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Pama–Nyungan languages

March 29, 2023

The Pama–Nyungan languages are the most widespread family of Australian Aboriginal languages,[1] containing 306 out of 400 Aboriginal languages in Australia.[2]: 19  The name "Pama–Nyungan" is a merism: it is derived from the two end-points of the range, the Pama languages of northeast Australia (where the word for "man" is pama) and the Nyungan languages of southwest Australia (where the word for "man" is nyunga).[2]: 19 

Pama–Nyungan
Geographic
distribution		most of mainland Australia, with the exception of northern parts of Northern Territory and Western Australia
Linguistic classificationMacro-Pama–Nyungan?
  • Greater Pama–Nyungan
    • Pama–Nyungan
Proto-languageProto-Pama–Nyungan
Subdivisions
  • plus unclassified languages
Linguasphere29-A to 29-X (provisional)
Glottologpama1250
Pama–Nyungan languages (yellow)
Other Macro-Pama–Nyungan (green and orange)

The other language families indigenous to the continent of Australia are occasionally referred to, by exclusion, as non-Pama–Nyungan languages, though this is not a taxonomic term. The Pama–Nyungan family accounts for most of the geographic spread, most of the Aboriginal population, and the greatest number of languages. Most of the Pama–Nyungan languages are spoken by small ethnic groups of hundreds of speakers or fewer. The vast majority of languages, either due to disease or elimination of their speakers, have become extinct, and almost all remaining ones are endangered in some way. Only in the central inland portions of the continent do Pama-Nyungan languages remain spoken vigorously by the entire community.

The Pama–Nyungan family was identified and named by Kenneth L. Hale, in his work on the classification of Native Australian languages. Hale's research led him to the conclusion that of the Aboriginal Australian languages, one relatively closely interrelated family had spread and proliferated over most of the continent, while approximately a dozen other families were concentrated along the North coast.

History

Pama-Nyungan languages evolved around 5,000 years ago through the use of Proto-Pama-Nyungan, the ancestor of Pama-Nyungan languages, spreading southwest and southeast through much of Australia, displacing the native non-Pama-Nyungan languages that were spoken over 5,000 years ago. When Europeans arived, the Pama-Nyungan languages had a heavy loss due to the influence of English, diseases and other factors. However, there have been revival efforts between Pama-Nyungan and other Aboriginal language families. Today, Pama-Nyungan languages are spoken by 180,000 people and cover an area of all of Australia except for the Northwest Region and Western Australia

Typology

Evans and McConvell describe typical Pama–Nyungan languages such as Warlpiri as dependent-marking and exclusively suffixing languages which lack gender, while noting that some non-Pama–Nyungan languages such as Tangkic share this typology and some Pama–Nyungan languages like Yanyuwa, a head-marking and prefixing language with a complicated gender system, diverge from it.[3]

Reconstruction

Main article: Proto-Pama–Nyungan
Proto-Pama–Nyungan
Reconstruction ofPama–Nyungan
RegionGulf Plains, NE Australia
Eraperhaps ca. 3000 BCE

Proto-Pama–Nyungan may have been spoken as recently as about 5,000 years ago, much more recently than the 40,000 to 60,000 years indigenous Australians are believed to have been inhabiting Australia. How the Pama–Nyungan languages spread over most of the continent and displaced any pre-Pama–Nyungan languages is uncertain; one possibility is that language could have been transferred from one group to another alongside culture and ritual.[4][5] Given the relationship of cognates between groups, it seems that Pama-Nyungan has many of the characteristics of a sprachbund, indicating the antiquity of multiple waves of culture contact between groups.[6] Dixon in particular has argued that the genealogical trees found with many language families do not fit in the Pama-Nyungan family.[7]

 
The Gulf Plains, the Proto-Pama–Nyungan homeland.

Using computational phylogenetics, Bouckaert, et al. (2018)[8] posit a mid-Holocene expansion of Pama-Nyungan from the Gulf Plains of northeastern Australia.

