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Madagascar subhumid forests

February 17, 2023

The Madagascar subhumid forests are a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion that covers most of the Central Highlands of the island of Madagascar. They are included in the WWF's Global 200 list of outstanding ecoregions. Most of the original habitats have been lost due to human pressure. [2][3][4]

Madagascar subhumid forests
Ecology
RealmAfrotropical
BiomeTropical moist broadleaf forest
BordersMadagascar ericoid thickets, Madagascar lowland forests, Madagascar spiny forests, Madagascar succulent woodlands, Madagascar dry deciduous forests
AnimalsLac Alaotra bamboo lemur, chameleons
Geography
Area199,600 km2 (77,100 sq mi)
CountryMadagascar
Elevation600–1,800 metres (2,000–5,900 ft)
Coordinates18°56′S 47°31′E / 18.933°S 47.517°E / -18.933; 47.517Coordinates: 18°56′S 47°31′E / 18.933°S 47.517°E / -18.933; 47.517
Climate typeTropical monsoon climate (Am), tropical savanna climate (Aw), humid subtropical climate (Cwa)
Conservation
Conservation statusCritical/endangered
Global 200included
Protected7.679%[1]

Geography

The Madagascar subhumid forests ecoregion covers Madagascar's highlands, which extend north and south along the length of the island, above approximately 800 metres (2,600 ft) elevation on the east and above 600 metres (2,000 ft) meters elevation on the west.

The Central Highlands is the largest highland region on the island, extending from approximately 16º to 23º south. The Central Highlands include Ankaratra and the Andringitra Massif, which is home to Pic Boby (2,658 m), the Central Highlands' highest peak.[5]

The Northern Highlands includes the Tsaratanana Massif in the north, home to Maromokotro (2,876 m) Madagascar's highest peak, and the massifs of Marojejy to the northeast and Manongarivo to the northwest. It is separated from the Central Highlands by the Mandritsara Window, an east–west-running gap in the mountains with elevations below 800 meters.[5]

The Southern Highlands include the Anosyenne Mountains and adjacent uplands in the southern part of the island. It is separated from the Central Highlands by the Menaharaka Window, another gap below 800 meters elevation, at approximately 23°S latitude. The highest peak in the Southern Highlands is Pic d'Andohahela at 1,959 meters.[5]

The ecoregion includes some smaller outlying peaks, notably Montagne d'Ambre near the northern tip of Madagascar, the Makay Massif in west-central Madasgascar, and the Isalo and Analavelona massifs in the southwest of the island.[6]

The subhumid forests extend to the northwest coast in the Sambirano region, including the island of Nosy Be. Most of that area is now covered by secondary grasslands and agriculture, with forest reduced to fragmented patches. The Sambirano region, also known as the Sambirano Domain, is a particular centre of endemism.[6]

The ecoregion has an area of approximately 199,600 square kilometers (77,100 sq mi). The highlands catch the wet northeast trade winds, and the eastern slopes generally receive more rainfall. The ecoregion includes the headwaters of most of Madagascar's rivers, and wetlands like Lake Alaotra. Areas to the south, west, and north lie in the drier rain shadow of the highlands. The subhumid forests are bounded at lower elevations by the humid Madagascar lowland forests along the coastal strip to the east, by the Madagascar dry deciduous forests to the north and west, and by the sub-arid Madagascar succulent forests and Madagascar spiny thickets to the southwest and south. In four areas above 1,800–2,000 metres (5,900–6,600 ft) elevation, the subhumid forests transition to the montane Madagascar ericoid thickets.[6]

Montagne d'Ambre near the northern tip of the island, contains a significant pocket of subhumid forest, surrounded at lower elevations by dry deciduous forest, as do Ankaratra, upland near Tsaratanana, Andringitra Massif, Ambohitantely Reserve, and the Ambohijanahary area. The subhumid forests ecoregion also includes the disjunct Analavelona and Isalo massifs to the southwest, surrounded by succulent forests at lower elevations.[6]

Flora

The ecoregion is home to several distinct plant communities, which differ with elevation, rainfall, and soils. These include moist montane forest, sclerophyllous montane forest, tapia forest, rupicolous shrubland, and grassland.[7]

The original flora of ecoregion has been much altered by human use; extensive areas have been cleared for agriculture, grazing, and rice cultivation, and some exotic species such as Acacia and Eucalyptus have been introduced. Moist evergreen forests are less susceptible to fire than the sclerophyll forests and ericoid thickets. Frequent human-set fires have transformed some of the ecoregion's former forests into savannas and grasslands.[8] Grassland now coves much of the highlands, but the extent to which the grasslands are the result of human intervention is still subject to debate.[6]

