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Radioglaciology

April 27, 2024

Radioglaciology is the study of glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps and icy moons using ice penetrating radar. It employs a geophysical method similar to ground-penetrating radar and typically operates at frequencies in the MF, HF, VHF and UHF portions of the radio spectrum.[1][2][3][4] This technique is also commonly referred to as "Ice Penetrating Radar (IPR)" or "Radio Echo Sounding (RES)".

Glaciers are particularly well suited to investigation by radar because the conductivity, imaginary part of the permittivity, and the dielectric absorption of ice are small at radio frequencies resulting in low loss tangent, skin depth, and attenuation values. This allows echoes from the base of the ice sheet to be detected through ice thicknesses greater than 4 km.[5][6] The subsurface observation of ice masses using radio waves has been an integral and evolving geophysical technique in glaciology for over half a century.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] Its most widespread uses have been the measurement of ice thickness, subglacial topography, and ice sheet stratigraphy.[15][8][5] It has also been used to observe the subglacial and conditions of ice sheets and glaciers, including hydrology, thermal state, accumulation, flow history, ice fabric, and bed geology.[1] In planetary science, ice penetrating radar has also been used to explore the subsurface of the Polar Ice Caps on Mars and comets.[16][17][18] Missions are planned to explore the icy moons of Jupiter.[19][20]

Measurements and applications edit

Radioglaciology uses nadir facing radars to probe the subsurface of glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps, and icy moons and to detect reflected and scattered energy from within and beneath the ice.[8] This geometry tends to emphasize coherent and specular reflected energy resulting in distinct forms of the radar equation.[21][22] Collected radar data typically undergoes signal processing ranging from stacking (or pre-summing) to migration to Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) focusing in 1, 2, or 3 dimensions.[23][24][25][22] This data is collected using ice penetrating radar systems which range from commercial (or bespoke) ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems[26][27] to coherent, chirped airborne sounders [28][29][30] to swath-imaging,[31] multi-frequency,[32] or polarimetric[33] implementations of such systems. Additionally, stationary, phase-sensitive, and Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radars [34][35][36] have been used to observe snow,[37] ice shelf melt rates,[38] englacial hydrology,[39] ice sheet structure,[40] and vertical ice flow.[41][42] Interferometric analysis of airborne systems have also been demonstrated to measure vertical ice flow.[43] Additionally, radioglaciological instruments have been developed to operate on autonomous platforms,[44] on in-situ probes,[45] in low-cost deployments,[46] using Software Defined Radios,[47] and exploiting ambient radio signals for passive sounding.[48][49]

The most common scientific application for radioglaciological observations is measuring ice thickness and bed topography. This includes interpolated "bed maps",[6][50][51][52] widely used in ice sheet modeling and sea level rise projections, studies exploring specific ice-sheet regions,[53][54][55][56][57] and observations of glacier beds.[58][59][60][61] The strength and character of radar echoes from the bed of the ice sheet are also used to investigate the reflectivity[62][27] of the bed, the attenuation[63][64][65] of radar in the ice, and the morphology of the bed.[66][67][68] In addition bed echoes, radar returns from englacial layers[69] are used in studies of the radio stratigraphy of ice sheets[70][71][72][73][74] including investigations of ice accumulation,[75][76][77][78][79] flow,[80][81][82][83] and fabric[84][85] as well as absence or disturbances of that stratigraphy.[86][87][88] Radioglaciology data has also been used extensively to study subglacial lakes[89][90][91][92][93][94] and glacial hydrology[95] including englacial water,[96][97][98] firn aquifers,[99] and their temporal evolution.[100][39][101] Ice penetrating radar data has also been used to investigate the subsurface of ice shelves including their grounding zones,[102][103] melt rates,[104][105] brine distribution,[106] and basal channels.[107]

Planetary exploration edit

There are currently two ice-penetrating radars orbiting Mars: MARSIS and SHARAD.[108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117] An ice penetrating radar was also part of the ROSETTA mission to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko.[17] Ice penetrating radars are also included in the payloads of two planned missions to the icy moons of Jupiter: JUICE and Europa Clipper.[19][118][119][120][121][122][123]

IGS symposia edit

The International Glaciological Society (IGS) holds a periodic series of symposia focused on radioglaciology. In 2008, the "Symposium on Radioglaciology and its Applications" was hosted at the Technical University of Madrid.  In 2013, the "Symposium on Radioglaciology" was hosted at the University of Kansas. In 2019, the "Symposium of Five Decades of Radioglaciology" was hosted at Stanford University.

Further reading edit

The following books and papers cover important topics in radioglaciology

Research institutions edit

Research and education in radioglaciology is undertaken at universities and research institutes around the world.  These groups found in institutions and departments that span physical geography, geophysics, earth science, planetary science, electrical engineering, and related disciplines.

