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Junker (Prussia)

October 17, 2023

The Junkers (/ˈjʊŋkər/ YUUNG-kər; German: [ˈjʊŋkɐ]) were members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights.[1] These estates often lay in the countryside outside of major cities or towns. They were an important factor in Prussia and, after 1871, in German military, political and diplomatic leadership. The most famous Junker was Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.[2] Bismarck held power in Germany from 1871 to 1890 as Chancellor of the German Empire. He was removed from power by Kaiser Wilhelm II.[3]

Paul von Hindenburg was born into a wealthy Junker family

Many Junkers lived in the eastern provinces that were annexed by either Poland or the Soviet Union after World War II. Junkers fled or were expelled alongside other German-speaking population by the incoming Polish and Soviet administrations, and their lands were confiscated. In western and southern Germany, the land was often owned by small independent farmers or a mixture of small farmers and estate owners, and this system was often contrasted with the dominance of the large estate owners of the east. Before World War II, the dividing line was often drawn at the river Elbe which was also roughly the western boundary of Slavic settlement by the Wends in the so-called Germania Slavica prior to Ostsiedlung. The term for the junker dominated East was thus Ostelbien or East Elbia. They played a prominent role in repressing the liberal movement in Germany.

Origins Edit

Further information: Junker

Junker is derived from Middle High German Juncherre, meaning "young nobleman"[4] or otherwise "young lord" (derivation of jung and Herr), and originally was the title of members of the higher edelfrei (immediate) nobility without or before the accolade. It evolved to a general denotation of a young or lesser noble, often poor and politically insignificant, understood as "country squire" (cf. Martin Luther's disguise as "Junker Jörg" at the Wartburg; he would later mock King Henry VIII of England as "Juncker Heintz"[5]). As part of the nobility, many Junker families only had prepositions such as von or zu before their family names without further ranks. The abbreviation of the title is Jkr., most often placed before the given name and titles, for example: Jkr. Heinrich von Hohenberg. The female equivalent Junkfrau (Jkfr.) was used only sporadically. In some cases, the honorific Jkr. was also used for Freiherren (Barons) and Grafen (Counts).

A good number of poorer Junkers took up careers as soldiers (Fahnenjunker), mercenaries, and officials (Hofjunker, Kammerjunker) at the court of territorial princes. These families were mostly part of the German medieval Uradel and had carried on the colonization and Christianization of the northeastern European territories during the Ostsiedlung. Over the centuries, they had become influential commanders and landowners, especially in the lands east of the Elbe River in the Kingdom of Prussia.[6]

As landed aristocrats, the Junkers owned most of the arable land in Prussia. Being the bulwark of the ruling House of Hohenzollern, the Junkers controlled the Prussian Army, leading in political influence and social status, and owning immense estates worked by tenants. These were located especially in the north-eastern half of Germany (i.e. the Prussian provinces of Brandenburg, Pomerania, Silesia, West Prussia, East Prussia and Posen). This was in contrast to the predominantly Catholic southern states such as the Kingdom of Bavaria or the Grand Duchy of Baden, where land was owned by small farms, or the mixed agriculture of the western states like the Grand Duchy of Hesse or even the Prussian Rhine and Westphalian provinces.[7]

Junkers formed a tightly knit elite. Their challenge was how to retain their dominance in an emerging modern state with a growing middle and working class.

Modern influences Edit

 
Rittergut Neudeck, East Prussia (today Ogrodzieniec, Poland), presented to Reich President Paul von Hindenburg in 1928

The Junkers held a virtual monopoly on all agriculture in the part of the German Reich lying east of the River Elbe. Since the Junker estates were necessarily inherited by the eldest son alone, younger sons, all well-educated and with a sense of noble ancestry, turned to the civil and military services, and dominated all higher civil offices, as well as the officer corps. Around 1900 they modernized their farming operations to increase productivity. They sold off less productive land, invested more heavily in new breeds of cattle and pigs, used new fertilizers, increased grain production, and improved productivity per worker. Their political influence achieved the imposition of high tariffs that reduced competition from American grain and meat.[8]

