Protoplast (from Ancient Greekπρωτόπλαστος (prōtóplastos) 'first-formed'), is a biological term coined by Hanstein in 1880 to refer to the entire cell, excluding the cell wall.[1][2] Protoplasts can be generated by stripping the cell wall from plant,[3]bacterial,[4][5] or fungal cells[5][6] by mechanical, chemical or enzymatic means.
Protoplasts of cells from a petunia's leafProtoplasts of the moss Physcomitrella patens
Protoplasts differ from spheroplasts in that their cell wall has been completely removed.[4][5] Spheroplasts retain part of their cell wall.[7] In the case of Gram-negative bacterial spheroplasts, for example, the peptidoglycan component of the cell wall has been removed but the outer membrane component has not.[4][5]
Cell walls are made of a variety of polysaccharides. Protoplasts can be made by degrading cell walls with a mixture of the appropriate polysaccharide-degrading enzymes:
During and subsequent to digestion of the cell wall, the protoplast becomes very sensitive to osmotic stress. This means cell wall digestion and protoplast storage must be done in an isotonic solution to prevent rupture of the plasma membrane.[citation needed]
Uses for protoplastsEdit
Fused protoplast (on left), containing both chloroplasts (from a leaf cell) as well as a coloured vacuole (from a petal).
Protoplasts are widely used for DNAtransformation (for making genetically modified organisms), since the cell wall would otherwise block the passage of DNA into the cell.[3] In the case of plant cells, protoplasts may be regenerated into whole plants first by growing into a group of plant cells that develops into a callus and then by regeneration of shoots (caulogenesis) from the callus using plant tissue culture methods.[8] Growth of protoplasts into callus and regeneration of shoots requires the proper balance of plant growth regulators in the tissue culture medium that must be customized for each species of plant. Unlike protoplasts from vascular plants, protoplasts from mosses, such as Physcomitrella patens, do not need phytohormones for regeneration, nor do they form a callus during regeneration. Instead, they regenerate directly into the filamentous protonema, mimicking a germinating moss spore.[9]
Additionally, protoplasts of plants expressing fluorescent proteins in certain cells may be used for Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS), where only cells fluorescing a selected wavelength are retained. Among other things, this technique is used to isolate specific cell types (e.g., guard cells from leaves, pericycle cells from roots) for further investigations, such as transcriptomics.[citation needed]
^Sharp, LW (1921). Introduction To Cytology. New York: McGraw Hill, p. 24.
^ abcDavey MR, Anthony P, Power JB, Lowe KC (2005). "Plant protoplasts: status and biotechnological perspectives". Biotechnology Advances. 23 (2): 131–71. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2004.09.008. PMID 15694124.
^ abcdCushnie, TP; O’Driscoll, NH; Lamb, AJ (2016). "Morphological and ultrastructural changes in bacterial cells as an indicator of antibacterial mechanism of action". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 73 (23): 4471–4492. doi:10.1007/s00018-016-2302-2. hdl:10059/2129. PMID 27392605. S2CID 2065821.
^ abcd"Protoplasts and spheroplasts". www.encyclopedia.com. Encyclopedia.com. 2016. Retrieved July 21, 2019.
^ abDahiya, N; Tewari, R; Hoondal, GS (2006). "Biotechnological aspects of chitinolytic enzymes: a review". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 71 (6): 773–782. doi:10.1007/s00253-005-0183-7. PMID 16249876. S2CID 852042.
^"Definition of spheroplast". www.merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster. 2019. Retrieved July 21, 2019.
^Thorpe TA (2007). "History of plant tissue culture". Molecular Biotechnology. 37 (2): 169–80. doi:10.1007/s12033-007-0031-3. PMID 17914178. S2CID 25641573.
^Bhatla SC, Kiessling J, Reski R (2002): Observation of polarity induction by cytochemical localization of phenylalkylamine-binding receptors in regenerating protoplasts of the moss Physcomitrella patens. Protoplasma 219, 99–105.
^Hain R, Czernilofsky AP, et al. (1985). "Uptake, integration, expression and genetic transmission of a selectable chimaeric gene by plant protoplasts". Molecular and General Genetics 199:161–168.
