanzania policy brief WaterAid Ray I Prasad CS S 2018 Where there are no Sewers Photoessays on Sanitation Work in Urban India Sustainable Sanitation Alliance SuSanA secretariat at GIZ Eschborn Germany Health safety and dignity of sanitation workers WASH Matters washmatters wateraid org Retrieved September 29 2020 a b c d Salve Pradeep S Jungari Suresh August 2 2020 Sanitation workers at the frontline work and vulnerability in response to COVID 19 Local Environment 25 8 627 630 doi 10 1080 13549839 2020 1792430 ISSN 1354 9839 S2CID 221178372 Philipp Jennifer February 11 2022 5 Hidden Dangers Sanitation Workers Face BORGEN Retrieved September 19 2022 HSE 2011 Working with sewage The health hazards A guide for employers Health and Safety Executive UK Labour Department 2006 Safety Guide for Work in Manholes Occupational Safety and Health Branch of the Labour Department Hong Kong Government HSE 2013 Confined spaces A brief guide to working safely Health and Safety Executive UK a b Centers for Disease Control and Prevention September 29 2020 Guidance for Controlling Potential Risks to Workers Exposed via Department of Health and Human Services HSE n d Leptospirosis Weil s Disease and Hardjo Health and Safety Executive UK Eales K Blackett I 2019 FSM5 Thematic Papers Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association Bremen Germany Dirty Job Shows Why Cholera Still Kills in Haiti VOA December 28 2016 Retrieved July 30 2017 SciDev Net Dangers health risks faced by sanitation workers exposed SciDev Net Retrieved September 29 2020 NYC Sanitation Exam www civilservicesuccess com Law Enforcement Service Systems Inc amp CivilServiceSuccess com 12 Things New Yorkers Should Know About Their Garbage cbcny org May 21 2014 Retrieved July 2 2020 Duffy Kate December 13 2021 Some sanitation workers in NYC earned nearly 300 000 last year as staff shortages and snowstorms boosted overtime pay Business Insider Sanitation Worker Average Salary in Zambia 2020 The Complete Guide www salaryexplorer com Retrieved September 29 2020 Lanz K Bieri S Fankhauser L September 29 2020 The Heroes behind Sanitation An insight into faecal sludge management workers in Zambia PDF Report via BORDA Sperandeo Lior July 9 2020 Giving a shit Sanitation and Hygiene in Lusaka Zambia Lior Sperandeo Retrieved September 29 2020 Walters Vicky January 2 2019 Parenting from the Polluted Margins Stigma Education and Social Im Mobility for the Children of India s Out Casted Sanitation Workers South Asia Journal of South Asian Studies 42 1 51 68 doi 10 1080 00856401 2019 1556377 ISSN 0085 6401 S2CID 150965777 Rangamani Sukanya Bheemappa Obalesha Kannamedi Gaitonde Rakhal 2015 Health issues of sanitation workers in a town in Karnataka Findings from a lay health monitoring study Short Report PDF The National Medical Journal of India 28 2 70 Treat Sanitation Workers Like Health Workers Pay Them At Least Rs 20 000 Per Month The Wire April 22 2020 Retrieved April 23 2020 Akhilesh Pragya January 18 2022 A Failed Attempt to Create an Equally Sanitary India The Wire CS Sharada Prasad and Seema Thomas July 29 2020 Technology s impingement on the urban female sanitation worker in India Harvard s Kennedy School of Government s Gender Policy Journal The Employment Of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines Prohibition Act 1993 Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation Govt of India Curnutte Mark 2011 A Promise in Haiti A Reporter s Notes on Families and Daily Lives Nashville Tennessee Vanderbilt University Press p 81 ISBN 9780826517852 Vilsaint Fequiere Berret Jean Evens 2005 English Haitian Creole Dictionary 2nd ed Coconut Creek Florida Educa Vision Inc p 149 ISBN 9781584322139 Knox Richard April 13 2012 Port Au Prince A City Of Millions With No Sewer System NPR Retrieved July 30 2017 a b c VanRiper Froggi Russel Kory C Tillias Daniel Tilt Jenna Laporte Jessica March 1 2022 Container based sanitation in urban Haiti how can it improve human rights as a component of citywide inclusive sanitation H2Open Journal 5 1 135 152 doi 10 2166 h2oj 2022 037 Archived from the original on March 25 2023 Retrieved June 11 2023 Bank World December 12 2017 Looking Beyond Government Led Delivery of Water Supply and Sanitation Services hdl 10986 28997 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Ihsi ht PDF November 6 2015 Archived from the original PDF on November 6 2015 Retrieved October 11 2022 The DHS Program Haiti Standard DHS 2016 17 dhsprogram com Retrieved October 11 2022 JMP washdata org Retrieved October 11 2022 Sklar R amp Faustin C 2017 Pit Latrines or Container Based Toilets A Cost Benefit Analysis Comparing Two Approaches to Improving Sanitation Access in Urban Areas of Haiti Haiti Priorities Copenhagen Consensus Center Available from https www pseau org outils ouvrages copenhagen consensus center pit latrines or container based toilets a cost benefit analysis comparing two approaches to improving sanitation access in urban areas of haiti 2017 pdf Emergency excreta disposal standards and options for Haiti Resources SuSanA www susana org Retrieved October 11 2022 Neiburg F amp Nicaise N 2011 Garbage Stigmatization Commerce Politics Dechets Stigmatisations Commerces Politiques Interuniversity Institute for Research and Development Rio de Janeiro Lozano Gracia Marisa Garcia Lozano Nancy eds Haitian cities actions for today with an eye on tomorrow World Bank Retrieved October 11 2022 Bank World ILO WaterAid WHO November 1 2019 Health Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers doi 10 1596 32640 S2CID 212915688 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Boyer Kenneth K Prud homme Andrea M Chung Wenming March 2009 The Last Mile Challenge Evaluating the Effects of Customer Density and Delivery Window Patterns Journal of Business Logistics 30 1 185 201 doi 10 1002 j 2158 1592 2009 tb00104 x People practicing open defecation of population Data data worldbank org Retrieved October 11 2022 Tilmans Sebastien Russel Kory Sklar Rachel Page Leah Kramer Sasha Davis Jennifer April 2015 Container based sanitation assessing costs and effectiveness of excreta management in Cap Haitien Haiti Environment and Urbanization 27 1 89 104 doi 10 1177 0956247815572746 ISSN 0956 2478 PMC 4461065 PMID 26097288 Shepard J Stevens C amp Mikhael G 2017 The World Can t Wait for Sewers Advancing Container Based Sanitation Businesses as a Viable Answer to the Global Sanitation Crisis Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor EY p 11 Available from https www susana org resources documents default 3 2756 7 1490187791 pdf Russel Kory C Hughes Kelvin Roach Mary Auerbach David Foote Andrew Kramer Sasha Briceno Raul 2019 Taking Container Based Sanitation to Scale Opportunities and Challenges Frontiers in Environmental Science 7 doi 10 3389 fenvs 2019 00190 ISSN 2296 665X How cost analysis dispels myths about container based sanitation www ey com Retrieved October 11 2022 External links editSanitation Workers Knowledge and Learning Hub Sanitation Workers in India a 5 month long study of sanitation workers across India carried out in 2017 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sanitation worker amp oldid 1186301285, 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