Phonotactics

Pama–Nyungan languages generally share several broad phonotactic constraints: single-consonant onsets, a lack of fricatives, and a prohibition against liquids (laterals and rhotics) beginning words. Voiced fricatives have developed in several scattered languages, such as Anguthimri, though often the sole alleged fricative is /ɣ/ and is analyzed as an approximant /ɰ/ by other linguists. An exception is Kala Lagaw Ya, which acquired both fricatives and a voicing contrast in them and in its plosives from contact with Papuan languages. Several of the languages of Victoria allowed initial /l/, and one—Gunai—also allowed initial /r/ and consonant clusters /kr/ and /pr/, a trait shared with the extinct Tasmanian languages across the Bass Strait.[citation needed]

Classification

At the time of the European arrival in Australia, there were some 300 Pama–Nyungan languages divided across three dozen branches. What follows are the languages listed in Bowern (2011); numbers in parentheses are the numbers of languages in each branch. These vary from languages so distinct they are difficult to demonstrate as being in the same branch, to near dialects on par with the differences between the Scandinavian languages.[9]

Traditional conservative classification

Down the east coast, from Cape York to the Bass Strait, there are:

Continuing along the south coast, from Melbourne to Perth:

Up the west coast:

Cutting inland back to Paman, south of the northern non-Pama–Nyungan languages, are

Encircled by these branches are:

Separated to the north of the rest of Pama–Nyungan is

Some of inclusions in each branch are only provisional, as many languages became extinct before they could be adequately documented. Not included are dozens of poorly attested and extinct languages such as Barranbinja and the Lower Burdekin languages.

A few more inclusive groups that have been proposed, such as Northeast Pama–Nyungan (Pama–Maric), Central New South Wales, and Southwest Pama–Nyungan, appear to be geographical rather than genealogical groups.

Bowern & Atkinson

Bowern & Atkinson (2012) use computational phylogenetics to calculate the following classification:[10]

External relations

According to Nicholas Evans, the closest relative of Pama–Nyungan is the Garawan language family, followed by the small Tangkic family. He then proposes a more distant relationship with the Gunwinyguan languages in a macro-family he calls Macro-Pama–Nyungan.[11] However, this has yet to be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the linguistic community.

Validity

Dixon's skepticism

In his 1980 attempt to reconstruct Proto-Australian, R. M. W. Dixon reported that he was unable to find anything that reliably set Pama–Nyungan apart as a valid genetic group. Fifteen years later, he had abandoned the idea that Australian or Pama–Nyungan were families. He now sees Australian as a Sprachbund (Dixon 2002). Some of the small traditionally Pama–Nyungan families which have been demonstrated through the comparative method, or which in Dixon's opinion are likely to be demonstrable, include the following:

He believes that Lower Murray (five families and isolates), Arandic (2 families, Kaytetye and Arrernte), and Kalkatungic (2 isolates) are small Sprachbunds.

Dixon's theories of Australian Language diachrony have been based on a model of punctuated equilibrium (adapted from the eponymous model in evolutionary biology) wherein he believes Australian languages to be ancient and to have--for the most part--remained in unchanging equilibrium with the exception of sporadic branching or speciation events in the phylogenetic tree. Part of Dixon's objections to the Pama Nyungan family classification is the lack of obvious binary branching points which are implicitly or explicitly entailed by his model.

Mainstream rejoinders

However, the papers in Bowern & Koch (2004) demonstrate about ten traditional groups, including Pama–Nyungan, and its sub-branches such as Arandic, using the comparative method.

In his last published paper from the same collection, Ken Hale describes Dixon's skepticism as an erroneous phylogenetic assessment which is "so bizarrely faulted, and such an insult to the eminently successful practitioners of Comparative Method Linguistics in Australia, that it positively demands a decisive riposte."[12] In the same work Hale provides unique pronominal and grammatical evidence (with suppletion) as well as more than fifty basic-vocabulary cognates (showing regular sound correspondences) between the proto-Northern-and-Middle Pamic (pNMP) family of the Cape York Peninsula on the Australian northeast coast and proto-Ngayarta of the Australian west coast, some 3,000 km apart, (as well as from many other languages) to support the Pama–Nyungan grouping, whose age he compares to that of Proto-Indo-European.