Moist montane forest occurs between 600–800 and 1300 meters elevation, and occasionally as high as 1800 m in sheltered locales. The mature tree canopy is generally closed, and 20 to 25 meters high. Trees are typically evergreen, and species of Tambourissa, Pterophylla (aka Weinmannia), Symphonia, Dombeya, Dilobeia, Dalbergia, Canarium, Diospyros, Eugenia, Protorhus, Grewia, Brachylaena, Schefflera, Polyscias, and Vernonia are most common. The conifer Podocarpus madagascariensis is also present. Trees of the genus Ephippiandra are largely confined to moist montane forest and some higher-altitude plant communities. There is a plentiful understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants. Epiphytes grow in large numbers on the canopy trees, including mosses, lichens, ferns, orchids (particularly species of Bulbophyllum), and species of Medinilla, Kalanchoe, Rhipsalis, and Peperomia.[8][7]

Sclerophyllous montane forest is low sclerophyllous (hard-leaved) forests and open-canopied woodlands from 1300 to 2000 meters elevation, dominated by small-leaved trees. The canopy is generally no higher than 10 to 13 meters, and can resemble a thicket. Common canopy trees include Dicoryphe viticoides, Tina isoneura, Razafimandimbisonia minor, and Baronia taratana. Gymnosperms, including species of Podocarpus, and bamboo can form pure stands. The trees and the ground are covered in mosses and lichens.[8]

Tapia forest is found on the drier western slopes, which are in the rain shadow of the central uplands, between 600 and 1,600 meters elevation. Tapia (Uapaca bojeri) is a characteristic canopy tree, together with Leptolaena pauciflora, L. bojerana, and Sarcolaena oblongifolia. The trees have gnarled branches and small leaves, forming a mostly closed canopy 10 to 12 meters high which provides light shade on the forest floor. Other trees include Asteropeia densiflora, Agarista salicifolia, Weinmannia spp., Dodonaea madagascariensis, Faurea forficuliflora, Brachylaena microphylla, Dicoma incana, Baronia taratana, Abrahamia buxifolia, Neocussonia bojeri, Alberta spp., and Enterospermum spp. The understory is typically shrubs, including species of Erica, Vaccinium, Asteraceae (Senecio, Vernonia, Psiadia, Conyza, and Helichrysum), Rubiaceae, and Leguminosae. Tapia is fire-resistant, and where fires have been frequently set they form open woodlands or savannas with a grassy understory.[8][7]

Rupicolous shrubland grows on rock outcrops and sandstone and granite inselbergs. Vegetation grows in crevices and on thin mats of coarse soil, and is often sparse and rarely more than two meters high. Common plants include the sedge Coleochloa setifera, the shrub Myrothamnus moschata, and species of Euphorbia. The shrublands are home to many endemic species including succulents in the genera Aloe, Kalanchoe, and Pachypodium. Revivescent plants, which periodically dry out and then revive when rains return, include the moss-like Selaginella echinata and the ferns Pellaea, Actiniopteris, and Notholaena. [8][9]

Sambirano forests. The Sambirano region, also known as the Sambirano Domain, is a coastal region of northwestern Madagascar, lying west of the Tsaratanana and Manongarivo massifs. The region has higher rainfall than the rest of the west coast, and is home to distinctive forests. The Sambirano forests are predominantly evergreen, with some deciduous species characteristic of the dry forests to the north and south, which form a mature canopy 25 to 30 meters high. The Sambirano forests are home to several endemic species of plants and animals.[10] Lowland primary forest has been reduced to small patches.

Secondary grasslands cover broad areas of the highlands. They are typically species–poor. 'Tanety' grasslands are low, sparse grasslands between 1,200 and 1,500 meters elevation, where Aristida rufescens is the characteristic species. 'Tampoketsa' grasslands cover the plateaus north and northeast of Antananarivo, between 1,600 and 1,900 meters elevation. The Madagascar endemic grass Loudetia simplex subsp. stipoides is predominant, interspersed with small patches of remnant forest. Low grasslands have also replaced most of the former tapia forests on the western slopes, between 800 and 1,600 meters elevation.[7]

Above 2000 meters the sclerophyll forests transition to the high-elevation ericoid thickets, which are considered a distinct subalpine ecoregion.

