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Wikipedia

Attention

January 01, 1970

This article is about the psychological concept of attention. For other uses, see Attention (disambiguation).

Attention or focus, is the concentration of awareness on some phenomenon to the exclusion of other stimuli.[1] It is the selective concentration on discrete information, either subjectively or objectively. William James (1890) wrote that "Attention is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration, of consciousness are of its essence."[2] Attention has also been described as the allocation of limited cognitive processing resources.[3] Attention is manifested by an attentional bottleneck, in terms of the amount of data the brain can process each second; for example, in human vision, less than 1% of the visual input data stream of 1MByte/sec can enter the bottleneck,[4][5] leading to inattentional blindness.

Focused attention

Attention remains a crucial area of investigation within education, psychology, neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology. Areas of active investigation involve determining the source of the sensory cues and signals that generate attention, the effects of these sensory cues and signals on the tuning properties of sensory neurons, and the relationship between attention and other behavioral and cognitive processes, which may include working memory and psychological vigilance. A relatively new body of research, which expands upon earlier research within psychopathology, is investigating the diagnostic symptoms associated with traumatic brain injury and its effects on attention. Attention also varies across cultures.[6]

The relationships between attention and consciousness are complex enough that they have warranted philosophical exploration. Such exploration is both ancient and continually relevant, as it can have effects in fields ranging from mental health and the study of disorders of consciousness to artificial intelligence and its domains of research.

Contemporary definition and research edit

Prior to the founding of psychology as a scientific discipline, attention was studied in the field of philosophy. Thus, many of the discoveries in the field of attention were made by philosophers. Psychologist John B. Watson calls Juan Luis Vives the father of modern psychology because, in his book De Anima et Vita (The Soul and Life), he was the first to recognize the importance of empirical investigation.[7] In his work on memory, Vives found that the more closely one attends to stimuli, the better they will be retained.

By the 1990s, psychologists began using positron emission tomography (PET) and later functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to image the brain while monitoring tasks involving attention. Considering this expensive equipment was generally only available in hospitals, psychologists sought cooperation with neurologists. Psychologist Michael Posner (then already renowned for his influential work on visual selective attention) and neurologist Marcus Raichle pioneered brain imaging studies of selective attention.[8] Their results soon sparked interest from the neuroscience community, which until then had been focused on monkey brains. With the development of these technological innovations, neuroscientists became interested in this type of research that combines sophisticated experimental paradigms from cognitive psychology with these new brain imaging techniques. Although the older technique of electroencephalography (EEG) had long been used to study the brain activity underlying selective attention by cognitive psychophysiologists, the ability of the newer techniques to measure precisely localized activity inside the brain generated renewed interest by a wider community of researchers. A growing body of such neuroimaging research has identified a frontoparietal attention network which appears to be responsible for control of attention.[9]

A definition of a psychological construct forms a research approach to its study. In scientific works, attention often coincides and substitutes the notion of intentionality due to the extent of semantic uncertainty in the linguistic explanations of these notions' definitions. Intentionality has in turn been defined as "the power of minds to be about something: to represent or to stand for things, properties and states of affairs".[10] Although these two psychological constructs (attention and intentionality) appear to be defined by similar terms, they are different notions. To clarify the definition of attention, it would be correct to consider the origin of this notion to review the meaning of the term given to it when the experimental study on attention was initiated. It is thought that the experimental approach began with famous experiments with a 4 x 4 matrix of sixteen randomly chosen letters – the experimental paradigm that informed Wundt's theory of attention.[11] Wundt interpreted the experimental outcome introducing the meaning of attention as "that psychical process, which is operative in the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness."[12] These experiments showed the physical limits of attention threshold, which were 3-6 letters observing the matrix during 1/10 s of their exposition.[11] "We shall call the entrance into the large region of consciousness - apprehension, and the elevation into the focus of attention - apperception."[13] Wundt's theory of attention postulated one of the main features of this notion that attention is an active, voluntary process realized during a certain time.[11] In contrast, neuroscience research shows that intentionality may emerge instantly, even unconsciously; research reported to register neuronal correlates of an intentional act that preceded this conscious act (also see shared intentionality).[14][15] Therefore, while intentionality is a mental state (“the power of the mind to be about something”, arising even unconsciously), the description of the construct of attention should be understood in the dynamical sense as the ability to elevate the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness and to keep in mind this state for a time. The attention threshold would be the period of minimum time needed for employing perception to clearly apprehend the scope of intention. From this perspective, a scientific approach to attention is relevant when it considers the difference between these two concepts (first of all, between their statical and dynamical statuses).

The growing body of literature shows empirical evidence that attention is conditioned by the number of elements and the duration of exposition. Decades of research on subitizing have supported Wundt's findings about the limits of a human ability to concentrate awareness on a task.[16][17][18][19][20] A significant inference from the Wundtian approach to the study of attention: the scope of attention is related to cognitive development.[21] As the mind grasps more details about an event, it also increases the number of reasonable combinations within that event, enhancing the probability of better understanding its features and particularity.[21] For example, three items in the focal point of consciousness have six possible combinations (3 factorial), and four items have 24 (4 factorial) combinations. This number of combinations becomes significantly prominent in the case of a focal point with six items with 720 possible combinations (6 factorial).[21] Empirical evidence suggests that the scope of attention in young children develops from two items in the focal point at age up to six months to five or more items in the focal point at age about five years.[21]

Selective and visual edit

See also: Selective auditory attention
 

In cognitive psychology there are at least two models which describe how visual attention operates. These models may be considered metaphors which are used to describe internal processes and to generate hypotheses that are falsifiable. Generally speaking, visual attention is thought to operate as a two-stage process.[22] In the first stage, attention is distributed uniformly over the external visual scene and processing of information is performed in parallel. In the second stage, attention is concentrated to a specific area of the visual scene (i.e., it is focused), and processing is performed in a serial fashion.

The first of these models to appear in the literature is the spotlight model. The term "spotlight" was inspired by the work of William James, who described attention as having a focus, a margin, and a fringe.[23] The focus is an area that extracts information from the visual scene with a high-resolution, the geometric center of which being where visual attention is directed. Surrounding the focus is the fringe of attention, which extracts information in a much more crude fashion (i.e., low-resolution). This fringe extends out to a specified area, and the cut-off is called the margin.

The second model is called the zoom-lens model and was first introduced in 1986.[24] This model inherits all properties of the spotlight model (i.e., the focus, the fringe, and the margin), but it has the added property of changing in size. This size-change mechanism was inspired by the zoom lens one might find on a camera, and any change in size can be described by a trade-off in the efficiency of processing.[25] The zoom-lens of attention can be described in terms of an inverse trade-off between the size of focus and the efficiency of processing: because attention resources are assumed to be fixed, then it follows that the larger the focus is, the slower processing will be of that region of the visual scene, since this fixed resource will be distributed over a larger area. It is thought that the focus of attention can subtend a minimum of 1° of visual angle,[23][26] however the maximum size has not yet been determined.

A significant debate emerged in the last decade of the 20th century in which Treisman's 1993 Feature Integration Theory (FIT) was compared to Duncan and Humphrey's 1989 attentional engagement theory (AET).[27]: 5–7  FIT posits that "objects are retrieved from scenes by means of selective spatial attention that picks out objects' features, forms feature maps, and integrates those features that are found at the same location into forming objects." Treismans's theory is based on a two-stage process to help solve the binding problem of attention. These two stages are the preattentive stage and the focused attention stage.

  1. Preattentive Stage: The unconscious detection and separation of features of an item (color, shape, size). Treisman suggests that this happens early in cognitive  processing and that individuals are not aware of the occurrence due to the counter intuitiveness of separating a whole into its part. Evidence shows that preattentive focuses are accurate due to illusory conjunctions.[28]
  2. Focused Attention Stage: The combining of all feature identifiers to perceive all parts as one whole. This is possible through prior knowledge and cognitive mapping. When an item is seen within a known location and has features that people have knowledge of, then prior knowledge will help bring features all together to make sense of what is perceived. The case of R.M's damage to his parietal lobe, also known as Balint's syndrome, shows the incorporation of focused attention and combination of features in the role of attention.[29]

Through sequencing these steps, parallel and serial search is better exhibited through the formation of conjunctions of objects. Conjunctive searches, according to Treismans, are done through both stages[30] in order to create selective and focused attention on an object, though Duncan and Humphrey would disagree. Duncan and Humphrey's AET understanding of attention maintained that "there is an initial pre-attentive parallel phase of perceptual segmentation and analysis that encompasses all of the visual items present in a scene. At this phase, descriptions of the objects in a visual scene are generated into structural units; the outcome of this parallel phase is a multiple-spatial-scale structured representation. Selective attention intervenes after this stage to select information that will be entered into visual short-term memory."[27]: 5–7  The contrast of the two theories placed a new emphasis on the separation of visual attention tasks alone and those mediated by supplementary cognitive processes. As Rastophopoulos summarizes the debate: "Against Treisman's FIT, which posits spatial attention as a necessary condition for detection of objects, Humphreys argues that visual elements are encoded and bound together in an initial parallel phase without focal attention, and that attention serves to select among the objects that result from this initial grouping."[27]: 8 

Neuropsychological model edit

In the twentieth century, the pioneering research of Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria led to the three-part model of neuropsychology defining the working brain as being represented by three co-active processes listed as Attention, Memory, and Activation. A.R. Luria published his well-known book The Working Brain in 1973 as a concise adjunct volume to his previous 1962 book Higher Cortical Functions in Man. In this volume, Luria summarized his three-part global theory of the working brain as being composed of three constantly co-active processes which he described as the; (1) Attention system, (2) Mnestic (memory) system, and (3) Cortical activation system. The two books together are considered by Homskaya's account as "among Luria's major works in neuropsychology, most fully reflecting all the aspects (theoretical, clinical, experimental) of this new discipline."[31] The product of the combined research of Vygotsky and Luria have determined a large part of the contemporary understanding and definition of attention as it is understood at the start of the 21st-century.