During World War I, Irish nationalist MP Tom Kettle compared the Anglo-Irish landlord class to the Prussian Junkers, saying, "England goes to fight for liberty in Europe and for junkerdom in Ireland."[9]

Their political influence extended from the German Empire of 1871–1918 through the Weimar Republic of 1919–1933. It was said that "if Prussia ruled Germany, the Junkers ruled Prussia, and through it the Empire itself".[10] A policy known as Osthilfe ("Help for the East") granted Junkers 500,000,000 marks in subsidies to help pay for certain debts and to improve equipment.[11] Junkers continued to demand and receive more and more subsidies, which gave them more money in their pockets, thus resulting in political power. Junkers exploited a monopoly on corn by storing it to drive up the price. As more money was profited, they were able to control political offices. Junkers were able to force people to continue paying more money for their product, while keeping who they wanted in office.[12] Through the controlling of politics behind a veil, Junkers were able to influence politicians to create a law that prohibited collecting of debts from agrarians, thus pocketing even more money and strengthening their power.[13]

Supporting monarchism and military traditions, Junkers were seen as reactionary, anti-democratic, and protectionist by liberals and Socialists, as they had sided with the conservative monarchist forces during the Revolution of 1848. Their political interests were served by the German Conservative Party in the Reichstag and the extraparliamentary Agriculturists' League (Bund der Landwirte). This political class held tremendous power over industrial classes and government alike, especially through the Prussian three-class franchise. When the German chancellor Leo von Caprivi in the 1890s reduced the protective duties on imports of grain, these landed magnates demanded and obtained his dismissal; and in 1902, they brought about a restoration of such duties on foodstuffs as would keep the prices of their own products at a high level.

"Junker" acquired its current and often pejorative sense during the 19th-century disputes over the domestic policies of the German Empire.[14] The term was used by sociologists such as Max Weber and was even adopted by members of the landed class themselves. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was a noted Junker, though his family hailed from the Altmark region west of the Elbe. After World War I many Prussian agriculturists gathered in the national conservative German National People's Party (DNVP), the term was also applied to Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, lord at Neudeck in West Prussia, and to the "camarilla" around him urging the appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany, personified by men like Hindenburg's son Oskar and his West Prussian "neighbour" Elard von Oldenburg-Januschau, who played a vital role in the Eastern Aid (Osthilfe) scandal of 1932/33.

Many World War II field marshals were also members of the Junkers, most notably Gerd von Rundstedt, Fedor von Bock and Erich von Manstein. Many Junkers used forced laborers from Poland and the Soviet Union.[15] Landowners like Helmuth James Graf von Moltke and the members of the Kreisau Circle were part of the resistance to Nazi Germany rule. As World War II turned against Nazi Germany, several senior Junkers in the Wehrmacht participated in Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg's assassination attempt of 20 July 1944.[clarification needed] Fifty-eight were executed when the plot failed,[16] among them Erwin von Witzleben and Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff-Steinort, or committed suicide like Henning von Tresckow. During the advance of the Red Army in the closing months of the war and subsequently, most Junkers had to flee from the eastern territories that were turned over to the re-established Republic of Poland with the implementation of the Oder–Neisse line according to the Potsdam Agreement.

Bodenreform Edit

 
1985 Bodenreform memorial in Wolfshagen, Uckermark

After World War II, during the communist Bodenreform (land reform) of September 1945 in the Soviet Occupation Zone, later East Germany, all private property exceeding an area of 100 hectares (250 acres) was expropriated, and then predominantly allocated to 'New Farmers' on condition that they continued farming them. As most of these large estates, especially in Brandenburg and Western Pomerania, had belonged to Junkers, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany promoted their plans with East German President Wilhelm Pieck's slogan Junkerland in Bauernhand! ("Junker land into farmer's hand!").[17] The former owners were accused of war crimes and involvement in the Nazi regime by the Soviet Military Administration and the SED, with many of them being arrested, brutally beaten and interned in NKVD special camps (Speziallager), while their property was plundered and the manor houses demolished. Some were executed. Many women were raped.[18] From 1952 these individual farms were pressured by a variety of means to join together as collectives and incorporated into Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaften ("agricultural production comradeships", LPG) or nationalised as Volkseigene Güter ("publicly owned estates", VEG).[citation needed]