Bowern (2006)

Bowern 2006[13] offers an alternative to Dixon's binary phylogenetic-tree model based in the principles of dialect geography. Rather than discarding the notion that multiple subgroups of languages are genetically related due to the presence of multiple dialectal epicenters arranged around stark isoglosses, Bowern proposes that the non-binary-branching characteristics of Pama Nyungan languages (note that Bowern & Atkinson 2012 uncovered more binary-branching characteristics than initially thought) are precisely what we would expect to see from a language continuum in which dialects are diverging linguistically but remaining in close geographic and social contact. Bowern offers three main advantages of this geographical-continuum model over the punctuated equilibrium model:

First, there is a place for both divergence and convergence as processes of language change; punctuated equilibrium stresses convergence as the main mechanism of language change in Australia. Second, it makes Pama-Nyungan look much more similar to other areas of the world. We no longer have to assume that Australia is a special case. Third, and related to this, we do not have to assume in this model that there has been intensive diffusion of many linguistic elements that in other parts of the world are resistant to borrowing (such as shared irregularities). (Bowern 2006, 257)

Bowern & Atkinson (2012)

As mentioned above, additional methods of computational phylogenetic employed by Bowern and Atkinson in 2012[10] function as a different kind of rejoinder to Dixon's skepticism. Instead of acceding to the notion that Pama Nyungan languages do not share the characteristics of a binary-branching language family, the computational methods revealed that inter-language loan rates were not as atypically high as previously imagined and do not obscure the features that would allow for a phylogenetic approach.

Our work puts to rest once and for all the claim that Australian languages are so exceptional that methods used elsewhere in the world do not work on this continent . The methods presented here have been used with Bantu, Austronesian, Indo-European, and Japonic languages (among others). Pama-Nyungan languages, like all languages, show a mixture of histories that reflect both contact and inheritance. (Bowern & Atkinson 2012, 839)

Bowern and Atkinson's computational model is currently the definitive model of Pama-Nyungan intra-relatedness and diachrony.

See also

References

  1. ^ International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, William J. Frawley, p 232,
  2. ^ a b Zuckermann, Ghil‘ad; Vigfússon, Sigurður; Rayner, Manny; Ní Chiaráin, Neasa; Ivanova, Nedelina; Habibi, Hanieh; Bédi, Branislav (2021). "LARA in the Service of Revivalistics and Documentary Linguistics: Community Engagement and Endangered Languages" (PDF). ComputEL-4: Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Computational Methods for Endangered Languages.
  3. ^ Nick Evans and Patrick McConvell, "The Enigma of Pama–Nyungan Expansion in Australia" Archaeology and language, Volume 29, Roger Blench, Matthew Spriggs, eds., Routledge, 1999, p176
  4. ^ Hale & O'Grady, pp. 91–92
  5. ^ Evans & Rhys
  6. ^ Nichols, Johanna (1997), "Modeling Ancient Population Structures and Movement in Linguistics 12 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine" (Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26, (1997)), pp. 359-384.
  7. ^ Dixon, R. M. W. 1997. "The rise and fall of languages". (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
  8. ^ Bouckaert, Remco R., Claire Bowern & Quentin D. Atkinson (2018). The origin and expansion of Pama–Nyungan languages across Australia. Nature Ecology & Evolution volume 2, pages 741–749 (2018).
  9. ^ Bowern, Claire. 2011. "How Many Languages Were Spoken in Australia?", Anggarrgoon: Australian languages on the web, December 23, 2011 (corrected February 6, 2012)
  10. ^ a b Claire Bowern and Quentin Atkinson (2012) "Computational phylogenetics and the internal structure of Pama-Nyungan", Language 88: 817–845.
  11. ^ McConvell, Patrick and Nicholas Evans. (eds.) 1997. Archaeology and Linguistics: Global Perspectives on Ancient Australia. Melbourne: Oxford University Press
  12. ^ "the Coherence and Distinctiveness of the Pama–Nyungan Language Family within the Australian Linguistic Phylum" Geoff O'Grady and Ken Hale, p 69, Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method, Claire Bowern and Harold Koch, eds., John Benjamins Pub. Co., Amsterdam and Philadelphia, 2004
  13. ^ Bowern, Claire. 2006. Another Look at Australia as a Linguistic Area. In Yaron Matras, April McMahon & Nigel Vincent (eds.), Linguistic Areas: Convergence in Historical and Typological Perspective, 244–265. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230287617_10. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230287617_10 (26 May, 2020).