Multitasking and divided attention edit

See also: Human multitasking and Distracted driving

Multitasking can be defined as the attempt to perform two or more tasks simultaneously; however, research shows that when multitasking, people make more mistakes or perform their tasks more slowly.[32] Attention must be divided among all of the component tasks to perform them. In divided attention, individuals attend or give attention to multiple sources of information at once or perform more than one task at the same time.[33]

Older research involved looking at the limits of people performing simultaneous tasks like reading stories, while listening and writing something else,[34] or listening to two separate messages through different ears (i.e., dichotic listening). Generally, classical research into attention investigated the ability of people to learn new information when there were multiple tasks to be performed, or to probe the limits of our perception (c.f. Donald Broadbent). There is also older literature on people's performance on multiple tasks performed simultaneously, such as driving a car while tuning a radio[35] or driving while being on the phone.[36]

The vast majority of current research on human multitasking is based on performance of doing two tasks simultaneously,[32] usually that involves driving while performing another task, such as texting, eating, or even speaking to passengers in the vehicle, or with a friend over a cellphone. This research reveals that the human attentional system has limits for what it can process: driving performance is worse while engaged in other tasks; drivers make more mistakes, brake harder and later, get into more accidents, veer into other lanes, and/or are less aware of their surroundings when engaged in the previously discussed tasks.[37][38][39]

There has been little difference found between speaking on a hands-free cell phone or a hand-held cell phone,[40][41] which suggests that it is the strain of attentional system that causes problems, rather than what the driver is doing with his or her hands. While speaking with a passenger is as cognitively demanding as speaking with a friend over the phone,[42] passengers are able to change the conversation based upon the needs of the driver. For example, if traffic intensifies, a passenger may stop talking to allow the driver to navigate the increasingly difficult roadway; a conversation partner over a phone would not be aware of the change in environment.

There have been multiple theories regarding divided attention. One, conceived by Kahneman,[43] explains that there is a single pool of attentional resources that can be freely divided among multiple tasks. This model seems oversimplified, however, due to the different modalities (e.g., visual, auditory, verbal) that are perceived.[44] When the two simultaneous tasks use the same modality, such as listening to a radio station and writing a paper, it is much more difficult to concentrate on both because the tasks are likely to interfere with each other. The specific modality model was theorized by Navon and Gopher in 1979. However, more recent research using well controlled dual-task paradigms points at the importance of tasks.[45]

As an alternative, resource theory has been proposed as a more accurate metaphor for explaining divided attention on complex tasks. Resource theory states that as each complex task is automatized, performing that task requires less of the individual's limited-capacity attentional resources.[44] Other variables play a part in our ability to pay attention to and concentrate on many tasks at once. These include, but are not limited to, anxiety, arousal, task difficulty, and skills.[44]

Simultaneous edit

Simultaneous attention is a type of attention, classified by attending to multiple events at the same time. Simultaneous attention is demonstrated by children in Indigenous communities, who learn through this type of attention to their surroundings.[46] Simultaneous attention is present in the ways in which children of indigenous backgrounds interact both with their surroundings and with other individuals. Simultaneous attention requires focus on multiple simultaneous activities or occurrences. This differs from multitasking, which is characterized by alternating attention and focus between multiple activities, or halting one activity before switching to the next.

Simultaneous attention involves uninterrupted attention to several activities occurring at the same time. Another cultural practice that may relate to simultaneous attention strategies is coordination within a group. Indigenous heritage toddlers and caregivers in San Pedro were observed to frequently coordinate their activities with other members of a group in ways parallel to a model of simultaneous attention, whereas middle-class European-descent families in the U.S. would move back and forth between events.[6][47] Research concludes that children with close ties to Indigenous American roots have a high tendency to be especially wide, keen observers.[48] This points to a strong cultural difference in attention management.

Alternative topics and discussions edit

Overt and covert orienting edit

Attention may be differentiated into "overt" versus "covert" orienting.[49]

Overt orienting is the act of selectively attending to an item or location over others by moving the eyes to point in that direction.[50] Overt orienting can be directly observed in the form of eye movements. Although overt eye movements are quite common, there is a distinction that can be made between two types of eye movements; reflexive and controlled. Reflexive movements are commanded by the superior colliculus of the midbrain. These movements are fast and are activated by the sudden appearance of stimuli. In contrast, controlled eye movements are commanded by areas in the frontal lobe. These movements are slow and voluntary.

Covert orienting is the act of mentally shifting one's focus without moving one's eyes.[23][50][51] Simply, it is changes in attention that are not attributable to overt eye movements. Covert orienting has the potential to affect the output of perceptual processes by governing attention to particular items or locations (for example, the activity of a V4 neuron whose receptive field lies on an attended stimuli will be enhanced by covert attention)[52] but does not influence the information that is processed by the senses. Researchers often use "filtering" tasks to study the role of covert attention of selecting information. These tasks often require participants to observe a number of stimuli, but attend to only one.
The current view is that visual covert attention is a mechanism for quickly scanning the field of view for interesting locations. This shift in covert attention is linked to eye movement circuitry that sets up a slower saccade to that location.[53]

There are studies that suggest the mechanisms of overt and covert orienting may not be controlled separately and independently as previously believed. Central mechanisms that may control covert orienting, such as the parietal lobe, also receive input from subcortical centres involved in overt orienting.[50] In support of this, general theories of attention actively assume bottom-up (reflexive) processes and top-down (voluntary) processes converge on a common neural architecture, in that they control both covert and overt attentional systems.[54] For example, if individuals attend to the right hand corner field of view, movement of the eyes in that direction may have to be actively suppressed.

Covert attention has been argued to reflect the existence of processes "programming explicit ocular movement".[55] However, this has been questioned on the grounds that N2, "a neural measure of covert attentional allocation—does not always precede eye movements".[56] However, the researchers acknowledge, "it may be impossible to definitively rule out the possibility that some kind of shift of covert attention precedes every shift of overt attention".[56]

Exogenous and endogenous orienting edit

Orienting attention is vital and can be controlled through external (exogenous) or internal (endogenous) processes. However, comparing these two processes is challenging because external signals do not operate completely exogenously, but will only summon attention and eye movements if they are important to the subject.[50]

Exogenous (from Greek exo, meaning "outside", and genein, meaning "to produce") orienting is frequently described as being under control of a stimulus.[57] Exogenous orienting is considered to be reflexive and automatic and is caused by a sudden change in the periphery. This often results in a reflexive saccade. Since exogenous cues are typically presented in the periphery, they are referred to as peripheral cues. Exogenous orienting can even be observed when individuals are aware that the cue will not relay reliable, accurate information about where a target is going to occur. This means that the mere presence of an exogenous cue will affect the response to other stimuli that are subsequently presented in the cue's previous location.[58]

Several studies have investigated the influence of valid and invalid cues.[50][59][60][61] They concluded that valid peripheral cues benefit performance, for instance when the peripheral cues are brief flashes at the relevant location before the onset of a visual stimulus. Posner and Cohen (1984) noted a reversal of this benefit takes place when the interval between the onset of the cue and the onset of the target is longer than about 300 ms.[62] The phenomenon of valid cues producing longer reaction times than invalid cues is called inhibition of return.

Endogenous (from Greek endo, meaning "within" or "internally") orienting is the intentional allocation of attentional resources to a predetermined location or space. Simply stated, endogenous orienting occurs when attention is oriented according to an observer's goals or desires, allowing the focus of attention to be manipulated by the demands of a task. In order to have an effect, endogenous cues must be processed by the observer and acted upon purposefully. These cues are frequently referred to as central cues. This is because they are typically presented at the center of a display, where an observer's eyes are likely to be fixated. Central cues, such as an arrow or digit presented at fixation, tell observers to attend to a specific location.[63]

When examining differences between exogenous and endogenous orienting, some researchers suggest that there are four differences between the two kinds of cues:

  • exogenous orienting is less affected by cognitive load than endogenous orienting;
  • observers are able to ignore endogenous cues but not exogenous cues;
  • exogenous cues have bigger effects than endogenous cues; and
  • expectancies about cue validity and predictive value affects endogenous orienting more than exogenous orienting.[64]

There exist both overlaps and differences in the areas of the brain that are responsible for endogenous and exogenous orientating.[65] Another approach to this discussion has been covered under the topic heading of "bottom-up" versus "top-down" orientations to attention. Researchers of this school have described two different aspects of how the mind focuses attention to items present in the environment. The first aspect is called bottom-up processing, also known as stimulus-driven attention or exogenous attention. These describe attentional processing which is driven by the properties of the objects themselves. Some processes, such as motion or a sudden loud noise, can attract our attention in a pre-conscious, or non-volitional way. We attend to them whether we want to or not.[66] These aspects of attention are thought to involve parietal and temporal cortices, as well as the brainstem.[67] More recent experimental evidence[68][69][70] support the idea that the primary visual cortex creates a bottom-up saliency map,[71][4] which is received by the superior colliculus in the midbrain area to guide attention or gaze shifts.

The second aspect is called top-down processing, also known as goal-driven, endogenous attention, attentional control or executive attention. This aspect of our attentional orienting is under the control of the person who is attending. It is mediated primarily by the frontal cortex and basal ganglia[67][72] as one of the executive functions.[50][67] Research has shown that it is related to other aspects of the executive functions, such as working memory,[73] and conflict resolution and inhibition.[74]

Influence of processing load edit

A "hugely influential"[75] theory regarding selective attention is the perceptual load theory, which states that there are two mechanisms that affect attention: cognitive and perceptual. The perceptual mechanism considers the subject's ability to perceive or ignore stimuli, both task-related and non task-related. Studies show that if there are many stimuli present (especially if they are task-related), it is much easier to ignore the non-task related stimuli, but if there are few stimuli the mind will perceive the irrelevant stimuli as well as the relevant. The cognitive mechanism refers to the actual processing of the stimuli. Studies regarding this showed that the ability to process stimuli decreased with age, meaning that younger people were able to perceive more stimuli and fully process them, but were likely to process both relevant and irrelevant information, while older people could process fewer stimuli, but usually processed only relevant information.[76]

Some people can process multiple stimuli, e.g. trained Morse code operators have been able to copy 100% of a message while carrying on a meaningful conversation. This relies on the reflexive response due to "overlearning" the skill of morse code reception/detection/transcription so that it is an autonomous function requiring no specific attention to perform. This overtraining of the brain comes as the "practice of a skill [surpasses] 100% accuracy," allowing the activity to become autonomic, while your mind has room to process other actions simultaneously.[77]

Based on the primary role of the perceptual load theory, assumptions regarding its functionality surrounding that attentional resources are that of limited capacity which signify the need for all of the attentional resources to be used.[78] This performance, however, is halted when put hand in hand with accuracy and reaction time (RT). This limitation arises through the measurement of literature when obtaining outcomes for scores. This affects both cognitive and perceptual attention because there is a lack of measurement surrounding distributions of temporal and spatial attention. Only a concentrated amount of attention on how effective one is completing the task and how long they take is being analyzed making a more redundant analysis on overall cognition of being able to process multiple stimuli through perception.[79]

Clinical model edit

Attention is best described as the sustained focus of cognitive resources on information while filtering or ignoring extraneous information. Attention is a very basic function that often is a precursor to all other neurological/cognitive functions. As is frequently the case, clinical models of attention differ from investigation models. One of the most used models for the evaluation of attention in patients with very different neurologic pathologies is the model of Sohlberg and Mateer.[80] This hierarchic model is based in the recovering of attention processes of brain damage patients after coma. Five different kinds of activities of growing difficulty are described in the model; connecting with the activities those patients could do as their recovering process advanced.