References edit

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April 27, 2024
radioglaciology, this, article, needs, additional, more, specific, images, please, help, adding, images, that, better, illustrated, 2023, study, glaciers, sheets, caps, moons, using, penetrating, radar, employs, geophysical, method, similar, ground, penetratin. This article needs additional or more specific images Please help out by adding images to it so that it can be better illustrated May 2023 Radioglaciology is the study of glaciers ice sheets ice caps and icy moons using ice penetrating radar It employs a geophysical method similar to ground penetrating radar and typically operates at frequencies in the MF HF VHF and UHF portions of the radio spectrum 1 2 3 4 This technique is also commonly referred to as Ice Penetrating Radar IPR or Radio Echo Sounding RES Glaciers are particularly well suited to investigation by radar because the conductivity imaginary part of the permittivity and the dielectric absorption of ice are small at radio frequencies resulting in low loss tangent skin depth and attenuation values This allows echoes from the base of the ice sheet to be detected through ice thicknesses greater than 4 km 5 6 The subsurface observation of ice masses using radio waves has been an integral and evolving geophysical technique in glaciology for over half a century 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Its most widespread uses have been the measurement of ice thickness subglacial topography and ice sheet stratigraphy 15 8 5 It has also been used to observe the subglacial and conditions of ice sheets and glaciers including hydrology thermal state accumulation flow history ice fabric and bed geology 1 In planetary science ice penetrating radar has also been used to explore the subsurface of the Polar Ice Caps on Mars and comets 16 17 18 Missions are planned to explore the icy moons of Jupiter 19 20 Contents 1 Measurements and applications 2 Planetary exploration 3 IGS symposia 4 Further reading 5 Research institutions 6 ReferencesMeasurements and applications editRadioglaciology uses nadir facing radars to probe the subsurface of glaciers ice sheets ice caps and icy moons and to detect reflected and scattered energy from within and beneath the ice 8 This geometry tends to emphasize coherent and specular reflected energy resulting in distinct forms of the radar equation 21 22 Collected radar data typically undergoes signal processing ranging from stacking or pre summing to migration to Synthetic Aperture Radar SAR focusing in 1 2 or 3 dimensions 23 24 25 22 This data is collected using ice penetrating radar systems which range from commercial or bespoke ground penetrating radar GPR systems 26 27 to coherent chirped airborne sounders 28 29 30 to swath imaging 31 multi frequency 32 or polarimetric 33 implementations of such systems Additionally stationary phase sensitive and Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave FMCW radars 34 35 36 have been used to observe snow 37 ice shelf melt rates 38 englacial hydrology 39 ice sheet structure 40 and vertical ice flow 41 42 Interferometric analysis of airborne systems have also been demonstrated to measure vertical ice flow 43 Additionally radioglaciological instruments have been developed to operate on autonomous platforms 44 on in situ probes 45 in low cost deployments 46 using Software Defined Radios 47 and exploiting ambient radio signals for passive sounding 48 49 The most common scientific application for radioglaciological observations is measuring ice thickness and bed topography This includes interpolated bed maps 6 50 51 52 widely used in ice sheet modeling and sea level rise projections studies exploring specific ice sheet regions 53 54 55 56 57 and observations of glacier beds 58 59 60 61 The strength and character of radar echoes from the bed of the ice sheet are also used to investigate the reflectivity 62 27 of the bed the attenuation 63 64 65 of radar in the ice and the morphology of the bed 66 67 68 In addition bed echoes radar returns from englacial layers 69 are used in studies of the radio stratigraphy of ice sheets 70 71 72 73 74 including investigations of ice accumulation 75 76 77 78 79 flow 80 81 82 83 and fabric 84 85 as well as absence or disturbances of that stratigraphy 86 87 88 Radioglaciology data has also been used extensively to study subglacial lakes 89 90 91 92 93 94 and glacial hydrology 95 including englacial water 96 97 98 firn aquifers 99 and their temporal evolution 100 39 101 Ice penetrating radar data has also been used to investigate the subsurface of ice shelves including their grounding zones 102 103 melt rates 104 105 brine distribution 106 and basal channels 107 Planetary exploration editThere are currently two ice penetrating radars orbiting Mars MARSIS and SHARAD 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 An ice penetrating radar was also part of the ROSETTA mission to comet 67P Churyumov Gerasimenko 17 Ice penetrating radars are also included in the payloads of two planned missions to the icy moons of Jupiter JUICE and Europa Clipper 19 118 119 120 121 122 123 IGS symposia editThe International Glaciological Society IGS holds a periodic series of symposia focused on radioglaciology In 2008 the Symposium on Radioglaciology and its Applications was hosted at the Technical University of Madrid In 2013 the Symposium on Radioglaciology was hosted at the University of Kansas In 2019 the Symposium of Five Decades of Radioglaciology was hosted at Stanford University Further reading editThe following books and papers cover important topics in radioglaciology Allen C 2008 of ice 2 A brief history of radio echo sounding of ice Earthzine Bingham RG and Siegert MJ 2007 Radio echo sounding over polar ice masses Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics 12 1 47 62 Bogorodsky VV Bentley CR and Gudmandsen PE 1985 Radioglaciology D Reidel Publishing Dowdeswell JA and Evans S 2004 Investigations of the form and flow of ice sheets and glaciers using radio echo sounding Reports on Progress in Physics 67 10 1821 1861 Haynes M 2020 Surface and subsurface radar equations for radar sounders Annals of Glaciology 61 81 135 142 Hubbard B and Glasser NF 2005 Field Techniques in Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology John Wiley amp Sons Navarro F and Eisen O 2009 11 Ground penetrating radar in glaciological in Remote Sensing of Glaciers Pellikka P and Rees GW editors Pettinelli E and 6 others 2015 Dielectric properties of Jovian satellite ice analogs for subsurface radar exploration a review Reviews of Geophysics 53 3 593 641 Schroeder DM Bingham RG Blankenship DD Christianson K Eisen O Flowers GE Karlsson NB Koutnik MR Paden JD Siegert MJ 2020 Five decades of radioglaciology Annals of Glaciology 61 81 1 13 Turchetti S Dean K Naylor S and Siegert M 2008 Accidents and opportunities a history of the radio echo sounding of Antarctica 1958 79 The British Journal for the History of Science 41 3 417 444 Research institutions editResearch and education in radioglaciology is undertaken at universities and research institutes around the world These groups found in institutions and departments that span physical geography geophysics earth science planetary science electrical engineering and related disciplines References edit a b Schroeder Dustin M Bingham Robert 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