Bibliography

  • Claire Bowern & Harold Koch, eds. (2004) Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
  • Bowern, Claire, & Atkinson, Quentin. (2012). Computational Phylogenetics and the Internal Structure of Pama-Nyungan: Dataset [Data set]. Language. doi:10.1353/lan.2012.0081
  • McConvell, Patrick and Nicholas Evans. (eds.) 1997. Archaeology and Linguistics: Global Perspectives on Ancient Australia. Melbourne: Oxford University Press
  • Dixon, R. M. W. 2002. Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development. Cambridge University Press
  • Evans, Nicholas. (eds.) 2003. The Non-Pama–Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia. Comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics
Data sets
  • Robert Forkel, Tiago Tresoldi, & Johann-Mattis List. (2019). lexibank/bowernpny: The Internal Structure of Pama-Nyungan (Version v3.0) [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3534952

External links

 
Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix:Proto-Pama-Nyungan reconstructions
  • Chirila – Yale Pama-Nyungan Lab
  • AIATSIS map of Australian languages

March 29, 2023
pama, nyungan, languages, most, widespread, family, australian, aboriginal, languages, containing, aboriginal, languages, australia, name, pama, nyungan, merism, derived, from, points, range, pama, languages, northeast, australia, where, word, pama, nyungan, l. The Pama Nyungan languages are the most widespread family of Australian Aboriginal languages 1 containing 306 out of 400 Aboriginal languages in Australia 2 19 The name Pama Nyungan is a merism it is derived from the two end points of the range the Pama languages of northeast Australia where the word for man is pama and the Nyungan languages of southwest Australia where the word for man is nyunga 2 19 Pama NyunganGeographicdistributionmost of mainland Australia with the exception of northern parts of Northern Territory and Western AustraliaLinguistic classificationMacro Pama Nyungan Greater Pama NyunganPama NyunganProto languageProto Pama NyunganSubdivisionsYolŋu Ngarna Kalkatungic Mayi Paman Kala Lagaw Ya Yidiny Dyirbalic Maric Waka Kabic Durubulic Bandjalangic Gumbaynggiric Anewan Wiradhuric Yuin Kuric Gippsland Yotayotic Kulinic Lower Murray Thura Yura Mirniny Nyungar Kartu Kanyara Mantharta Ngayarta Marrngu Ngumpin Yapa Warumungu Wati Arandic Kalali Karnic Yardli Muruwari Paakantyiplus unclassified languagesLinguasphere29 A to 29 X provisional Glottologpama1250Pama Nyungan languages yellow Other Macro Pama Nyungan green and orange The other language families indigenous to the continent of Australia are occasionally referred to by exclusion as non Pama Nyungan languages though this is not a taxonomic term The Pama Nyungan family accounts for most of the geographic spread most of the Aboriginal population and the greatest number of languages Most of the Pama Nyungan languages are spoken by small ethnic groups of hundreds of speakers or fewer The vast majority of languages either due to disease or elimination of their speakers have become extinct and almost all remaining ones are endangered in some way Only in the central inland portions of the continent do Pama Nyungan languages remain spoken vigorously by the entire community The Pama Nyungan family was identified and named by Kenneth L Hale in his work on the classification of Native Australian languages Hale s research led him to the conclusion that of the Aboriginal Australian languages one relatively closely interrelated family had spread and proliferated over most of the continent while approximately a dozen other families were concentrated along the North coast Contents 1 History 2 Typology 3 Reconstruction 4 Phonotactics 5 Classification 5 1 Traditional conservative classification 5 2 Bowern amp Atkinson 5 3 External relations 6 Validity 6 1 Dixon s skepticism 6 2 Mainstream rejoinders 6 2 1 Bowern 2006 6 2 2 Bowern amp Atkinson 2012 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External linksHistory EditPama Nyungan languages evolved around 5 000 years ago through the use of Proto Pama Nyungan the ancestor of Pama Nyungan languages spreading southwest and southeast through much of Australia displacing the native non Pama Nyungan languages that were spoken over 5 000 years ago When Europeans arived the Pama Nyungan languages had a heavy loss due to the influence of English diseases and other factors However there have been revival efforts between Pama Nyungan and other Aboriginal language families Today Pama Nyungan languages are spoken by 180 000 people and cover an area of all of Australia except for the Northwest Region and Western AustraliaTypology