  • Focused attention: The ability to respond discretely to specific sensory stimuli.
  • Sustained attention (vigilance and concentration): The ability to maintain a consistent behavioral response during continuous and repetitive activity.
  • Selective attention: The ability to maintain a behavioral or cognitive set in the face of distracting or competing stimuli. Therefore, it incorporates the notion of "freedom from distractibility."
  • Alternating attention: The ability of mental flexibility that allows individuals to shift their focus of attention and move between tasks having different cognitive requirements.
  • Divided attention: This refers to the ability to respond simultaneously to multiple tasks or multiple task demands.

This model has been shown to be very useful in evaluating attention in very different pathologies, correlates strongly with daily difficulties and is especially helpful in designing stimulation programs such as attention process training, a rehabilitation program for neurological patients of the same authors.

Other descriptors for types of attention edit

  • Mindfulness: Mindfulness has been conceptualized as a clinical model of attention.[81] Mindfulness practices are clinical interventions that emphasize training attention functions.[82]
  • Vigilant attention: Remaining focused on a non-arousing stimulus or uninteresting task for a sustained period is far more difficult than attending to arousing stimuli and interesting tasks, and requires a specific type of attention called 'vigilant attention'.[83] Thereby, vigilant attention is the ability to give sustained attention to a stimulus or task that might ordinarily be insufficiently engaging to prevent our attention being distracted by other stimuli or tasks.[84]

Neural correlates edit

Most experiments show that one neural correlate of attention is enhanced firing. If a neuron has a different response to a stimulus when an animal is not attending to a stimulus, versus when the animal does attend to the stimulus, then the neuron's response will be enhanced even if the physical characteristics of the stimulus remain the same.

In a 2007 review, Knudsen[85] describes a more general model which identifies four core processes of attention, with working memory at the center:

  • Working memory temporarily stores information for detailed analysis.
  • Competitive selection is the process that determines which information gains access to working memory.
  • Through top-down sensitivity control, higher cognitive processes can regulate signal intensity in information channels that compete for access to working memory, and thus give them an advantage in the process of competitive selection. Through top-down sensitivity control, the momentary content of working memory can influence the selection of new information, and thus mediate voluntary control of attention in a recurrent loop (endogenous attention).[86]
  • Bottom-up saliency filters automatically enhance the response to infrequent stimuli, or stimuli of instinctive or learned biological relevance (exogenous attention).[86]

Neurally, at different hierarchical levels spatial maps can enhance or inhibit activity in sensory areas, and induce orienting behaviors like eye movement.

  • At the top of the hierarchy, the frontal eye fields (FEF) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex contain a retinocentric spatial map. Microstimulation in the FEF induces monkeys to make a saccade to the relevant location. Stimulation at levels too low to induce a saccade will nonetheless enhance cortical responses to stimuli located in the relevant area.
  • At the next lower level, a variety of spatial maps are found in the parietal cortex. In particular, the lateral intraparietal area (LIP) contains a saliency map and is interconnected both with the FEF and with sensory areas.
  • Exogenous attentional guidance in humans and monkeys is by a bottom-up saliency map in the primary visual cortex.[71][4] In lower vertebrates, this saliency map is more likely in the superior colliculus (optic tectum).[87]
  • Certain automatic responses that influence attention, like orienting to a highly salient stimulus, are mediated subcortically by the superior colliculi.
  • At the neural network level, it is thought that processes like lateral inhibition mediate the process of competitive selection.

In many cases attention produces changes in the EEG. Many animals, including humans, produce gamma waves (40–60 Hz) when focusing attention on a particular object or activity.[88][89][52][90]

Another commonly used model for the attention system has been put forth by researchers such as Michael Posner. He divides attention into three functional components: alerting, orienting, and executive attention[67][91] that can also interact and influence each other.[92][93][94]

Cultural variation edit

Children appear to develop patterns of attention related to the cultural practices of their families, communities, and the institutions in which they participate.[98]

In 1955, Jules Henry suggested that there are societal differences in sensitivity to signals from many ongoing sources that call for the awareness of several levels of attention simultaneously. He tied his speculation to ethnographic observations of communities in which children are involved in a complex social community with multiple relationships.[6]

Many Indigenous children in the Americas predominantly learn by observing and pitching in. There are several studies to support that the use of keen attention towards learning is much more common in Indigenous Communities of North and Central America than in a middle-class European-American setting. This is a direct result of the Learning by Observing and Pitching In model.

Keen attention is both a requirement and result of learning by observing and pitching-in. Incorporating the children in the community gives them the opportunity to keenly observe and contribute to activities that were not directed towards them. It can be seen from different Indigenous communities and cultures, such as the Mayans of San Pedro, that children can simultaneously attend to multiple events.[6] Most Maya children have learned to pay attention to several events at once in order to make useful observations.[99]

One example is simultaneous attention which involves uninterrupted attention to several activities occurring at the same time. Another cultural practice that may relate to simultaneous attention strategies is coordination within a group. San Pedro toddlers and caregivers frequently coordinated their activities with other members of a group in multiway engagements rather than in a dyadic fashion.[6][47] Research concludes that children with close ties to Indigenous American roots have a high tendency to be especially keen observers.[48]

This learning by observing and pitching-in model requires active levels of attention management. The child is present while caretakers engage in daily activities and responsibilities such as: weaving, farming, and other skills necessary for survival. Being present allows the child to focus their attention on the actions being performed by their parents, elders, and/or older siblings. In order to learn in this way, keen attention and focus is required. Eventually the child is expected to be able to perform these skills themselves.

Modelling edit

In the domain of computer vision, efforts have been made to model the mechanism of human attention, especially the bottom-up intentional mechanism[100] and its semantic significance in classification of video contents.[101][102] Both spatial attention and temporal attention have been incorporated in such classification efforts.

Generally speaking, there are two kinds of models to mimic the bottom-up salience mechanism in static images. One is based on the spatial contrast analysis. For example, a center–surround mechanism has been used to define salience across scales, inspired by the putative neural mechanism.[103] It has also been hypothesized that some visual inputs are intrinsically salient in certain background contexts and that these are actually task-independent. This model has established itself as the exemplar for salience detection and consistently used for comparison in the literature;[100] the other kind of model is based on the frequency domain analysis. This method was first proposed by Hou et al..[104] This method was called SR. Then, the PQFT method was also introduced. Both SR and PQFT only use the phase information.[100] In 2012, the HFT method was introduced, and both the amplitude and the phase information are made use of.[105] The Neural Abstraction Pyramid[106] is a hierarchical recurrent convolutional model, which incorporates bottom-up and top-down flow of information to iteratively interpret images.

Hemispatial neglect edit

Main article: Hemispatial neglect

Hemispatial neglect, also called unilateral neglect, often occurs when people have damage to the right hemisphere of their brain.[107] This damage often leads to a tendency to ignore the left side of one's body or even the left side of an object that can be seen. Damage to the left side of the brain (the left hemisphere) rarely yields significant neglect of the right side of the body or object in the person's local environments.[108]

The effects of spatial neglect, however, may vary and differ depending on what area of the brain was damaged. Damage to different neural substrates can result in different types of neglect. Attention disorders (lateralized and nonlaterized) may also contribute to the symptoms and effects.[108] Much research has asserted that damage to gray matter within the brain results in spatial neglect.[109]

New technology has yielded more information, such that there is a large, distributed network of frontal, parietal, temporal, and subcortical brain areas that have been tied to neglect.[110] This network can be related to other research as well; the dorsal attention network is tied to spatial orienting.[111] The effect of damage to this network may result in patients neglecting their left side when distracted about their right side or an object on their right side.[107]

Attention in social contexts edit

Social attention is one special form of attention that involves the allocation of limited processing resources in a social context. Previous studies on social attention often regard how attention is directed toward socially relevant stimuli such as faces and gaze directions of other individuals.[112] In contrast to attending-to-others, a different line of researches has shown that self-related information such as own face and name automatically captures attention and is preferentially processed comparing to other-related information.[113] These contrasting effects between attending-to-others and attending-to-self prompt a synthetic view in a recent Opinion article[114] proposing that social attention operates at two polarizing states: In one extreme, individual tends to attend to the self and prioritize self-related information over others', and, in the other extreme, attention is allocated to other individuals to infer their intentions and desires. Attending-to-self and attending-to-others mark the two ends of an otherwise continuum spectrum of social attention. For a given behavioral context, the mechanisms underlying these two polarities might interact and compete with each other in order to determine a saliency map of social attention that guides our behaviors.[114] An imbalanced competition between these two behavioral and cognitive processes will cause cognitive disorders and neurological symptoms such as autism spectrum disorders and Williams syndrome.

Distracting factors edit

According to Daniel Goleman's book, Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence, there are two types of distracting factors affecting focus – sensory and emotional.

A sensory distracting factor would be, for example, while a person is reading this article, they are neglecting the white field surrounding the text.

An emotional distracting factor would be when someone is focused on answering an email, and somebody shouts their name. It would be almost impossible to neglect the voice speaking it. Attention is immediately directed toward the source. Positive emotions have also been found to affect attention. Induction of happiness has led to increased response times and an increase in inaccurate responses in the face of irrelevant stimuli. Two possible theories as to why emotions might make one more susceptible to distracting stimuli is that emotions take up too much of one's cognitive resources and make it harder to control your focus of attention. The other theory is that emotions make it harder to filter out distractions, specifically with positive emotions due to a feeling of security.[115]

Another distracting factor to attention processes is insufficient sleep. Sleep deprivation is found to impair cognition, specifically performance in divided attention. Divided attention is possibly linked with the circadian processes.[116]

Failure to attend edit

Inattentional blindness was first introduced in 1998 by Arien Mack and Irvic Rock. Their studies show that when people are focused on specific stimuli, they often miss other stimuli that are clearly present. Though actual blindness is not occurring here, the blindness that happens is due to the perceptual load of what is being attended to.[117] Based on the experiment performed by Mack and Rock, Ula Finch and Nilli Lavie tested participants with a perceptual task. They presented subjects with a cross, one arm being longer than the other, for 5 trials. On the sixth trial, a white square was added to the top left of the screen. The results conclude that out of 10 participants, only 2 (20%) actually saw the square. This would suggest that when a higher focus was attended to the length of the crossed arms, the more likely someone would altogether miss an object that was in plain sight.[118]

Change blindness was first tested by Rensink and coworkers in 1997. Their studies show that people have difficulty detecting changes from scene to scene due to the intense focus on one thing, or lack of attention overall. This was tested by Rensink through a presentation of a picture, and then a blank field, and then the same picture but with an item missing. The results showed that the pictures had to be alternated back and forth a good number of times for participants to notice the difference. This idea is greatly portrayed in films that have continuity errors. Many people do not pick up on differences when in reality, the changes tend to be significant.[119]

History of the study edit

Philosophical period edit

Psychologist Daniel E. Berlyne credits the first extended treatment of attention to philosopher Nicolas Malebranche in his work "The Search After Truth". "Malebranche held that we have access to ideas, or mental representations of the external world, but not direct access to the world itself."[7] Thus in order to keep these ideas organized, attention is necessary.[120] Otherwise we will confuse these ideas. Malebranche writes in "The Search After Truth", "because it often happens that the understanding has only confused and imperfect perceptions of things, it is truly a cause of our errors.... It is therefore necessary to look for means to keep our perceptions from being confused and imperfect. And, because, as everyone knows, there is nothing that makes them clearer and more distinct than attentiveness, we must try to find the means to become more attentive than we are".[121] According to Malebranche, attention is crucial to understanding and keeping thoughts organized.

Philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz introduced the concept of apperception to this philosophical approach to attention. Apperception refers to "the process by which new experience is assimilated to and transformed by the residuum of past experience of an individual to form a new whole."[122] Apperception is required for a perceived event to become a conscious event. Leibniz emphasized a reflexive involuntary view of attention known as exogenous orienting. However, there is also endogenous orienting which is voluntary and directed attention. Philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart agreed with Leibniz's view of apperception; however, he expounded on it in by saying that new experiences had to be tied to ones already existing in the mind. Herbart was also the first person to stress the importance of applying mathematical modeling to the study of psychology.[7]

Throughout the philosophical era, various thinkers made significant contributions to the field of attention studies, beginning with research on the extent of attention and how attention is directed. In the beginning of the 19th century, it was thought that people were not able to attend to more than one stimulus at a time. However, with research contributions by Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet this view was changed. Hamilton proposed a view of attention that likened its capacity to holding marbles. You can only hold a certain number of marbles at a time before it starts to spill over. His view states that we can attend to more than one stimulus at once. William Stanley Jevons later expanded this view and stated that we can attend to up to four items at a time.[123]

1860–1909 edit

This period of attention research took the focus from conceptual findings to experimental testing. It also involved psychophysical methods that allowed measurement of the relation between physical stimulus properties and the psychological perceptions of them. This period covers the development of attentional research from the founding of psychology to 1909.

Wilhelm Wundt introduced the study of attention to the field of psychology. Wundt measured mental processing speed by likening it to differences in stargazing measurements. Astronomers in this time would measure the time it took for stars to travel. Among these measurements when astronomers recorded the times, there were personal differences in calculation. These different readings resulted in different reports from each astronomer. To correct for this, a personal equation was developed. Wundt applied this to mental processing speed. Wundt realized that the time it takes to see the stimulus of the star and write down the time was being called an "observation error" but actually was the time it takes to switch voluntarily one's attention from one stimulus to another. Wundt called his school of psychology voluntarism. It was his belief that psychological processes can only be understood in terms of goals and consequences.

Franciscus Donders used mental chronometry to study attention and it was considered a major field of intellectual inquiry by authors such as Sigmund Freud. Donders and his students conducted the first detailed investigations of the speed of mental processes. Donders measured the time required to identify a stimulus and to select a motor response. This was the time difference between stimulus discrimination and response initiation. Donders also formalized the subtractive method which states that the time for a particular process can be estimated by adding that process to a task and taking the difference in reaction time between the two tasks. He also differentiated between three types of reactions: simple reaction, choice reaction, and go/no-go reaction.

Hermann von Helmholtz also contributed to the field of attention relating to the extent of attention. Von Helmholtz stated that it is possible to focus on one stimulus and still perceive or ignore others. An example of this is being able to focus on the letter u in the word house and still perceiving the letters h, o, s, and e.

One major debate in this period was whether it was possible to attend to two things at once (split attention). Walter Benjamin described this experience as "reception in a state of distraction." This disagreement could only be resolved through experimentation.

In 1890, William James, in his textbook The Principles of Psychology, remarked:

Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration, of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a condition which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed, scatterbrained state which in French is called distraction, and Zerstreutheit in German.[124]

James differentiated between sensorial attention and intellectual attention. Sensorial attention is when attention is directed to objects of sense, stimuli that are physically present. Intellectual attention is attention directed to ideal or represented objects; stimuli that are not physically present. James also distinguished between immediate or derived attention: attention to the present versus to something not physically present. According to James, attention has five major effects. Attention works to make us perceive, conceive, distinguish, remember, and shorten reactions time.

1910–1949 edit

During this period, research in attention waned and interest in behaviorism flourished, leading some to believe, like Ulric Neisser, that in this period, "There was no research on attention". However, Jersild published very important work on "Mental Set and Shift" in 1927. He stated, "The fact of mental set is primary in all conscious activity. The same stimulus may evoke any one of a large number of responses depending upon the contextual setting in which it is placed".[125] This research found that the time to complete a list was longer for mixed lists than for pure lists. For example, if a list was names of animals versus a list of the same size with names of animals, books, makes and models of cars, and types of fruits, it takes longer to process the second list. This is task switching.

In 1931, Telford discovered the psychological refractory period. The stimulation of neurons is followed by a refractory phase during which neurons are less sensitive to stimulation. In 1935 John Ridley Stroop developed the Stroop Task which elicited the Stroop Effect. Stroop's task showed that irrelevant stimulus information can have a major impact on performance. In this task, subjects were to look at a list of colors. This list of colors had each color typed in a color different from the actual text. For example, the word Blue would be typed in Orange, Pink in Black, and so on.

Example: Blue Purple Red Green Purple Green

Subjects were then instructed to say the name of the ink color and ignore the text. It took 110 seconds to complete a list of this type compared to 63 seconds to name the colors when presented in the form of solid squares.[7] The naming time nearly doubled in the presence of conflicting color words, an effect known as the Stroop Effect.

1950–1974 edit

In the 1950s, research psychologists renewed their interest in attention when the dominant epistemology shifted from positivism (i.e., behaviorism) to realism during what has come to be known as the "cognitive revolution".[126] The cognitive revolution admitted unobservable cognitive processes like attention as legitimate objects of scientific study.

Lecture by cognitive scientist Marie Postma (Tilburg University) on focused attention

Modern research on attention began with the analysis of the "cocktail party problem" by Colin Cherry in 1953. At a cocktail party how do people select the conversation that they are listening to and ignore the rest? This problem is at times called "focused attention", as opposed to "divided attention". Cherry performed a number of experiments which became known as dichotic listening and were extended by Donald Broadbent and others.[127]: 112  In a typical experiment, subjects would use a set of headphones to listen to two streams of words in different ears and selectively attend to one stream. After the task, the experimenter would question the subjects about the content of the unattended stream.

Broadbent's Filter Model of Attention states that information is held in a pre-attentive temporary store, and only sensory events that have some physical feature in common are selected to pass into the limited capacity processing system. This implies that the meaning of unattended messages is not identified. Also, a significant amount of time is required to shift the filter from one channel to another. Experiments by Gray and Wedderburn and later Anne Treisman pointed out various problems in Broadbent's early model and eventually led to the Deutsch–Norman model in 1968. In this model, no signal is filtered out, but all are processed to the point of activating their stored representations in memory. The point at which attention becomes "selective" is when one of the memory representations is selected for further processing. At any time, only one can be selected, resulting in the attentional bottleneck.[127]: 115–116  https://pastebin.com/tGzR1ahy https://pastebin.com/B9aAfRkT

This debate became known as the early-selection vs. late-selection models. In the early selection models (first proposed by Donald Broadbent), attention shuts down (in Broadbent's model) or attenuates (in Treisman's refinement) processing in the unattended ear before the mind can analyze its semantic content. In the late selection models (first proposed by J. Anthony Deutsch and Diana Deutsch), the content in both ears is analyzed semantically, but the words in the unattended ear cannot access consciousness.[128] Lavie's perceptual load theory, however, "provided elegant solution to" what had once been a "heated debate".[129]