Fauna

Endemic species include a number of birds, reptiles and mammals including the Alaotra gentle lemur (Hapalemur alaotrensis) and a number of shrews, tenrecs, and rodents. The subhumid forests were formerly home to the island's distinct megafauna, including giant lemurs, some of them larger than modern gorillas, the elephant birds (Aepyornithidae), and giant tortoises.[6]

The Sambirano mouse lemur (Microcebus sambiranensis), Sambirano woolly lemur (Avahi unicolor), and Sambirano fork-marked lemur (Phaner parienti) are endemic to the Sambirano region.

The ecoregion is home to several endemic and limited-range species of birds. The rufous-headed ground roller (Atelornis crossleyi), grey-crowned tetraka (Xanthomixis cinereiceps) and forest rock thrush (Monticola sharpei) are largely endemic to the ecoregion. The yellow-bellied sunbird-asity (Neodrepanis hypoxantha), Madagascar yellowbrow (Crossleyia xanthophrys), and cryptic warbler (Cryptosylvicola randrianasoloi) are native to the subhumid forests and to the higher-elevation ericoid thickets. The Madagascar serpent eagle (Eutriorchis astur), short-legged ground roller (Brachypteracias leptosomus), Madagascar red owl (Tyto soumagnei), and Pollen's vanga (Xenopirostris polleni) live in both the subhumid forests and the lowland moist forests. The brown emu-tail (Bradypterus brunneus) lives in the lowland and subhumid forests and the ericoid thickets.[11]

Lake Alaotra and its wetlands were once home to two endemic water birds, the Madagascar pochard (Aythya innotata) and Alaotra grebe (Tachybaptus rufolavatus). Both have disappeared from the lake. The Alaotra grebe is thought extinct, and the Madagascar pochard was thought extinct until a small population was sighted at Lake Matsaborimena.

Two dry forest species, Coquerel's coua (Coua coquereli) and Schlegel's asity (Philepitta schlegeli) also inhabit the humid forests of Sambirano.[11]

Threats and conservation

The central highlands are the most densely populated region of Madagascar, and includes the country's capital and largest city, Antananarivo. The highlands' population is growing.

Madagascar's high plateau forests have been altered by humans in most places. There has been extensive slash-and-burn activity by native peoples in the central highlands, eliminating most forest. Other impacts include land clearing for agriculture, overexploitation, introduced species, and pollution.[6]

7.68% of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Protected areas include:[1]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Madagascar subhumid forests. DOPA Explorer. Accessed 28 August 2022.
  2. ^ "Map of Ecoregions 2017". Resolve. Retrieved August 20, 2021.
  3. ^ "Madagascar subhumid forests". Digital Observatory for Protected Areas. Retrieved August 20, 2021.
  4. ^ "Madagascar subhumid forests". The Encyclopedia of Earth. Retrieved August 20, 2021.
  5. ^ a b c Everson, Kathryn M.; Jansa, Sharon A.; Goodman, Steven M.; Olson, Link E.. "Montane regions shape patterns of diversification in small mammals and reptiles from Madagascar’s moist evergreen forest". Journal of Biogeography, Oct 2020, Vol. 47 Issue 10, p2059-2072, 14p.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Crowley, H. (2004). "30 – Madagascar Subhumid Forests". In Burgess, N.; D'Amico Hales, J.; Underwood, E.; et al. (eds.). (PDF). World Wildlife Fund Ecoregion Assessments (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: Island Press. pp. 271–273. ISBN 978-1559633642. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-01.
  7. ^ a b c d White, Frank F. (1983). The vegetation of Africa: A descriptive memoir to accompany the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. UNESCO, 1983. ISBN 92-3-101955-4
  8. ^ a b c d e Collins, N. Mark; Harcourt, Caroline S., Sayer, Jeffrey, Whitmore, T. C. (1992). The Conservation Atlas of tropical forests: Africa. Macmillan, London, 1992. ISBN 0-333-57757-4
  9. ^ Burgess, Neil, Jennifer D’Amico Hales, Emma Underwood (2004). Terrestrial Ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A Conservation Assessment. Island Press, Washington DC.
  10. ^ Wilme, Lucien (1996). "Composition and Characteristics of Bird Communities in Madagascar". Biogéographie de Madagascar, 1996: 349-362.
  11. ^ a b BirdLife International (2022) Endemic Bird Areas factsheet: East Malagasy wet forests. Accessed 3 September 2022.

External links

  • "Madagascar subhumid forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.