After German reunification, some Junkers tried to regain their former estates through civil lawsuits, but the German courts have upheld the land reforms and rebuffed claims to full compensation, confirming the legal validity of the terms within the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (Two Plus Four Agreement) (and incorporated into the Basic Law of the Federal Republic), by which expropriations of land under Soviet occupation were irreversible. The last decisive case was the unsuccessful lawsuit of Prince Ernst August of Hanover in September 2006, when the Federal Administrative Court decided that the prince had no right to compensation for the disseized estates of the House of Hanover around Blankenburg Castle in Saxony-Anhalt. Other families, however, have quietly purchased or leased back their ancestral homes from the current owners[19] (often the German federal government in its role as trustee). A petition for official rehabilitation of the ousted landowners was rejected by the German Bundestag in 2008.[citation needed]

Notable Junkers Edit

See also Edit

Notes Edit

  1. ^ Alan J. P. Taylor (2001). The Course of German History: a survey of the development of German history since 1815. Routledge. p. 20. ISBN 9780415255585.
  2. ^ Francis Ludwig Carsten, A History of the Prussian Junkers (1989).
  3. ^ Jonathan, Steinberg (2011). Bismarck a Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-978252-9.
  4. ^ Duden; Meaning of Junker, in German. [1]
  5. ^ Henry VIII: September 1540, 26–30', Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII, Volume 16: 1540–1541 (1898), p. 51. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=76214 Date accessed: 10 June 2012
  6. ^ William W. Hagen, Ordinary Prussians – Brandenburg Junkers and Villagers, 1500–1840 (Cambridge University Press, 2007)
  7. ^ Hagen, Ordinary Prussians – Brandenburg Junkers and Villagers, 1500–1840 (2007)
  8. ^ Torp, 2010)
  9. ^ Tim Cross (1988), The Lost Voices of World War I, p. 42.
  10. ^ Frederic Austin Ogg, The Governments of Europe (1920), p. 681
  11. ^ "Heilig". history.hanover.edu. Retrieved 2018-10-29.
  12. ^ "Heilig". history.hanover.edu. Retrieved 2018-10-29.
  13. ^ "Heilig". history.hanover.edu. Retrieved 2018-10-29.
  14. ^ Scott, H.M., ed. (2007). The European Nobilities in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Vol. 2. UK: Basingstoke. pp. 118–119.
  15. ^ Naimark, Norman M. (1995). The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge: Belknap Press. p. 145.
  16. ^ MacDonogh, p. 204
  17. ^ Naimark, Norman M. (1995). The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge: Belknap Press. p. 143.
  18. ^ Naimark, Norman M. (1995). The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge: Belknap Press. p. 86.
  19. ^ Roger Boyes (January 26, 2011). "The Prussians are coming". Retrieved 2013-09-29. Last year [in] the east German state of Brandenburg... I came across half a dozen members of the Prussian diaspora—their parents had fled the communists in 1945 and settled in West Germany—who had become wealthy (an eye surgeon, a gallery owner, a banker) and returned to buy back and restore their crumbling ancestral homes.