See also edit

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January 01, 1970
attention, this, article, about, psychological, concept, attention, other, uses, disambiguation, focus, concentration, awareness, some, phenomenon, exclusion, other, stimuli, selective, concentration, discrete, information, either, subjectively, objectively, w. This article is about the psychological concept of attention For other uses see Attention disambiguation Attention or focus is the concentration of awareness on some phenomenon to the exclusion of other stimuli 1 It is the selective concentration on discrete information either subjectively or objectively William James 1890 wrote that Attention is the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought Focalization concentration of consciousness are of its essence 2 Attention has also been described as the allocation of limited cognitive processing resources 3 Attention is manifested by an attentional bottleneck in terms of the amount of data the brain can process each second for example in human vision less than 1 of the visual input data stream of 1MByte sec can enter the bottleneck 4 5 leading to inattentional blindness Focused attention Attention remains a crucial area of investigation within education psychology neuroscience cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology Areas of active investigation involve determining the source of the sensory cues and signals that generate attention the effects of these sensory cues and signals on the tuning properties of sensory neurons and the relationship between attention and other behavioral and cognitive processes which may include working memory and psychological vigilance A relatively new body of research which expands upon earlier research within psychopathology is investigating the diagnostic symptoms associated with traumatic brain injury and its effects on attention Attention also varies across cultures 6 The relationships between attention and consciousness are complex enough that they have warranted philosophical exploration Such exploration is both ancient and continually relevant as it can have effects in fields ranging from mental health and the study of disorders of consciousness to artificial intelligence and its domains of research Contents 1 Contemporary definition and research 2 Selective and visual 3 Neuropsychological model 4 Multitasking and divided attention 5 Simultaneous 6 Alternative topics and discussions 6 1 Overt and covert orienting 6 2 Exogenous and endogenous orienting 6 3 Influence of processing load 6 4 Clinical model 7 Other descriptors for types of attention 7 1 Neural correlates 7 2 Cultural variation 7 3 Modelling 7 4 Hemispatial neglect 7 5 Attention in social contexts 7 6 Distracting factors 7 7 Failure to attend 8 History of the study 8 1 Philosophical period 8 2 1860 1909 8 3 1910 1949 8 4 1950 1974 9 See also 10 References 11 Further readingContemporary definition and research editPrior to the founding of psychology as a scientific discipline attention was studied in the field of philosophy Thus many of the discoveries in the field of attention were made by philosophers Psychologist John B Watson calls Juan Luis Vives the father of modern psychology because in his book De Anima et Vita The Soul and Life he was the first to recognize the importance of empirical investigation 7 In his work on memory Vives found that the more closely one attends to stimuli the better they will be retained By the 1990s psychologists began using positron emission tomography PET and later functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI to image the brain while monitoring tasks involving attention Considering this expensive equipment was generally only available in hospitals psychologists sought cooperation with neurologists Psychologist Michael Posner then already renowned for his influential work on visual selective attention and neurologist Marcus Raichle pioneered brain imaging studies of selective attention 8 Their results soon sparked interest from the neuroscience community which until then had been focused on monkey brains With the development of these technological innovations neuroscientists became interested in this type of research that combines sophisticated experimental paradigms from cognitive psychology with these new brain imaging techniques Although the older technique of electroencephalography EEG had long been used to study the brain activity underlying selective attention by cognitive psychophysiologists the ability of the newer techniques to measure precisely localized activity inside the brain generated renewed interest by a wider community of researchers A growing body of such neuroimaging research has identified a frontoparietal attention network which appears to be responsible for control of attention 9 A definition of a psychological construct forms a research approach to its study In scientific works attention often coincides and substitutes the notion of intentionality due to the extent of semantic uncertainty in the linguistic explanations of these notions definitions Intentionality has in turn been defined as the power of minds to be about something to represent or to stand for things properties and states of affairs 10 Although these two psychological constructs attention and intentionality appear to be defined by similar terms they are different notions To clarify the definition of attention it would be correct to consider the origin of this notion to review the meaning of the term given to it when the experimental study on attention was initiated It is thought that the experimental approach began with famous experiments with a 4 x 4 matrix of sixteen randomly chosen letters the experimental paradigm that informed Wundt s theory of attention 11 Wundt interpreted the experimental outcome introducing the meaning of attention as that psychical process which is operative in the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness 12 These experiments showed the physical limits of attention threshold which were 3 6 letters observing the matrix during 1 10 s of their exposition 11 We shall call the entrance into the large region of consciousness apprehension and the elevation into the focus of attention apperception 13 Wundt s theory of attention postulated one of the main features of this notion that attention is an active voluntary process realized during a certain time 11 In contrast neuroscience research shows that intentionality may emerge instantly even unconsciously research reported to register neuronal correlates of an intentional act that preceded this conscious act also see shared intentionality 14 15 Therefore while intentionality is a mental state the power of the mind to be about something arising even unconsciously the description of the construct of attention should be understood in the dynamical sense as the ability to elevate the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness and to keep in mind this state for a time The attention threshold would be the period of minimum time needed for employing perception to clearly apprehend the scope of intention From this perspective a scientific approach to attention is relevant when it considers the difference between these two concepts first of all between their statical and dynamical statuses The growing body of literature shows empirical evidence that attention is conditioned by the number of elements and the duration of exposition Decades of research on subitizing have supported Wundt s findings about the limits of a human ability to concentrate awareness on a task 16 17 18 19 20 A significant inference from the Wundtian approach to the study of attention the scope of attention is related to cognitive development 21 As the mind grasps more details about an event it also increases the number of reasonable combinations within that event enhancing the probability of better understanding its features and particularity 21 For example three items in the focal point of consciousness have six possible combinations 3 factorial and four items have 24 4 factorial combinations This number of combinations becomes significantly prominent in the case of a focal point with six items with 720 possible combinations 6 factorial 21 Empirical evidence suggests that the scope of attention in young children develops from two items in the focal point at age up to six months to five or more items in the focal point at age about five years 21 Selective and visual editSee also Selective auditory attention nbsp In cognitive psychology there are at least two models which describe how visual attention operates These models may be considered metaphors which are used to describe internal processes and to generate hypotheses that are falsifiable Generally speaking visual attention is thought to operate as a two stage process 22 In the first stage attention is distributed uniformly over the external visual scene and processing of information is performed in parallel In the second stage attention is concentrated to a specific area of the visual scene i e it is focused and processing is performed in a serial fashion The first of these models to appear in the literature is the spotlight model The term spotlight was inspired by the work of William James who described attention as having a focus a margin and a fringe 23 The focus is an area that extracts information from the visual scene with a high resolution the geometric center of which being where visual attention is directed Surrounding the focus is the fringe of attention which extracts information in a much more crude fashion i e low resolution This fringe extends out to a specified area and the cut off is called the margin The second model is called the zoom lens model and was first introduced in 1986 24 This model inherits all properties of the spotlight model i e the focus the fringe and the margin but it has the added property of changing in size This size change mechanism was inspired by the zoom lens one might find on a camera and any change in size can be described by a trade off in the efficiency of processing 25 The zoom lens of attention can be described in terms of an inverse trade off between the size of focus and the efficiency of processing because attention resources are assumed to be fixed then it follows that the larger the focus is the slower processing will be of that region of the visual scene since this fixed resource will be distributed over a larger area It is thought that the focus of attention can subtend a minimum of 1 of visual angle 23 26 however the maximum size has not yet been determined A significant debate emerged in the last decade of the 20th century in which Treisman s 1993 Feature Integration Theory FIT was compared to Duncan and Humphrey s 1989 attentional engagement theory AET 27 5 7 FIT posits that objects are retrieved from scenes by means of selective spatial attention that picks out objects features forms feature maps and integrates those features that are found at the same location into forming objects Treismans s theory is based on a two stage process to help solve the binding problem of attention These two stages are the preattentive stage and the focused attention stage Preattentive Stage The unconscious detection and separation of features of an item color shape size Treisman suggests that this happens early in cognitive processing and that individuals are not aware of the occurrence due to the counter intuitiveness of separating a whole into its part Evidence shows that preattentive focuses are accurate due to illusory conjunctions 28 Focused Attention Stage The combining of all feature identifiers to perceive all parts as one whole This is possible through prior knowledge and cognitive mapping When an item is seen within a known location and has features that people have knowledge of then prior knowledge will help bring features all together to make sense of what is perceived The case of R M s damage to his parietal lobe also known as Balint s syndrome shows the incorporation of focused attention and combination of features in the role of attention 29 Through sequencing these steps parallel and serial search is better exhibited through the formation of conjunctions of objects Conjunctive searches according to Treismans are done through both stages 30 in order to create selective and focused attention on an object though Duncan and Humphrey would disagree Duncan and Humphrey s AET understanding of attention maintained that there is an initial pre attentive parallel phase of perceptual segmentation and analysis that encompasses all of the visual items present in a scene At this phase descriptions of the objects in a visual scene are generated into structural units the outcome of this parallel phase is a multiple spatial scale structured representation Selective attention intervenes after this stage to select information that will be entered into visual short term memory 27 5 7 The contrast of the two theories placed a new emphasis on the separation of visual attention tasks alone and those mediated by supplementary cognitive processes As Rastophopoulos summarizes the debate Against Treisman s FIT which posits spatial attention as a necessary condition for detection of objects Humphreys argues that visual elements are encoded and bound together in an initial parallel phase without focal attention and that attention serves to select among the objects that result from this initial grouping 27 8 Neuropsychological model editIn the twentieth century the pioneering research of Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria led to the three part model of neuropsychology defining the working brain as being represented by three co active processes listed as Attention Memory and Activation A R Luria published his well known book The Working Brain in 1973 as a concise adjunct volume to his previous 1962 book Higher Cortical Functions in Man In this volume Luria summarized his three part global theory of the working brain as being composed of three constantly co active processes which he described as the 1 Attention system 2 Mnestic memory system and 3 Cortical activation system The two books together are considered by Homskaya s account as among Luria s major works in neuropsychology most fully reflecting all the aspects theoretical clinical experimental of this new discipline 31 The product of the combined research of Vygotsky and Luria have determined a large part of the contemporary understanding and definition of attention as it is understood at the start of the 21st century Multitasking and divided attention editSee also Human multitasking and Distracted driving Multitasking can be defined as the attempt to perform two or more tasks simultaneously however research shows that when multitasking people make more mistakes or perform their tasks more slowly 32 Attention must be divided among all of the component tasks to perform them In divided attention individuals attend or give attention to multiple sources of information at once or perform more than one task at the same time 33 Older research involved looking at the limits of people performing simultaneous tasks like reading stories while listening and writing something else 34 or listening to two separate messages through different ears i e dichotic listening Generally classical research into attention investigated the ability