February 17, 2023
madagascar, subhumid, forests, tropical, moist, broadleaf, forest, ecoregion, that, covers, most, central, highlands, island, madagascar, they, included, global, list, outstanding, ecoregions, most, original, habitats, have, been, lost, human, pressure, isalo,. The Madagascar subhumid forests are a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion that covers most of the Central Highlands of the island of Madagascar They are included in the WWF s Global 200 list of outstanding ecoregions Most of the original habitats have been lost due to human pressure 2 3 4 Madagascar subhumid forestsIsalo National ParkEcologyRealmAfrotropicalBiomeTropical moist broadleaf forestBordersMadagascar ericoid thickets Madagascar lowland forests Madagascar spiny forests Madagascar succulent woodlands Madagascar dry deciduous forestsAnimalsLac Alaotra bamboo lemur chameleonsGeographyArea199 600 km2 77 100 sq mi CountryMadagascarElevation600 1 800 metres 2 000 5 900 ft Coordinates18 56 S 47 31 E 18 933 S 47 517 E 18 933 47 517 Coordinates 18 56 S 47 31 E 18 933 S 47 517 E 18 933 47 517Climate typeTropical monsoon climate Am tropical savanna climate Aw humid subtropical climate Cwa ConservationConservation statusCritical endangeredGlobal 200includedProtected7 679 1 Contents 1 Geography 2 Flora 3 Fauna 4 Threats and conservation 5 See also 6 References 7 External linksGeography EditThe Madagascar subhumid forests ecoregion covers Madagascar s highlands which extend north and south along the length of the island above approximately 800 metres 2 600 ft elevation on the east and above 600 metres 2 000 ft meters elevation on the west The Central Highlands is the largest highland region on the island extending from approximately 16º to 23º south The Central Highlands include Ankaratra and the Andringitra Massif which is home to Pic Boby 2 658 m the Central Highlands highest peak 5 The Northern Highlands includes the Tsaratanana Massif in the north home to Maromokotro 2 876 m Madagascar s highest peak and the massifs of Marojejy to the northeast and Manongarivo to the northwest It is separated from the Central Highlands by the Mandritsara Window an east west running gap in the mountains with elevations below 800 meters 5 The Southern Highlands include the Anosyenne Mountains and adjacent uplands in the southern part of the island It is separated from the Central Highlands by the Menaharaka Window another gap below 800 meters elevation at approximately 23 S latitude The highest peak in the Southern Highlands is Pic d Andohahela at 1 959 meters 5 The ecoregion includes some smaller outlying peaks notably Montagne d Ambre near the northern tip of Madagascar the Makay Massif in west central Madasgascar and the Isalo and Analavelona massifs in the southwest of the island 6 The subhumid forests extend to the northwest coast in the Sambirano region including the island of Nosy Be Most of that area is now covered by secondary grasslands and agriculture with forest reduced to fragmented patches The Sambirano region also known as the Sambirano Domain is a particular centre of endemism 6 The ecoregion has an area of approximately 199 600 square kilometers 77 100 sq mi The highlands catch the wet northeast trade winds and the eastern slopes generally receive more rainfall The ecoregion includes the headwaters of most of Madagascar s rivers and wetlands like Lake Alaotra Areas to the south west and north lie in the drier rain shadow of the highlands The subhumid forests are bounded at lower elevations by the humid Madagascar lowland forests along the coastal strip to the east by the Madagascar dry deciduous forests to the north and west and by the sub arid Madagascar succulent forests and Madagascar spiny thickets to the southwest and south In four areas above 1 800 2 000 metres 5 900 6 600 ft elevation the subhumid forests transition to the montane Madagascar ericoid thickets 6 Montagne d Ambre near the northern tip of the island contains a significant pocket of subhumid forest surrounded at lower elevations by dry deciduous forest as do Ankaratra upland near Tsaratanana Andringitra Massif Ambohitantely Reserve and the Ambohijanahary area The subhumid forests ecoregion also includes the disjunct Analavelona and Isalo massifs to the southwest surrounded by succulent forests at lower elevations 6 Flora EditThe ecoregion is home to several distinct plant communities which differ with elevation rainfall and soils These include moist montane forest sclerophyllous montane forest tapia forest rupicolous shrubland and grassland 7 The original flora of ecoregion has been much altered by human use extensive areas have been cleared for agriculture grazing and rice cultivation and some exotic species such as Acacia and Eucalyptus have been