Bibliography Edit

  • Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. "Voter, Junker, Landrat, Priest: The Old Authorities and the New Franchise in Imperial Germany," American Historical Review (1993) 98#5 pp. 1448–1474 in JSTOR
  • Stienberg, Jonathan. Bismarck a Life, Oxford University Press, 2011
  • Carsten, Francis Ludwig. A history of the Prussian Junkers (1989).
  • Hagen, William W. Ordinary Prussians – Brandenburg Junkers and Villagers, 1500–1840 (Cambridge University Press, 2007)
  • MacDonogh, Giles, After the Reich, Basic Books, (2007) ISBN 0-465-00337-0.
  • Ogg, Frederick Austin, The Governments of Europe, MacMillan Company, 1920.
  • Ogg, Frederic Austin. Economic Development of Modern Europe, Chap. IX (bibliography, pp. 210–211).
  • Torp, Cornelius. "The "Coalition of 'Rye and Iron'" under the Pressure of Globalization: A Reinterpretation of Germany's Political Economy before 1914," Central European History (2010) 43#3 pp 401–427
  • Weber, Max. "National Character and the Junkers," in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (Routledge classics in sociology) (1991)[2]

External links Edit

October 17, 2023
junker, prussia, junkers, yuung, kər, german, ˈjʊŋkɐ, were, members, landed, nobility, prussia, they, owned, great, estates, that, were, maintained, worked, peasants, with, rights, these, estates, often, countryside, outside, major, cities, towns, they, were, . The Junkers ˈ j ʊ ŋ k er YUUNG ker German ˈjʊŋkɐ were members of the landed nobility in Prussia They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights 1 These estates often lay in the countryside outside of major cities or towns They were an important factor in Prussia and after 1871 in German military political and diplomatic leadership The most famous Junker was Chancellor Otto von Bismarck 2 Bismarck held power in Germany from 1871 to 1890 as Chancellor of the German Empire He was removed from power by Kaiser Wilhelm II 3 Paul von Hindenburg was born into a wealthy Junker family Many Junkers lived in the eastern provinces that were annexed by either Poland or the Soviet Union after World War II Junkers fled or were expelled alongside other German speaking population by the incoming Polish and Soviet administrations and their lands were confiscated In western and southern Germany the land was often owned by small independent farmers or a mixture of small farmers and estate owners and this system was often contrasted with the dominance of the large estate owners of the east Before World War II the dividing line was often drawn at the river Elbe which was also roughly the western boundary of Slavic settlement by the Wends in the so called Germania Slavica prior to Ostsiedlung The term for the junker dominated East was thus Ostelbien or East Elbia They played a prominent role in repressing the liberal movement in Germany Contents 1 Origins 2 Modern influences 3 Bodenreform 4 Notable Junkers 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Bibliography 8 External linksOrigins EditFurther information Junker Junker is derived from Middle High German Juncherre meaning young nobleman 4 or otherwise young lord derivation of jung and Herr and originally was the title of members of the higher edelfrei immediate nobility without or before the accolade It evolved to a general denotation of a young or lesser noble often poor and politically insignificant understood as country squire cf Martin Luther s disguise as Junker Jorg at the Wartburg he would later mock King Henry VIII of England as Juncker Heintz 5 As part of the nobility many Junker families only had prepositions such as von or zu before their family names without further ranks The abbreviation of the title is Jkr most often placed before the given name and titles for example Jkr Heinrich von Hohenberg The female equivalent Junkfrau Jkfr was used only sporadically In some cases the honorific Jkr was also used for Freiherren Barons and Grafen Counts A good number of poorer Junkers took up careers as soldiers Fahnenjunker mercenaries and officials Hofjunker Kammerjunker at the court of territorial princes These families were mostly part of the German medieval Uradel and had carried on the colonization and Christianization of the northeastern European territories during the Ostsiedlung Over the centuries they had become influential commanders and landowners especially in the lands east of the Elbe River in the Kingdom of Prussia 6 As landed aristocrats the Junkers owned most of the arable land in Prussia Being the bulwark of the ruling House of Hohenzollern the Junkers controlled the Prussian Army leading in political