of people to learn new information when there were multiple tasks to be performed or to probe the limits of our perception c f Donald Broadbent There is also older literature on people s performance on multiple tasks performed simultaneously such as driving a car while tuning a radio 35 or driving while being on the phone 36 The vast majority of current research on human multitasking is based on performance of doing two tasks simultaneously 32 usually that involves driving while performing another task such as texting eating or even speaking to passengers in the vehicle or with a friend over a cellphone This research reveals that the human attentional system has limits for what it can process driving performance is worse while engaged in other tasks drivers make more mistakes brake harder and later get into more accidents veer into other lanes and or are less aware of their surroundings when engaged in the previously discussed tasks 37 38 39 There has been little difference found between speaking on a hands free cell phone or a hand held cell phone 40 41 which suggests that it is the strain of attentional system that causes problems rather than what the driver is doing with his or her hands While speaking with a passenger is as cognitively demanding as speaking with a friend over the phone 42 passengers are able to change the conversation based upon the needs of the driver For example if traffic intensifies a passenger may stop talking to allow the driver to navigate the increasingly difficult roadway a conversation partner over a phone would not be aware of the change in environment There have been multiple theories regarding divided attention One conceived by Kahneman 43 explains that there is a single pool of attentional resources that can be freely divided among multiple tasks This model seems oversimplified however due to the different modalities e g visual auditory verbal that are perceived 44 When the two simultaneous tasks use the same modality such as listening to a radio station and writing a paper it is much more difficult to concentrate on both because the tasks are likely to interfere with each other The specific modality model was theorized by Navon and Gopher in 1979 However more recent research using well controlled dual task paradigms points at the importance of tasks 45 As an alternative resource theory has been proposed as a more accurate metaphor for explaining divided attention on complex tasks Resource theory states that as each complex task is automatized performing that task requires less of the individual s limited capacity attentional resources 44 Other variables play a part in our ability to pay attention to and concentrate on many tasks at once These include but are not limited to anxiety arousal task difficulty and skills 44 Simultaneous editSimultaneous attention is a type of attention classified by attending to multiple events at the same time Simultaneous attention is demonstrated by children in Indigenous communities who learn through this type of attention to their surroundings 46 Simultaneous attention is present in the ways in which children of indigenous backgrounds interact both with their surroundings and with other individuals Simultaneous attention requires focus on multiple simultaneous activities or occurrences This differs from multitasking which is characterized by alternating attention and focus between multiple activities or halting one activity before switching to the next Simultaneous attention involves uninterrupted attention to several activities occurring at the same time Another cultural practice that may relate to simultaneous attention strategies is coordination within a group Indigenous heritage toddlers and caregivers in San Pedro were observed to frequently coordinate their activities with other members of a group in ways parallel to a model of simultaneous attention whereas middle class European descent families in the U S would move back and forth between events 6 47 Research concludes that children with close ties to Indigenous American roots have a high tendency to be especially wide keen observers 48 This points to a strong cultural difference in attention management Alternative topics and discussions editOvert and covert orienting edit Attention may be differentiated into overt versus covert orienting 49 Overt orienting is the act of selectively attending to an item or location over others by moving the eyes to point in that direction 50 Overt orienting can be directly observed in the form of eye movements Although overt eye movements are quite common there is a distinction that can be made between two types of eye movements reflexive and controlled Reflexive movements are commanded by the superior colliculus of the midbrain These movements are fast and are activated by the sudden appearance of stimuli In contrast controlled eye movements are commanded by areas in the frontal lobe These movements are slow and voluntary Covert orienting is the act of mentally shifting one s focus without moving one s eyes 23 50 51 Simply it is changes in attention that are not attributable to overt eye movements Covert orienting has the potential to affect the output of perceptual processes by governing attention to particular items or locations for example the activity of a V4 neuron whose receptive field lies on an attended stimuli will be enhanced by covert attention 52 but does not influence the information that is processed by the senses Researchers often use filtering tasks to study the role of covert attention of selecting information These tasks often require participants to observe a number of stimuli but attend to only one The current view is that visual covert attention is a mechanism for quickly scanning the field of view for interesting locations This shift in covert attention is linked to eye movement circuitry that sets up a slower saccade to that location 53 There are studies that suggest the mechanisms of overt and covert orienting may not be controlled separately and independently as previously believed Central mechanisms that may control covert orienting such as the parietal lobe also receive input from subcortical centres involved in overt orienting 50 In support of this general theories of attention actively assume bottom up reflexive processes and top down voluntary processes converge on a common neural architecture in that they control both covert and overt attentional systems 54 For example if individuals attend to the right hand corner field of view movement of the eyes in that direction may have to be actively suppressed Covert attention has been argued to reflect the existence of processes programming explicit ocular movement 55 However this has been questioned on the grounds that N2 a neural measure of covert attentional allocation does not always precede eye movements 56 However the researchers acknowledge it may be impossible to definitively rule out the possibility that some kind of shift of covert attention precedes every shift of overt attention 56 Exogenous and endogenous orienting edit Orienting attention is vital and can be controlled through external exogenous or internal endogenous processes However comparing these two processes is challenging because external signals do not operate completely exogenously but will only summon attention and eye movements if they are important to the subject 50 Exogenous from Greek exo meaning outside and genein meaning to produce orienting is frequently described as being under control of a stimulus 57 Exogenous orienting is considered to be reflexive and automatic and is caused by a sudden change in the periphery This often results in a reflexive saccade Since exogenous cues are typically presented in the periphery they are referred to as peripheral cues Exogenous orienting can even be observed when individuals are aware that the cue will not relay reliable accurate information about where a target is going to occur This means that the mere presence of an exogenous cue will affect the response to other stimuli that are subsequently presented in the cue s previous location 58 Several studies have investigated the influence of valid and invalid cues 50 59 60 61 They concluded that valid peripheral cues benefit performance for instance when the peripheral cues are brief flashes at the relevant location before the onset of a visual stimulus Posner and Cohen 1984 noted a reversal of this benefit takes place when the interval between the onset of the cue and the onset of the target is longer than about 300 ms 62 The phenomenon of valid cues producing longer reaction times than invalid cues is called inhibition of return Endogenous from Greek endo meaning within or internally orienting is the intentional allocation of attentional resources to a predetermined location or space Simply stated endogenous orienting occurs when attention is oriented according to an observer s goals or desires allowing the focus of attention to be manipulated by the demands of a task In order to have an effect endogenous cues must be processed by the observer and acted upon purposefully These cues are frequently referred to as central cues This is because they are typically presented at the center of a display where an observer s eyes are likely to be fixated Central cues such as an arrow or digit presented at fixation tell observers to attend to a specific location 63 When examining differences between exogenous and endogenous orienting some researchers suggest that there are four differences between the two kinds of cues exogenous orienting is less affected by cognitive load than endogenous orienting observers are able to ignore endogenous cues but not exogenous cues exogenous cues have bigger effects than endogenous cues and expectancies about cue validity and predictive value affects endogenous orienting more than exogenous orienting 64 There exist both overlaps and differences in the areas of the brain that are responsible for endogenous and exogenous orientating 65 Another approach to this discussion has been covered under the topic heading of bottom up versus top down orientations to attention Researchers of this school have described two different aspects of how the mind focuses attention to items present in the environment The first aspect is called bottom up processing also known as stimulus driven attention or exogenous attention These describe attentional processing which is driven by the properties of the objects themselves Some processes such as motion or a sudden loud noise can attract our attention in a pre conscious or non volitional way We attend to them whether we want to or not 66 These aspects of attention are thought to involve parietal and temporal cortices as well as the brainstem 67 More recent experimental evidence 68 69 70 support the idea that the primary visual cortex creates a bottom up saliency map 71 4 which is received by the superior colliculus in the midbrain area to guide attention or gaze shifts The second aspect is called top down processing also known as goal driven endogenous attention attentional control or executive attention This aspect of our attentional orienting is under the control of the person who is attending It is mediated primarily by the frontal cortex and basal ganglia 67 72 as one of the executive functions 50 67 Research has shown that it is related to other aspects of the executive functions such as working memory 73 and conflict resolution and inhibition 74 Influence of processing load edit A hugely influential 75 theory regarding selective attention is the perceptual load theory which states that there are two mechanisms that affect attention cognitive and perceptual The perceptual mechanism considers the subject s ability to perceive or ignore stimuli both task related and non task related Studies show that if there are many stimuli present especially if they are task related it is much easier to ignore the non task related stimuli but if there are few stimuli the mind will perceive the irrelevant stimuli as well as the relevant The cognitive mechanism refers to the actual processing of the stimuli Studies regarding this showed that the ability to process stimuli decreased with age meaning that younger people were able to perceive more stimuli and fully process them but were likely to process both relevant and irrelevant information while older people could process fewer stimuli but usually processed only relevant information 76 Some people can process multiple stimuli e g trained Morse code operators have been able to copy 100 of a message while carrying on a meaningful conversation This relies on the reflexive response due to overlearning the skill of morse code reception detection transcription so that it is an autonomous function requiring no specific attention to perform This overtraining of the brain comes as the practice of a skill surpasses 100 accuracy allowing the activity to become autonomic while your mind has room to process other actions simultaneously 77 Based on the primary role of the perceptual load theory assumptions regarding its functionality surrounding that attentional resources are that of limited capacity which signify the need for all of the attentional resources to be used 78 This performance however is halted when put hand in hand with accuracy and reaction time RT This limitation arises through the measurement of literature when obtaining outcomes for scores This affects both cognitive and perceptual attention because there is a lack of measurement surrounding distributions of temporal and spatial attention Only a concentrated amount of attention on how effective one is completing the task and how long they take is being analyzed making a more redundant analysis on overall cognition of being able to process multiple stimuli through perception 79 Clinical model edit Attention is best described as the sustained focus of cognitive resources on information while filtering or ignoring extraneous information Attention is a very basic function that often is a precursor to all other neurological cognitive functions As is frequently the case clinical models of attention differ from investigation models One of the most used models for the evaluation of attention in patients with very different neurologic pathologies is the model of Sohlberg and Mateer 80 This hierarchic model is based in the recovering of attention processes of brain damage patients after coma Five different kinds of activities of growing difficulty are described in the model connecting with the activities those patients could do as their recovering process advanced Focused attention The ability to respond discretely to specific sensory stimuli Sustained attention vigilance and concentration The ability to maintain a consistent behavioral response during continuous and repetitive activity Selective attention The ability to maintain a behavioral or cognitive set in the face of distracting or competing stimuli Therefore it incorporates the notion of freedom from distractibility Alternating attention The ability of mental flexibility that allows individuals to shift their focus of attention and move between tasks having different cognitive requirements Divided attention This refers to the ability to respond simultaneously to multiple tasks or multiple task demands This model has been shown to be very useful in evaluating attention in very different