EditEvans and McConvell describe typical Pama Nyungan languages such as Warlpiri as dependent marking and exclusively suffixing languages which lack gender while noting that some non Pama Nyungan languages such as Tangkic share this typology and some Pama Nyungan languages like Yanyuwa a head marking and prefixing language with a complicated gender system diverge from it 3 Reconstruction EditMain article Proto Pama Nyungan Proto Pama NyunganReconstruction ofPama NyunganRegionGulf Plains NE AustraliaEraperhaps ca 3000 BCEProto Pama Nyungan may have been spoken as recently as about 5 000 years ago much more recently than the 40 000 to 60 000 years indigenous Australians are believed to have been inhabiting Australia How the Pama Nyungan languages spread over most of the continent and displaced any pre Pama Nyungan languages is uncertain one possibility is that language could have been transferred from one group to another alongside culture and ritual 4 5 Given the relationship of cognates between groups it seems that Pama Nyungan has many of the characteristics of a sprachbund indicating the antiquity of multiple waves of culture contact between groups 6 Dixon in particular has argued that the genealogical trees found with many language families do not fit in the Pama Nyungan family 7 The Gulf Plains the Proto Pama Nyungan homeland Using computational phylogenetics Bouckaert et al 2018 8 posit a mid Holocene expansion of Pama Nyungan from the Gulf Plains of northeastern Australia Phonotactics EditPama Nyungan languages generally share several broad phonotactic constraints single consonant onsets a lack of fricatives and a prohibition against liquids laterals and rhotics beginning words Voiced fricatives have developed in several scattered languages such as Anguthimri though often the sole alleged fricative is ɣ and is analyzed as an approximant ɰ by other linguists An exception is Kala Lagaw Ya which acquired both fricatives and a voicing contrast in them and in its plosives from contact with Papuan languages Several of the languages of Victoria allowed initial l and one Gunai also allowed initial r and consonant clusters kr and pr a trait shared with the extinct Tasmanian languages across the Bass Strait citation needed Classification EditAt the time of the European arrival in Australia there were some 300 Pama Nyungan languages divided across three dozen branches What follows are the languages listed in Bowern 2011 numbers in parentheses are the numbers of languages in each branch These vary from languages so distinct they are difficult to demonstrate as being in the same branch to near dialects on par with the differences between the Scandinavian languages 9 Traditional conservative classification Edit Down the east coast from Cape York to the Bass Strait there are Kala Lagaw Ya 1 Paman 41 Yidiny 1 Dyirbalic 5 Maric 26 Waka Kabic 5 Durubulic 5 Bandjalangic 4 Gumbaynggiric 2 Anewan Nganyaywana 1 Wiradhuric Central NSW inland of Yuin Kuric 5 Yuin Kuric 14 Gippsland 5 Continuing along the south coast from Melbourne to Perth Yotayotic somewhat inland 2 Kulinic 13 Lower Murray 9 Thura Yura 8 Mirniny 2 Nyungic SW 11 Up the west coast Kartu 5 Kanyara Mantharta 8 Ngayarta 12 Marrngu 3 Cutting inland back to Paman south of the northern non Pama Nyungan languages are Ngumpin Yapa 10 Warumungu 1 Warluwaric 5 Kalkatungic 2 Mayi Mayabic 7 Encircled by these branches are Wati 15 the large inland expanse in the west Arandic 9 in the north centre Karnic 18 in the west Yardli Yarli 3 in the west Muruwari 1 Baagandji Darling inland of Lower Murray 2 Separated to the north of the rest of Pama Nyungan is Yolŋu 10 Some of inclusions in each branch are only provisional as many languages became extinct before they could be adequately documented Not included are dozens of poorly attested and extinct languages such as Barranbinja and the Lower Burdekin languages A few more inclusive groups that have been proposed such as Northeast Pama Nyungan Pama Maric Central New South Wales and Southwest Pama Nyungan appear to be geographical rather than genealogical groups Bowern amp Atkinson Edit Bowern amp Atkinson 2012 use computational phylogenetics to calculate the following classification 10 Southeastern Victorian Lower Murray languages Victorian Eastern Victoria Yorta Yorta Gunai Pallanganmiddang Macro Kulin Kulin languages Bungandidj New South Wales Yuin Kuric languages Central New South Wales languages North Coast Durubalic languages Yugambeh Bundjalung languages Gumbaynggiric languages Waka Kabic languages Northern Gulf Kalkatungic languages Mayabic languages Pama Maric weak support Paman languages Kalaw Lagaw