influence and social status and owning immense estates worked by tenants These were located especially in the north eastern half of Germany i e the Prussian provinces of Brandenburg Pomerania Silesia West Prussia East Prussia and Posen This was in contrast to the predominantly Catholic southern states such as the Kingdom of Bavaria or the Grand Duchy of Baden where land was owned by small farms or the mixed agriculture of the western states like the Grand Duchy of Hesse or even the Prussian Rhine and Westphalian provinces 7 Junkers formed a tightly knit elite Their challenge was how to retain their dominance in an emerging modern state with a growing middle and working class Modern influences Edit nbsp Rittergut Neudeck East Prussia today Ogrodzieniec Poland presented to Reich President Paul von Hindenburg in 1928The Junkers held a virtual monopoly on all agriculture in the part of the German Reich lying east of the River Elbe Since the Junker estates were necessarily inherited by the eldest son alone younger sons all well educated and with a sense of noble ancestry turned to the civil and military services and dominated all higher civil offices as well as the officer corps Around 1900 they modernized their farming operations to increase productivity They sold off less productive land invested more heavily in new breeds of cattle and pigs used new fertilizers increased grain production and improved productivity per worker Their political influence achieved the imposition of high tariffs that reduced competition from American grain and meat 8 During World War I Irish nationalist MP Tom Kettle compared the Anglo Irish landlord class to the Prussian Junkers saying England goes to fight for liberty in Europe and for junkerdom in Ireland 9 Their political influence extended from the German Empire of 1871 1918 through the Weimar Republic of 1919 1933 It was said that if Prussia ruled Germany the Junkers ruled Prussia and through it the Empire itself 10 A policy known as Osthilfe Help for the East granted Junkers 500 000 000 marks in subsidies to help pay for certain debts and to improve equipment 11 Junkers continued to demand and receive more and more subsidies which gave them more money in their pockets thus resulting in political power Junkers exploited a monopoly on corn by storing it to drive up the price As more money was profited they were able to control political offices Junkers were able to force people to continue paying more money for their product while keeping who they wanted in office 12 Through the controlling of politics behind a veil Junkers were able to influence politicians to create a law that prohibited collecting of debts from agrarians thus pocketing even more money and strengthening their power 13 Supporting monarchism and military traditions Junkers were seen as reactionary anti democratic and protectionist by liberals and Socialists as they had sided with the conservative monarchist forces during the Revolution of 1848 Their political interests were served by the German Conservative Party in the Reichstag and the extraparliamentary Agriculturists League Bund der Landwirte This political class held tremendous power over industrial classes and government alike especially through the Prussian three class franchise When the German chancellor Leo von Caprivi in the 1890s reduced the protective duties on imports of grain these landed magnates demanded and obtained his dismissal and in 1902 they brought about a restoration of such duties on foodstuffs as would keep the prices of their own products at a high level Junker acquired its current and often pejorative sense during the 19th century disputes over the domestic policies of the German Empire 14 The term was used by sociologists such as Max Weber and was even adopted by members of the landed class themselves Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was a noted Junker though his family hailed from the Altmark region west of the Elbe After World War I many Prussian agriculturists gathered in the national conservative German National People s Party DNVP the term was also applied to Reich President Paul von Hindenburg lord at Neudeck in West Prussia and to the camarilla around him urging the appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany personified by men like Hindenburg s son Oskar and his West Prussian neighbour Elard von Oldenburg Januschau who played a vital role in the Eastern Aid Osthilfe scandal of 1932 33 Many World War II field marshals were also members of the Junkers most notably Gerd von Rundstedt Fedor von Bock and Erich von Manstein Many Junkers used forced laborers from Poland