pathologies correlates strongly with daily difficulties and is especially helpful in designing stimulation programs such as attention process training a rehabilitation program for neurological patients of the same authors Other descriptors for types of attention editMindfulness Mindfulness has been conceptualized as a clinical model of attention 81 Mindfulness practices are clinical interventions that emphasize training attention functions 82 Vigilant attention Remaining focused on a non arousing stimulus or uninteresting task for a sustained period is far more difficult than attending to arousing stimuli and interesting tasks and requires a specific type of attention called vigilant attention 83 Thereby vigilant attention is the ability to give sustained attention to a stimulus or task that might ordinarily be insufficiently engaging to prevent our attention being distracted by other stimuli or tasks 84 Neural correlates edit Most experiments show that one neural correlate of attention is enhanced firing If a neuron has a different response to a stimulus when an animal is not attending to a stimulus versus when the animal does attend to the stimulus then the neuron s response will be enhanced even if the physical characteristics of the stimulus remain the same In a 2007 review Knudsen 85 describes a more general model which identifies four core processes of attention with working memory at the center Working memory temporarily stores information for detailed analysis Competitive selection is the process that determines which information gains access to working memory Through top down sensitivity control higher cognitive processes can regulate signal intensity in information channels that compete for access to working memory and thus give them an advantage in the process of competitive selection Through top down sensitivity control the momentary content of working memory can influence the selection of new information and thus mediate voluntary control of attention in a recurrent loop endogenous attention 86 Bottom up saliency filters automatically enhance the response to infrequent stimuli or stimuli of instinctive or learned biological relevance exogenous attention 86 Neurally at different hierarchical levels spatial maps can enhance or inhibit activity in sensory areas and induce orienting behaviors like eye movement At the top of the hierarchy the frontal eye fields FEF and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex contain a retinocentric spatial map Microstimulation in the FEF induces monkeys to make a saccade to the relevant location Stimulation at levels too low to induce a saccade will nonetheless enhance cortical responses to stimuli located in the relevant area At the next lower level a variety of spatial maps are found in the parietal cortex In particular the lateral intraparietal area LIP contains a saliency map and is interconnected both with the FEF and with sensory areas Exogenous attentional guidance in humans and monkeys is by a bottom up saliency map in the primary visual cortex 71 4 In lower vertebrates this saliency map is more likely in the superior colliculus optic tectum 87 Certain automatic responses that influence attention like orienting to a highly salient stimulus are mediated subcortically by the superior colliculi At the neural network level it is thought that processes like lateral inhibition mediate the process of competitive selection In many cases attention produces changes in the EEG Many animals including humans produce gamma waves 40 60 Hz when focusing attention on a particular object or activity 88 89 52 90 Another commonly used model for the attention system has been put forth by researchers such as Michael Posner He divides attention into three functional components alerting orienting and executive attention 67 91 that can also interact and influence each other 92 93 94 Alerting is the process involved in becoming and staying attentive toward the surroundings It appears to exist in the frontal and parietal lobes of the right hemisphere and is modulated by norepinephrine 95 96 Orienting is the directing of attention to a specific stimulus Executive attention is used when there is a conflict between multiple attention cues It is essentially the same as the central executive in Baddeley s model of working memory The Eriksen flanker task has shown that the executive control of attention may take place in the anterior cingulate cortex 97 Cultural variation edit Children appear to develop patterns of attention related to the cultural practices of their families communities and the institutions in which they participate 98 In 1955 Jules Henry suggested that there are societal differences in sensitivity to signals from many ongoing sources that call for the awareness of several levels of attention simultaneously He tied his speculation to ethnographic observations of communities in which children are involved in a complex social community with multiple relationships 6 Many Indigenous children in the Americas predominantly learn by observing and pitching in There are several studies to support that the use of keen attention towards learning is much more common in Indigenous Communities of North and Central America than in a middle class European American setting This is a direct result of the Learning by Observing and Pitching In model Keen attention is both a requirement and result of learning by observing and pitching in Incorporating the children in the community gives them the opportunity to keenly observe and contribute to activities that were not directed towards them It can be seen from different Indigenous communities and cultures such as the Mayans of San Pedro that children can simultaneously attend to multiple events 6 Most Maya children have learned to pay attention to several events at once in order to make useful observations 99 One example is simultaneous attention which involves uninterrupted attention to several activities occurring at the same time Another cultural practice that may relate to simultaneous attention strategies is coordination within a group San Pedro toddlers and caregivers frequently coordinated their activities with other members of a group in multiway engagements rather than in a dyadic fashion 6 47 Research concludes that children with close ties to Indigenous American roots have a high tendency to be especially keen observers 48 This learning by observing and pitching in model requires active levels of attention management The child is present while caretakers engage in daily activities and responsibilities such as weaving farming and other skills necessary for survival Being present allows the child to focus their attention on the actions being performed by their parents elders and or older siblings In order to learn in this way keen attention and focus is required Eventually the child is expected to be able to perform these skills themselves Modelling edit In the domain of computer vision efforts have been made to model the mechanism of human attention especially the bottom up intentional mechanism 100 and its semantic significance in classification of video contents 101 102 Both spatial attention and temporal attention have been incorporated in such classification efforts Generally speaking there are two kinds of models to mimic the bottom up salience mechanism in static images One is based on the spatial contrast analysis For example a center surround mechanism has been used to define salience across scales inspired by the putative neural mechanism 103 It has also been hypothesized that some visual inputs are intrinsically salient in certain background contexts and that these are actually task independent This model has established itself as the exemplar for salience detection and consistently used for comparison in the literature 100 the other kind of model is based on the frequency domain analysis This method was first proposed by Hou et al 104 This method was called SR Then the PQFT method was also introduced Both SR and PQFT only use the phase information 100 In 2012 the HFT method was introduced and both the amplitude and the phase information are made use of 105 The Neural Abstraction Pyramid 106 is a hierarchical recurrent convolutional model which incorporates bottom up and top down flow of information to iteratively interpret images Hemispatial neglect edit Main article Hemispatial neglect Hemispatial neglect also called unilateral neglect often occurs when people have damage to the right hemisphere of their brain 107 This damage often leads to a tendency to ignore the left side of one s body or even the left side of an object that can be seen Damage to the left side of the brain the left hemisphere rarely yields significant neglect of the right side of the body or object in the person s local environments 108 The effects of spatial neglect however may vary and differ depending on what area of the brain was damaged Damage to different neural substrates can result in different types of neglect Attention disorders lateralized and nonlaterized may also contribute to the symptoms and effects 108 Much research has asserted that damage to gray matter within the brain results in spatial neglect 109 New technology has yielded more information such that there is a large distributed network of frontal parietal temporal and subcortical brain areas that have been tied to neglect 110 This network can be related to other research as well the dorsal attention network is tied to spatial orienting 111 The effect of damage to this network may result in patients neglecting their left side when distracted about their right side or an object on their right side 107 Attention in social contexts edit Social attention is one special form of attention that involves the allocation of limited processing resources in a social context Previous studies on social attention often regard how attention is directed toward socially relevant stimuli such as faces and gaze directions of other individuals 112 In contrast to attending to others a different line of researches has shown that self related information such as own face and name automatically captures attention and is preferentially processed comparing to other related information 113 These contrasting effects between attending to others and attending to self prompt a synthetic view in a recent Opinion article 114 proposing that social attention operates at two polarizing states In one extreme individual tends to attend to the self and prioritize self related information over others and in the other extreme attention is allocated to other individuals to infer their intentions and desires Attending to self and attending to others mark the two ends of an otherwise continuum spectrum of social attention For a given behavioral context the mechanisms underlying these two polarities might interact and compete with each other in order to determine a saliency map of social attention that guides our behaviors 114 An imbalanced competition between these two behavioral and cognitive processes will cause cognitive disorders and neurological symptoms such as autism spectrum disorders and Williams syndrome Distracting factors edit According to Daniel Goleman s book Focus The Hidden Driver of Excellence there are two types of distracting factors affecting focus sensory and emotional A sensory distracting factor would be for example while a person is reading this article they are neglecting the white field surrounding the text An emotional distracting factor would be when someone is focused on answering an email and somebody shouts their name It would be almost impossible to neglect the voice speaking it Attention is immediately directed toward the source Positive emotions have also been found to affect attention Induction of happiness has led to increased response times and an increase in inaccurate responses in the face of irrelevant stimuli Two possible theories as to why emotions might make one more susceptible to distracting stimuli is that emotions take up too much of one s cognitive resources and make it harder to control your focus of attention The other theory is that emotions make it harder to filter out distractions specifically with positive emotions due to a feeling of security 115 Another distracting factor to attention processes is insufficient sleep Sleep deprivation is found to impair cognition specifically performance in divided attention Divided attention is possibly linked with the circadian processes 116 Failure to attend edit Inattentional blindness was first introduced in 1998 by Arien Mack and Irvic Rock Their studies show that when people are focused on specific stimuli they often miss other stimuli that are clearly present Though actual blindness is not occurring here the blindness that happens is due to the perceptual load of what is being attended to 117 Based on the experiment performed by Mack and Rock Ula Finch and Nilli Lavie tested participants with a perceptual task They presented subjects with a cross one arm being longer than the other for 5 trials On the sixth trial a white square was added to the top left of the screen The results conclude that out of 10 participants only 2 20 actually saw the square This would suggest that when a higher focus was attended to the length of the crossed arms the more likely someone would altogether miss an object that was in plain sight 118 Change blindness was first tested by Rensink and coworkers in 1997 Their studies show that people have difficulty detecting changes from scene to scene due to the intense focus on one thing or lack of attention overall This was tested by Rensink through a presentation of a picture and then a blank field and then the same picture but with an item missing The results showed that the pictures had to be alternated back and forth a good number of times for participants to notice the difference This idea is greatly portrayed in films that have continuity errors Many people do not pick up on differences when in reality the changes tend to be significant 119 History of the study editPhilosophical period edit Psychologist Daniel E Berlyne credits the first extended treatment of attention to philosopher Nicolas Malebranche in his work The Search After Truth Malebranche held that we have access to ideas or mental representations of the external world but not direct access to the world itself 7 Thus in order to keep these ideas organized attention is necessary 120 Otherwise we will confuse these ideas Malebranche writes in The Search After Truth because it often happens that the understanding has only confused and imperfect perceptions of things it is truly a cause of our errors It is therefore necessary to look for means to keep our perceptions from being confused and imperfect And because as everyone knows there is nothing that makes them clearer and more distinct than attentiveness we must try to find the means to become more attentive than we are 121 According to Malebranche attention is crucial to understanding and keeping thoughts organized Philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz introduced the concept of apperception to this philosophical approach to attention Apperception refers to the process by which new experience is assimilated to and transformed by the residuum of past experience of an individual to form a new whole 122 Apperception is required for a perceived