introduced Moist evergreen forests are less susceptible to fire than the sclerophyll forests and ericoid thickets Frequent human set fires have transformed some of the ecoregion s former forests into savannas and grasslands 8 Grassland now coves much of the highlands but the extent to which the grasslands are the result of human intervention is still subject to debate 6 Moist montane forest occurs between 600 800 and 1300 meters elevation and occasionally as high as 1800 m in sheltered locales The mature tree canopy is generally closed and 20 to 25 meters high Trees are typically evergreen and species of Tambourissa Pterophylla aka Weinmannia Symphonia Dombeya Dilobeia Dalbergia Canarium Diospyros Eugenia Protorhus Grewia Brachylaena Schefflera Polyscias and Vernonia are most common The conifer Podocarpus madagascariensis is also present Trees of the genus Ephippiandra are largely confined to moist montane forest and some higher altitude plant communities There is a plentiful understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants Epiphytes grow in large numbers on the canopy trees including mosses lichens ferns orchids particularly species of Bulbophyllum and species of Medinilla Kalanchoe Rhipsalis and Peperomia 8 7 Sclerophyllous montane forest is low sclerophyllous hard leaved forests and open canopied woodlands from 1300 to 2000 meters elevation dominated by small leaved trees The canopy is generally no higher than 10 to 13 meters and can resemble a thicket Common canopy trees include Dicoryphe viticoides Tina isoneura Razafimandimbisonia minor and Baronia taratana Gymnosperms including species of Podocarpus and bamboo can form pure stands The trees and the ground are covered in mosses and lichens 8 Tapia forest is found on the drier western slopes which are in the rain shadow of the central uplands between 600 and 1 600 meters elevation Tapia Uapaca bojeri is a characteristic canopy tree together with Leptolaena pauciflora L bojerana and Sarcolaena oblongifolia The trees have gnarled branches and small leaves forming a mostly closed canopy 10 to 12 meters high which provides light shade on the forest floor Other trees include Asteropeia densiflora Agarista salicifolia Weinmannia spp Dodonaea madagascariensis Faurea forficuliflora Brachylaena microphylla Dicoma incana Baronia taratana Abrahamia buxifolia Neocussonia bojeri Alberta spp and Enterospermum spp The understory is typically shrubs including species of Erica Vaccinium Asteraceae Senecio Vernonia Psiadia Conyza and Helichrysum Rubiaceae and Leguminosae Tapia is fire resistant and where fires have been frequently set they form open woodlands or savannas with a grassy understory 8 7 Rupicolous shrubland grows on rock outcrops and sandstone and granite inselbergs Vegetation grows in crevices and on thin mats of coarse soil and is often sparse and rarely more than two meters high Common plants include the sedge Coleochloa setifera the shrub Myrothamnus moschata and species of Euphorbia The shrublands are home to many endemic species including succulents in the genera Aloe Kalanchoe and Pachypodium Revivescent plants which periodically dry out and then revive when rains return include the moss like Selaginella echinata and the ferns Pellaea Actiniopteris and Notholaena 8 9 Sambirano forests The Sambirano region also known as the Sambirano Domain is a coastal region of northwestern Madagascar lying west of the Tsaratanana and Manongarivo massifs The region has higher rainfall than the rest of the west coast and is home to distinctive forests The Sambirano forests are predominantly evergreen with some deciduous species characteristic of the dry forests to the north and south which form a mature canopy 25 to 30 meters high The Sambirano forests are home to several endemic species of plants and animals 10 Lowland primary forest has been reduced to small patches Secondary grasslands cover broad areas of the highlands They are typically species poor Tanety grasslands are low sparse grasslands between 1 200 and 1 500 meters elevation where Aristida rufescens is the characteristic species Tampoketsa grasslands cover the plateaus north and northeast of Antananarivo between 1 600 and 1 900 meters elevation The Madagascar endemic grass Loudetia simplex subsp stipoides is predominant interspersed with small patches of remnant forest Low grasslands have also replaced most of the former tapia forests on the western slopes between 800 and 1 600 meters elevation 7 Above 2000 meters the sclerophyll forests transition to the high elevation ericoid thickets which are considered a distinct subalpine ecoregion Fauna EditEndemic species include a number of birds reptiles and mammals including the Alaotra gentle lemur Hapalemur alaotrensis and a number of shrews tenrecs