Ya Maric languages Dyirbalic languages Central Arandic Thura Yura Arandic languages Thura Yura languages Southwest Queensland Karnic languages Northwest NSW Yarli Paakantyi Western Yolŋu Ngarna weak support Yolŋu languages Ngarna languages Nyungic languages Desert Nyungic Marrngu languages Ngumpin Yapa languages Warumungu languages Wati languages Southwest Nyungic Pilbara languages Ngayarda languages Kanyara Mantharta languages Kartu Nhanda languages Mirning languages Nyunga languages Yinggarda languageExternal relations Edit According to Nicholas Evans the closest relative of Pama Nyungan is the Garawan language family followed by the small Tangkic family He then proposes a more distant relationship with the Gunwinyguan languages in a macro family he calls Macro Pama Nyungan 11 However this has yet to be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the linguistic community Validity EditDixon s skepticism Edit In his 1980 attempt to reconstruct Proto Australian R M W Dixon reported that he was unable to find anything that reliably set Pama Nyungan apart as a valid genetic group Fifteen years later he had abandoned the idea that Australian or Pama Nyungan were families He now sees Australian as a Sprachbund Dixon 2002 Some of the small traditionally Pama Nyungan families which have been demonstrated through the comparative method or which in Dixon s opinion are likely to be demonstrable include the following North Cape York Northern Paman Umpila Wik Middle Paman part of Paman Yidinic Dyaabugai and Yidiny rejected by Bowern Maric extinct languages uncertain Wiradhuric Yolngu Ngarna a clear connection between Yanyuwa and Warluwara Wagaya Yindjilandji Bularnu Part of YuraHe believes that Lower Murray five families and isolates Arandic 2 families Kaytetye and Arrernte and Kalkatungic 2 isolates are small Sprachbunds Dixon s theories of Australian Language diachrony have been based on a model of punctuated equilibrium adapted from the eponymous model in evolutionary biology wherein he believes Australian languages to be ancient and to have for the most part remained in unchanging equilibrium with the exception of sporadic branching or speciation events in the phylogenetic tree Part of Dixon s objections to the Pama Nyungan family classification is the lack of obvious binary branching points which are implicitly or explicitly entailed by his model Mainstream rejoinders Edit However the papers in Bowern amp Koch 2004 demonstrate about ten traditional groups including Pama Nyungan and its sub branches such as Arandic using the comparative method In his last published paper from the same collection Ken Hale describes Dixon s skepticism as an erroneous phylogenetic assessment which is so bizarrely faulted and such an insult to the eminently successful practitioners of Comparative Method Linguistics in Australia that it positively demands a decisive riposte 12 In the same work Hale provides unique pronominal and grammatical evidence with suppletion as well as more than fifty basic vocabulary cognates showing regular sound correspondences between the proto Northern and Middle Pamic pNMP family of the Cape York Peninsula on the Australian northeast coast and proto Ngayarta of the Australian west coast some 3 000 km apart as well as from many other languages to support the Pama Nyungan grouping whose age he compares to that of Proto Indo European Bowern 2006 Edit Bowern 2006 13 offers an alternative to Dixon s binary phylogenetic tree model based in the principles of dialect geography Rather than discarding the notion that multiple subgroups of languages are genetically related due to the presence of multiple dialectal epicenters arranged around stark isoglosses Bowern proposes that the non binary branching characteristics of Pama Nyungan languages note that Bowern amp Atkinson 2012 uncovered more binary branching characteristics than initially thought are precisely what we would expect to see from a language continuum in which dialects are diverging linguistically but remaining in close geographic and social contact Bowern offers three main advantages of this geographical continuum model over the punctuated equilibrium model First there is a place for both divergence and convergence as processes of language change punctuated equilibrium stresses convergence as the main mechanism of language change in Australia Second it makes Pama Nyungan look much more similar to other areas of the world We no longer have to assume that Australia is a special case Third and related to this we do not have to assume in this model that there has been intensive diffusion of many linguistic elements that in other parts