event to become a conscious event Leibniz emphasized a reflexive involuntary view of attention known as exogenous orienting However there is also endogenous orienting which is voluntary and directed attention Philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart agreed with Leibniz s view of apperception however he expounded on it in by saying that new experiences had to be tied to ones already existing in the mind Herbart was also the first person to stress the importance of applying mathematical modeling to the study of psychology 7 Throughout the philosophical era various thinkers made significant contributions to the field of attention studies beginning with research on the extent of attention and how attention is directed In the beginning of the 19th century it was thought that people were not able to attend to more than one stimulus at a time However with research contributions by Sir William Hamilton 9th Baronet this view was changed Hamilton proposed a view of attention that likened its capacity to holding marbles You can only hold a certain number of marbles at a time before it starts to spill over His view states that we can attend to more than one stimulus at once William Stanley Jevons later expanded this view and stated that we can attend to up to four items at a time 123 1860 1909 edit This period of attention research took the focus from conceptual findings to experimental testing It also involved psychophysical methods that allowed measurement of the relation between physical stimulus properties and the psychological perceptions of them This period covers the development of attentional research from the founding of psychology to 1909 Wilhelm Wundt introduced the study of attention to the field of psychology Wundt measured mental processing speed by likening it to differences in stargazing measurements Astronomers in this time would measure the time it took for stars to travel Among these measurements when astronomers recorded the times there were personal differences in calculation These different readings resulted in different reports from each astronomer To correct for this a personal equation was developed Wundt applied this to mental processing speed Wundt realized that the time it takes to see the stimulus of the star and write down the time was being called an observation error but actually was the time it takes to switch voluntarily one s attention from one stimulus to another Wundt called his school of psychology voluntarism It was his belief that psychological processes can only be understood in terms of goals and consequences Franciscus Donders used mental chronometry to study attention and it was considered a major field of intellectual inquiry by authors such as Sigmund Freud Donders and his students conducted the first detailed investigations of the speed of mental processes Donders measured the time required to identify a stimulus and to select a motor response This was the time difference between stimulus discrimination and response initiation Donders also formalized the subtractive method which states that the time for a particular process can be estimated by adding that process to a task and taking the difference in reaction time between the two tasks He also differentiated between three types of reactions simple reaction choice reaction and go no go reaction Hermann von Helmholtz also contributed to the field of attention relating to the extent of attention Von Helmholtz stated that it is possible to focus on one stimulus and still perceive or ignore others An example of this is being able to focus on the letter u in the word house and still perceiving the letters h o s and e One major debate in this period was whether it was possible to attend to two things at once split attention Walter Benjamin described this experience as reception in a state of distraction This disagreement could only be resolved through experimentation In 1890 William James in his textbook The Principles of Psychology remarked Everyone knows what attention is It is the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought Focalization concentration of consciousness are of its essence It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others and is a condition which has a real opposite in the confused dazed scatterbrained state which in French is called distraction and Zerstreutheit in German 124 James differentiated between sensorial attention and intellectual attention Sensorial attention is when attention is directed to objects of sense stimuli that are physically present Intellectual attention is attention directed to ideal or represented objects stimuli that are not physically present James also distinguished between immediate or derived attention attention to the present versus to something not physically present According to James attention has five major effects Attention works to make us perceive conceive distinguish remember and shorten reactions time 1910 1949 edit During this period research in attention waned and interest in behaviorism flourished leading some to believe like Ulric Neisser that in this period There was no research on attention However Jersild published very important work on Mental Set and Shift in 1927 He stated The fact of mental set is primary in all conscious activity The same stimulus may evoke any one of a large number of responses depending upon the contextual setting in which it is placed 125 This research found that the time to complete a list was longer for mixed lists than for pure lists For example if a list was names of animals versus a list of the same size with names of animals books makes and models of cars and types of fruits it takes longer to process the second list This is task switching In 1931 Telford discovered the psychological refractory period The stimulation of neurons is followed by a refractory phase during which neurons are less sensitive to stimulation In 1935 John Ridley Stroop developed the Stroop Task which elicited the Stroop Effect Stroop s task showed that irrelevant stimulus information can have a major impact on performance In this task subjects were to look at a list of colors This list of colors had each color typed in a color different from the actual text For example the word Blue would be typed in Orange Pink in Black and so on Example Blue Purple Red Green Purple GreenSubjects were then instructed to say the name of the ink color and ignore the text It took 110 seconds to complete a list of this type compared to 63 seconds to name the colors when presented in the form of solid squares 7 The naming time nearly doubled in the presence of conflicting color words an effect known as the Stroop Effect 1950 1974 edit In the 1950s research psychologists renewed their interest in attention when the dominant epistemology shifted from positivism i e behaviorism to realism during what has come to be known as the cognitive revolution 126 The cognitive revolution admitted unobservable cognitive processes like attention as legitimate objects of scientific study source source source source source source source source track track Lecture by cognitive scientist Marie Postma Tilburg University on focused attention Modern research on attention began with the analysis of the cocktail party problem by Colin Cherry in 1953 At a cocktail party how do people select the conversation that they are listening to and ignore the rest This problem is at times called focused attention as opposed to divided attention Cherry performed a number of experiments which became known as dichotic listening and were extended by Donald Broadbent and others 127 112 In a typical experiment subjects would use a set of headphones to listen to two streams of words in different ears and selectively attend to one stream After the task the experimenter would question the subjects about the content of the unattended stream Broadbent s Filter Model of Attention states that information is held in a pre attentive temporary store and only sensory events that have some physical feature in common are selected to pass into the limited capacity processing system This implies that the meaning of unattended messages is not identified Also a significant amount of time is required to shift the filter from one channel to another Experiments by Gray and Wedderburn and later Anne Treisman pointed out various problems in Broadbent s early model and eventually led to the Deutsch Norman model in 1968 In this model no signal is filtered out but all are processed to the point of activating their stored representations in memory The point at which attention becomes selective is when one of the memory representations is selected for further processing At any time only one can be selected resulting in the attentional bottleneck 127 115 116 https pastebin com tGzR1ahy https pastebin com B9aAfRkTThis debate became known as the early selection vs late selection models In the early selection models first proposed by Donald Broadbent attention shuts down in Broadbent s model or attenuates in Treisman s refinement processing in the unattended ear before the mind can analyze its semantic content In the late selection models first proposed by J Anthony Deutsch and Diana Deutsch the content in both ears is analyzed semantically but the words in the unattended ear cannot access consciousness 128 Lavie s perceptual load theory however provided elegant solution to what had once been a heated debate 129 See also editAlertness Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention restoration theory Attention seeking Attention span Attention theft Attentional control Attentional shift Binding problem Cognitive inhibition Consciousness Crossmodal attention Flow psychology Focusing psychotherapy Informal learning Joint attention Immanuel Kant Meditation Mindfulness Motivation Nonverbal communication Observational Learning Ovsiankina effect Perceptual learning The role of attention Philosophy Salience also called saliency Self Split attention effect Vigilance Visual search Visual spatial attention Visual temporal attention Working memoryReferences edit Attention Definition Theories Aspects amp Facts Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica James W 1890 The Principles of Psychology Vol 1 New York Henry Holt pp 403 404 Anderson JR 2004 Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications 6th ed Worth Publishers p 519 ISBN 978 0 7167 0110 1 a b c Zhaoping L 2014 Understanding vision theory models and data United Kingdom Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199564668 Goldstein EB 2011 Cognitive Psychology connecting mind research and everyday experience Cengage 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Alexander Romanovich Luria A Scientific Biography Plenum Series in Russian Neuropsychology Translated by Krotova D Plenum Press pp 70 71 doi 10 1007 978 1 4615 1207 3 ISBN 978 1 4613 5441 3 a b Matlin MW 2013 Cognition Textbook 8th ed Wiley ISBN 978 1 118 14896 9 Gopher D Iani C 2002 Attention In Nadel L ed Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science London Nature Publishing Company ISBN 978 0 333 79261 2 Retrieved 27 January 2017 Spelke E Hirst W Neisser U 1976 Skills of divided attention PDF Cognition 4 3 215 230 doi 10 1016 0010 0277 76 90018 4 S2CID 19019411 Brown ID October 1965 Effect of a car radio on driving in traffic Ergonomics 8 4 475 9 doi 10 1080 00140136508930828 PMID 5854152 Brown ID Tickner AH Simmonds DC October 1969 Interference between concurrent tasks of driving and telephoning The Journal of Applied Psychology 53 5 419 24 doi 10 1037 h0028103 PMID 5366314 Strayer DL Drews FA 2007 Multitasking in the automobile In Kramer AF Wiegmann DA Kirlik A eds Attention From Theory to Practice New York Oxford University Press pp 121 33 ISBN 978 0 19 530572 2 Salvucci DD Taatgen NA January 2008 Threaded cognition an integrated theory of concurrent multitasking Psychological Review 115 1 101 30 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 140 3655 doi 10 1037 0033 295x 115 1 101 PMID 18211187 S2CID 14785507 Collet C Clarion A Morel M Chapon A Petit C November 2009 Physiological and behavioural changes associated to the management of secondary tasks while driving Applied Ergonomics 40 6 1041 6 doi 10 1016 j apergo 2009 01 007 PMID 19249012 Chabris CF Simons DJ 2010 The Invisible Gorilla and Other Ways Our Intuitions Deceive Us New York Crown Folk CL 2010 Attention Divided In Goldstein EB ed Encyclopedia of Perception Thousand Oaks CA Sage pp 84 7 ISBN 9781412940818 Strayer DL Cooper JM Turrill J Coleman J Medeiros Ward N Biondi F June 2013 Measuring Cognitive Distraction in the Automobile PDF Research Report AAA Archived from the original PDF on 2013 10 28 Retrieved 2013 11 06 Kahneman D 1973 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Pilar Parmentier Fabrice B R August 2016 Happiness increases distraction by auditory deviant stimuli British Journal of Psychology 107 3 419 433 doi 10 1111 bjop 12148 ISSN 0007 1269 PMID 26302716 Drummond Sean P 2004 08 01 The Effects of Total Sleep Deprivation and Recovery Sleep on Cognitive Performance and Brain Function Fort Belvoir VA doi 10 21236 ada435504 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Mack A 2003 Inattentional Blindness Looking without Seeing Current Directions in Psychological Science 12 5 180 184 doi 10 1111 1467 8721 01256 ISSN 0963 7214 JSTOR 20182872 S2CID 15230550 Lavie N Beck DM Konstantinou N May 2014 Blinded by the load attention awareness and the role of perceptual load Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences 369 1641 20130205 doi 10 1098 rstb 2013 0205 JSTOR 24500065 PMC 3965161 PMID 24639578 Rensink RA O Regan JK Clark JJ 1997 To See or Not to See The Need for Attention to Perceive Changes in Scenes Psychological Science 8 5 368 373 doi 10 1111 j 1467 9280 1997 tb00427 x ISSN 0956 7976 JSTOR 40063214 S2CID 1945079 Andrew Brook and Julian Wuerth https plato stanford edu entries kant mind Malebranche N 1674 The Search After Truth pp 411 412 Runes DD ed 1972 Dictionary of Philosophy Totowa NJ Littlefield Adams and Company Jevons WS 9 February 1871 The Power of Numerical Discrimination Nature James W 1890 The Principles of Psychology Vol 1 New York Henry Holt pp 403 404 Jersild AT 1927 Mental set and shift Archives of Psychology 14 89 5 82 Harre R 2002 Cognitive science A philosophical introduction London SAGE Publications ISBN 978 0 7619 4746 2 a b Hampson PJ Morris PE 1996 Understanding cognition Wiley ISBN 978 0 631 15751 9 Deutsch JA Deutsch D January 1963 Some theoretical considerations Psychological Review 70 1 80 90 doi 10 1037 h0039515 PMID 14027390 Theeuwes J Kramer AF Belopolsky AV August 2004 Attentional set interacts with perceptual load in visual search Psychonomic Bulletin amp Review 11 4 697 702 doi 10 3758 BF03196622 PMID 15581120 Further reading edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Attention nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Attention Attention Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol III 9th ed 1878 p 52 Goleman D 2013 Focus The Hidden Driver of Excellence Harper ISBN 978 0062114860 Ward LM 2008 PDF Scholarpedia 3 10 1538 doi 10 4249 scholarpedia 1538 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Attention amp oldid 1220872843, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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