October 14, 2023
protoplast, mythological, progenitors, humanity, religion, from, ancient, greek, πρωτόπλαστος, prōtóplastos, first, formed, biological, term, coined, hanstein, 1880, refer, entire, cell, excluding, cell, wall, generated, stripping, cell, wall, from, plant, bac. For mythological progenitors of humanity see Protoplast religion Protoplast from Ancient Greek prwtoplastos prōtoplastos first formed is a biological term coined by Hanstein in 1880 to refer to the entire cell excluding the cell wall 1 2 Protoplasts can be generated by stripping the cell wall from plant 3 bacterial 4 5 or fungal cells 5 6 by mechanical chemical or enzymatic means Protoplasts of cells from a petunia s leafProtoplasts of the moss Physcomitrella patensProtoplasts differ from spheroplasts in that their cell wall has been completely removed 4 5 Spheroplasts retain part of their cell wall 7 In the case of Gram negative bacterial spheroplasts for example the peptidoglycan component of the cell wall has been removed but the outer membrane component has not 4 5 Contents 1 Enzymes for the preparation of protoplasts 2 Uses for protoplasts 3 See also 4 ReferencesEnzymes for the preparation of protoplasts EditCell walls are made of a variety of polysaccharides Protoplasts can be made by degrading cell walls with a mixture of the appropriate polysaccharide degrading enzymes Type of cell EnzymePlant cells Cellulase pectinase xylanase 3 Gram positive bacteria Lysozyme N O diacetylmuramidase lysostaphin 4 Fungal cells Chitinase 6 During and subsequent to digestion of the cell wall the protoplast becomes very sensitive to osmotic stress This means cell wall digestion and protoplast storage must be done in an isotonic solution to prevent rupture of the plasma membrane citation needed Uses for protoplasts Edit nbsp Fused protoplast on left containing both chloroplasts from a leaf cell as well as a coloured vacuole from a petal Protoplasts can be used to study membrane biology including the uptake of macromolecules and viruses These are also used in somaclonal variation Protoplasts are widely used for DNA transformation for making genetically modified organisms since the cell wall would otherwise block the passage of DNA into the cell 3 In the case of plant cells protoplasts may be regenerated into whole plants first by growing into a group of plant cells that develops into a callus and then by regeneration of shoots caulogenesis from the callus using plant tissue culture methods 8 Growth of protoplasts into callus and regeneration of shoots requires the proper balance of plant growth regulators in the tissue culture medium that must be customized for each species of plant Unlike protoplasts from vascular plants protoplasts from mosses such as Physcomitrella patens do not need phytohormones for regeneration nor do they form a callus during regeneration Instead they regenerate directly into the filamentous protonema mimicking a germinating moss spore 9 Protoplasts may also be used for plant breeding using a technique called protoplast fusion Protoplasts from different species are induced to fuse by using an electric field or a solution of polyethylene glycol 10 This technique may be used to generate somatic hybrids in tissue culture citation needed Additionally protoplasts of plants expressing fluorescent proteins in certain cells may be used for Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting FACS where only cells fluorescing a selected wavelength are retained Among other things this technique is used to isolate specific cell types e g guard cells from leaves pericycle cells from roots for further investigations such as transcriptomics citation needed See also EditBacterial morphological plasticity L form bacteria SpheroplastsReferences Edit Hanstein J 1880 Das Protoplasma Heidelberg Sharp LW 1921 Introduction To Cytology New York McGraw Hill p 24 a b c Davey MR Anthony P Power JB Lowe KC 2005 Plant protoplasts status and biotechnological perspectives Biotechnology Advances 23 2 131 71 doi 10 1016 j biotechadv 2004 09 008 PMID 15694124 a b c d Cushnie TP O Driscoll NH Lamb AJ 2016 Morphological and ultrastructural changes in bacterial cells as an indicator of antibacterial mechanism of action Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 73 23 4471 4492 doi 10 1007 s00018 016 2302 2 hdl 10059 2129 PMID 27392605 S2CID 2065821 a b c d Protoplasts and spheroplasts www encyclopedia com Encyclopedia com 2016 Retrieved July 21 2019 a b Dahiya N Tewari R Hoondal GS 2006 Biotechnological aspects of chitinolytic enzymes a review Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 71 6 773 782 doi 10 1007 s00253 005 0183 7 PMID 16249876 S2CID 852042 Definition of spheroplast www merriam webster com Merriam Webster 2019 Retrieved July 21 2019 Thorpe TA 2007 History of plant tissue culture Molecular Biotechnology 37 2 169 80 doi 10 1007 s12033 007 0031 3 PMID 17914178 S2CID 25641573 Bhatla SC Kiessling J Reski R 2002 Observation of polarity induction by cytochemical localization of phenylalkylamine binding receptors in regenerating protoplasts of the moss Physcomitrella patens Protoplasma 219 99 105 Hain R Czernilofsky AP et al 1985 Uptake integration expression and genetic transmission of a selectable chimaeric gene by plant protoplasts Molecular and General Genetics 199 161 168 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Protoplast amp oldid 1169076369, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