and the Soviet Union 15 Landowners like Helmuth James Graf von Moltke and the members of the Kreisau Circle were part of the resistance to Nazi Germany rule As World War II turned against Nazi Germany several senior Junkers in the Wehrmacht participated in Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg s assassination attempt of 20 July 1944 clarification needed Fifty eight were executed when the plot failed 16 among them Erwin von Witzleben and Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff Steinort or committed suicide like Henning von Tresckow During the advance of the Red Army in the closing months of the war and subsequently most Junkers had to flee from the eastern territories that were turned over to the re established Republic of Poland with the implementation of the Oder Neisse line according to the Potsdam Agreement Bodenreform Edit nbsp 1985 Bodenreform memorial in Wolfshagen UckermarkAfter World War II during the communist Bodenreform land reform of September 1945 in the Soviet Occupation Zone later East Germany all private property exceeding an area of 100 hectares 250 acres was expropriated and then predominantly allocated to New Farmers on condition that they continued farming them As most of these large estates especially in Brandenburg and Western Pomerania had belonged to Junkers the Socialist Unity Party of Germany promoted their plans with East German President Wilhelm Pieck s slogan Junkerland in Bauernhand Junker land into farmer s hand 17 The former owners were accused of war crimes and involvement in the Nazi regime by the Soviet Military Administration and the SED with many of them being arrested brutally beaten and interned in NKVD special camps Speziallager while their property was plundered and the manor houses demolished Some were executed Many women were raped 18 From 1952 these individual farms were pressured by a variety of means to join together as collectives and incorporated into Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaften agricultural production comradeships LPG or nationalised as Volkseigene Guter publicly owned estates VEG citation needed After German reunification some Junkers tried to regain their former estates through civil lawsuits but the German courts have upheld the land reforms and rebuffed claims to full compensation confirming the legal validity of the terms within the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany Two Plus Four Agreement and incorporated into the Basic Law of the Federal Republic by which expropriations of land under Soviet occupation were irreversible The last decisive case was the unsuccessful lawsuit of Prince Ernst August of Hanover in September 2006 when the Federal Administrative Court decided that the prince had no right to compensation for the disseized estates of the House of Hanover around Blankenburg Castle in Saxony Anhalt Other families however have quietly purchased or leased back their ancestral homes from the current owners 19 often the German federal government in its role as trustee A petition for official rehabilitation of the ousted landowners was rejected by the German Bundestag in 2008 citation needed Notable Junkers EditOtto von Bismarck Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher Manfred von Richthofen Paul von Hindenburg Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben Christoph II von Dohna Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz Alfred von Waldersee Alfred von Schlieffen Werner von Siemens Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal Josias von Heeringen Heinrich von Kleist Joseph von Eichendorff Ferdinand von Schill Hans Joachim von Zieten Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein Helmuth von Moltke the Elder Helmuth von Moltke the Younger Gustav von Wangenheim Alexander von Linsingen Franz von Hipper Karl Jesko von Puttkamer Kurt Freiherr von Hammerstein Equord Claus von Stauffenberg Heinrich Graf von Einsiedel Gunther von Reibnitz Alfred von Tirpitz Erich von Falkenhayn August von Mackensen Henning von Tresckow Walter von Brauchitsch Fedor von Bock Oskar von Hindenburg Wilhelm von Leeb Erich von Manstein Hans Jurgen von Arnim Hermann von Eichhorn Otto Liman von Sanders Helmuth James Graf von Moltke Wolfram von Richthofen Peter Yorck von Wartenburg Marion von Donhoff Elard von Oldenburg Januschau Veruschka von Lehndorff Paul Emil von Lettow Vorbeck Kurt von Schleicher Hans von Seeckt Bernhard von Bulow Alexander von Kluck Werner von Blomberg Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk Eberhard von Mackensen Wernher von Braun Walther von Reichenau Walther von Seydlitz Kurzbach