of the world are resistant to borrowing such as shared irregularities Bowern 2006 257 Bowern amp Atkinson 2012 Edit As mentioned above additional methods of computational phylogenetic employed by Bowern and Atkinson in 2012 10 function as a different kind of rejoinder to Dixon s skepticism Instead of acceding to the notion that Pama Nyungan languages do not share the characteristics of a binary branching language family the computational methods revealed that inter language loan rates were not as atypically high as previously imagined and do not obscure the features that would allow for a phylogenetic approach Our work puts to rest once and for all the claim that Australian languages are so exceptional that methods used elsewhere in the world do not work on this continent The methods presented here have been used with Bantu Austronesian Indo European and Japonic languages among others Pama Nyungan languages like all languages show a mixture of histories that reflect both contact and inheritance Bowern amp Atkinson 2012 839 Bowern and Atkinson s computational model is currently the definitive model of Pama Nyungan intra relatedness and diachrony See also EditMacro Pama Nyungan languagesReferences Edit International Encyclopedia of Linguistics William J Frawley p 232 a b Zuckermann Ghil ad Vigfusson Sigurdur Rayner Manny Ni Chiarain Neasa Ivanova Nedelina Habibi Hanieh Bedi Branislav 2021 LARA in the Service of Revivalistics and Documentary Linguistics Community Engagement and Endangered Languages PDF ComputEL 4 Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Computational Methods for Endangered Languages Nick Evans and Patrick McConvell The Enigma of Pama Nyungan Expansion in Australia Archaeology and language Volume 29 Roger Blench Matthew Spriggs eds Routledge 1999 p176 Hale amp O Grady pp 91 92 Evans amp Rhys Nichols Johanna 1997 Modeling Ancient Population Structures and Movement in Linguistics Archived 12 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Annual Review of Anthropology Vol 26 1997 pp 359 384 Dixon R M W 1997 The rise and fall of languages Cambridge Cambridge University Press Bouckaert Remco R Claire Bowern amp Quentin D Atkinson 2018 The origin and expansion of Pama Nyungan languages across Australia Nature Ecology amp Evolution volume 2 pages 741 749 2018 Bowern Claire 2011 How Many Languages Were Spoken in Australia Anggarrgoon Australian languages on the web December 23 2011 corrected February 6 2012 a b Claire Bowern and Quentin Atkinson 2012 Computational phylogenetics and the internal structure of Pama Nyungan Language 88 817 845 McConvell Patrick and Nicholas Evans eds 1997 Archaeology and Linguistics Global Perspectives on Ancient Australia Melbourne Oxford University Press the Coherence and Distinctiveness of the Pama Nyungan Language Family within the Australian Linguistic Phylum Geoff O Grady and Ken Hale p 69 Australian Languages Classification and the Comparative Method Claire Bowern and Harold Koch eds John Benjamins Pub Co Amsterdam and Philadelphia 2004 Bowern Claire 2006 Another Look at Australia as a Linguistic Area In Yaron Matras April McMahon amp Nigel Vincent eds Linguistic Areas Convergence in Historical and Typological Perspective 244 265 London Palgrave Macmillan UK https doi org 10 1057 9780230287617 10 https doi org 10 1057 9780230287617 10 26 May 2020 Bibliography EditClaire Bowern amp Harold Koch eds 2004 Australian Languages Classification and the Comparative Method John Benjamins Publishing Company Bowern Claire amp Atkinson Quentin 2012 Computational Phylogenetics and the Internal Structure of Pama Nyungan Dataset Data set Language doi 10 1353 lan 2012 0081 McConvell Patrick and Nicholas Evans eds 1997 Archaeology and Linguistics Global Perspectives on Ancient Australia Melbourne Oxford University Press Dixon R M W 2002 Australian Languages Their Nature and Development Cambridge University Press Evans Nicholas eds 2003 The Non Pama Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia Comparative studies of the continent s most linguistically complex region Canberra Pacific Linguistics Data setsRobert Forkel Tiago Tresoldi amp Johann Mattis List 2019 lexibank bowernpny The Internal Structure of Pama Nyungan Version v3 0 Data set Zenodo doi 10 5281 zenodo 3534952External links Edit Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix Proto Pama Nyungan reconstructions Chirila Yale Pama Nyungan Lab AIATSIS map of Australian languages Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pama Nyungan languages amp oldid 1146388690, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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