and rodents The subhumid forests were formerly home to the island s distinct megafauna including giant lemurs some of them larger than modern gorillas the elephant birds Aepyornithidae and giant tortoises 6 The Sambirano mouse lemur Microcebus sambiranensis Sambirano woolly lemur Avahi unicolor and Sambirano fork marked lemur Phaner parienti are endemic to the Sambirano region The ecoregion is home to several endemic and limited range species of birds The rufous headed ground roller Atelornis crossleyi grey crowned tetraka Xanthomixis cinereiceps and forest rock thrush Monticola sharpei are largely endemic to the ecoregion The yellow bellied sunbird asity Neodrepanis hypoxantha Madagascar yellowbrow Crossleyia xanthophrys and cryptic warbler Cryptosylvicola randrianasoloi are native to the subhumid forests and to the higher elevation ericoid thickets The Madagascar serpent eagle Eutriorchis astur short legged ground roller Brachypteracias leptosomus Madagascar red owl Tyto soumagnei and Pollen s vanga Xenopirostris polleni live in both the subhumid forests and the lowland moist forests The brown emu tail Bradypterus brunneus lives in the lowland and subhumid forests and the ericoid thickets 11 Lake Alaotra and its wetlands were once home to two endemic water birds the Madagascar pochard Aythya innotata and Alaotra grebe Tachybaptus rufolavatus Both have disappeared from the lake The Alaotra grebe is thought extinct and the Madagascar pochard was thought extinct until a small population was sighted at Lake Matsaborimena Two dry forest species Coquerel s coua Coua coquereli and Schlegel s asity Philepitta schlegeli also inhabit the humid forests of Sambirano 11 Threats and conservation EditThe central highlands are the most densely populated region of Madagascar and includes the country s capital and largest city Antananarivo The highlands population is growing Madagascar s high plateau forests have been altered by humans in most places There has been extensive slash and burn activity by native peoples in the central highlands eliminating most forest Other impacts include land clearing for agriculture overexploitation introduced species and pollution 6 7 68 of the ecoregion is in protected areas Protected areas include 1 Marojejy National Park Isalo National Park Ranomafana National Park Andohahela National Park Andringitra National Park Lokobe National Park Montagne d Ambre National Park Befotaka Midongy National Park Tsaratanana Strict Nature Reserve Ambatovaky Special Reserve Ambohijanahary Special Reserve Ambohitantely Special Reserve Analamerana Special Reserve Anjanaharibe sud Special Reserve Ankarana Special Reserve Ivohibe Special Reserve Kalambatrika Special Reserve Manongarivo Special Reserve Tampoketsa Analamaitso Special ReserveSee also EditEcoregions of MadagascarReferences Edit a b Madagascar subhumid forests DOPA Explorer Accessed 28 August 2022 Map of Ecoregions 2017 Resolve Retrieved August 20 2021 Madagascar subhumid forests Digital Observatory for Protected Areas Retrieved August 20 2021 Madagascar subhumid forests The Encyclopedia of Earth Retrieved August 20 2021 a b c Everson Kathryn M Jansa Sharon A Goodman Steven M Olson Link E Montane regions shape patterns of diversification in small mammals and reptiles from Madagascar s moist evergreen forest Journal of Biogeography Oct 2020 Vol 47 Issue 10 p2059 2072 14p a b c d e f g Crowley H 2004 30 Madagascar Subhumid Forests In Burgess N D Amico Hales J Underwood E et al eds Terrestrial Ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar A Conservation Assessment PDF World Wildlife Fund Ecoregion Assessments 2nd ed Washington D C Island Press pp 271 273 ISBN 978 1559633642 Archived from the original PDF on 2016 11 01 a b c d White Frank F 1983 The vegetation of Africa A descriptive memoir to accompany the Unesco AETFAT UNSO vegetation map of Africa UNESCO 1983 ISBN 92 3 101955 4 a b c d e Collins N Mark Harcourt Caroline S Sayer Jeffrey Whitmore T C 1992 The Conservation Atlas of tropical forests Africa Macmillan London 1992 ISBN 0 333 57757 4 Burgess Neil Jennifer D Amico Hales Emma Underwood 2004 Terrestrial Ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar A Conservation Assessment Island Press Washington DC Wilme Lucien 1996 Composition and Characteristics of Bird Communities in Madagascar Biogeographie de Madagascar 1996 349 362 a b BirdLife International 2022 Endemic Bird Areas factsheet East Malagasy wet forests Accessed 3 September 2022 External links Edit Madagascar subhumid forests Terrestrial Ecoregions World Wildlife Fund Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Madagascar subhumid forests amp oldid 1123233337, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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