Gerhard von Scharnhorst August von Gneisenau Carl von Clausewitz Albrecht von Roon Karl vom Stein zum Altenstein Eugen Anton Theophil von Podbielski Adolf Wild von Hohenborn Erwin von Witzleben Job von Witzleben historian Ludwig Freiherr von und zu der Tann Rathsamhausen Hyazinth Graf Strachwitz von Gross Zauche und Camminetz Gottfried Graf von Bismarck Schonhausen Wessel Freytag von Loringhoven Gunther von Kluge Ernst von Weizsacker Ulrich von Hassell Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff Steinort Georg von Derfflinger Erich von Drygalski Ludwig von Wolzogen Rudolf von Bennigsen Heinrich Freiherr von Luttwitz Remus von Woyrsch Gerd von Rundstedt Lothar von Richthofen Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach Ferdinand von Sammern Frankenegg Erich von dem Bach Zelewski Franz von Papen Joachim von Ribbentrop Franz Pfeffer von Salomon Werner von Fritsch Baldur von Schirach Claus von Bulow Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach Konstantin von Neurath Richard von Weizsacker Maximilian von Weichs Friedrich Wilhelm von Lindeiner Wildau Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe Schillingsfurst Georg von Hertling Ferdinand von Zeppelin Hans Georg von Friedeburg Robert Ritter von Greim Adolf von Baeyer Anthony Lorinthia von GeriasarchSee also EditGerman nobility East Elbia Baltic Germans Jonkheer the Dutch cognate and rough equivalent Junker Party 19th century Swedish political movement GentryNotes Edit Alan J P Taylor 2001 The Course of German History a survey of the development of German history since 1815 Routledge p 20 ISBN 9780415255585 Francis Ludwig Carsten A History of the Prussian Junkers 1989 Jonathan Steinberg 2011 Bismarck a Life Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 978252 9 Duden Meaning of Junker in German 1 Henry VIII September 1540 26 30 Letters and Papers Foreign and Domestic Henry VIII Volume 16 1540 1541 1898 p 51 URL http www british history ac uk report aspx compid 76214 Date accessed 10 June 2012 William W Hagen Ordinary Prussians Brandenburg Junkers and Villagers 1500 1840 Cambridge University Press 2007 Hagen Ordinary Prussians Brandenburg Junkers and Villagers 1500 1840 2007 Torp 2010 Tim Cross 1988 The Lost Voices of World War I p 42 Frederic Austin Ogg The Governments of Europe 1920 p 681 Heilig history hanover edu Retrieved 2018 10 29 Heilig history hanover edu Retrieved 2018 10 29 Heilig history hanover edu Retrieved 2018 10 29 Scott H M ed 2007 The European Nobilities in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Vol 2 UK Basingstoke pp 118 119 Naimark Norman M 1995 The Russians in Germany A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation 1945 1949 Cambridge Belknap Press p 145 MacDonogh p 204 Naimark Norman M 1995 The Russians in Germany A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation 1945 1949 Cambridge Belknap Press p 143 Naimark Norman M 1995 The Russians in Germany A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation 1945 1949 Cambridge Belknap Press p 86 Roger Boyes January 26 2011 The Prussians are coming Retrieved 2013 09 29 Last year in the east German state of Brandenburg I came across half a dozen members of the Prussian diaspora their parents had fled the communists in 1945 and settled in West Germany who had become wealthy an eye surgeon a gallery owner a banker and returned to buy back and restore their crumbling ancestral homes Bibliography EditAnderson Margaret Lavinia Voter Junker Landrat Priest The Old Authorities and the New Franchise in Imperial Germany American Historical Review 1993 98 5 pp 1448 1474 in JSTOR Stienberg Jonathan Bismarck a Life Oxford University Press 2011 Carsten Francis Ludwig A history of the Prussian Junkers 1989 Hagen William W Ordinary Prussians Brandenburg Junkers and Villagers 1500 1840 Cambridge University Press 2007 MacDonogh Giles After the Reich Basic Books 2007 ISBN 0 465 00337 0 Ogg Frederick Austin The Governments of Europe MacMillan Company 1920 Ogg Frederic Austin Economic Development of Modern Europe Chap IX bibliography pp 210 211 Torp Cornelius The Coalition of Rye and Iron under the Pressure of Globalization A Reinterpretation of Germany s Political Economy before 1914 Central European History 2010 43 3 pp 401 427 Weber Max National Character and the Junkers in From Max Weber Essays in Sociology Routledge classics in sociology 1991 2 External links Edit Junkers Encyclopedia Americana 1920 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Junker Prussia amp oldid 1178660765, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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