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Wikipedia

Mackerel

January 09, 2023

This article is about the species of fish. For its use as food, see Mackerel as food.
For other uses, see Mackerel (disambiguation).

Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of pelagic fish, mostly from the family Scombridae. They are found in both temperate and tropical seas, mostly living along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment.

Mackerel
Some species of mackerel migrate in schools for long distances along the coast and other species cross oceans
Global commercial capture of mackerel in tonnes
reported by the FAO 1950–2009[1]

Mackerel species typically have deeply forked tails and vertical 'tiger-like' stripes on their backs with an iridescent green-blue quality.[2][3] Many are restricted in their distribution ranges and live in separate populations or fish stocks based on geography. Some stocks migrate in large schools along the coast to suitable spawning grounds, where they spawn in fairly shallow waters. After spawning they return the way they came in smaller schools to suitable feeding grounds, often near an area of upwelling. From there they may move offshore into deeper waters and spend the winter in relative inactivity. Other stocks migrate across oceans.

Smaller mackerel are forage fish for larger predators, including larger mackerel and Atlantic cod.[4] Flocks of seabirds, whales, dolphins, sharks, and schools of larger fish such as tuna and marlin follow mackerel schools and attack them in sophisticated and cooperative ways. Mackerel flesh is high in omega-3 oils and is intensively harvested by humans. In 2009, over 5 million tons were landed by commercial fishermen.[1] Sport fishermen value the fighting abilities of the king mackerel.[5]

Species

Over 30 different species, principally belonging to the family Scombridae, are commonly referred to as mackerel. The term "mackerel" is derived from Old French and may have originally meant either "marked, spotted" or "pimp, procurer". The latter connection is not altogether clear, but mackerel spawn enthusiastically in shoals near the coast, and medieval ideas on animal procreation were creative.[6]

Scombroid mackerels

About 21 species in the family Scombridae are commonly called mackerel. The type species for the scombroid mackerel is the Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus. Until recently, Atlantic chub mackerel and Indo-Pacific chub mackerel were thought to be subspecies of the same species. In 1999, Collette established, on molecular and morphological considerations, that these are separate species.[7] Mackerel are smaller with shorter lifecycles than their close relatives, the tuna, which are also members of the same family.[8][9]

Scombrini, the true mackerels

The true mackerels belong to the tribe Scombrini.[10] The tribe consists of seven species, each belonging to one of two genera: Scomber or Rastrelliger.[11][12]

True Mackerels (tribe Scombrini)
Common name Scientific name Maximum
length 		Common
length 		Maximum
weight 		Maximum
age 		Trophic
level 		FishBase FAO IUCN status
Short mackerel Rastrelliger brachysoma
(Bleeker, 1851) 		34.5 cm (13.6 in) 20 cm (7.9 in) 2.72 [13] [14]   Data deficient[15]
Island mackerel R. faughni
(Matsui, 1967) 		20 cm (7.9 in) 0.75 kg (1.7 lb) 3.4 [16]   Data deficient[17]
Indian mackerel R. kanagurta
(Cuvier, 1816) 		35 cm (14 in) 25 cm (9.8 in) 4 years 3.19 [18] [19]   Data deficient[20]
Blue mackerel Scomber australasicus
(Cuvier, 1832) 		44 cm (17 in) 30 cm (12 in) 1.36 kg (3.0 lb) 4.2 [21]   Least concern[22]
Atlantic chub mackerel S. colias
(Gmelin, 1789) 		3.91 [23]   Least concern[24]
Chub mackerel S. japonicus
(Houttuyn, 1782) 		64 cm (25 in) 30 cm (12 in) 2.9 kg (6.4 lb) 18 years 3.09 [25] [26]   Least concern[27]
Atlantic mackerel S. scombrus
(Linnaeus, 1758) 		66 cm (26 in) 30 cm (12 in) 3.4 kg (7.5 lb) 12 years west
18 years east 		3.65 [28] [29]   Least concern[7]

Scomberomorini, the Spanish mackerels

The Spanish mackerels belong to the tribe Scomberomorini, which is the "cousin tribe" of the true mackerels.[30] This tribe consists of 21 species in all—18 of those are classified into the genus Scomberomorus,[31] two into Grammatorcynus,[32] and a single species into the monotypic genus Acanthocybium.[33]

Spanish Mackerels (tribe Scomberomorini)
Common name Scientific name Maximum
length 		Common
length 		Maximum
weight 		Maximum
age 		Trophic
level 		FishBase FAO IUCN status
Wahoo Acanthocybium solandri
(Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1832) 		250 cm 170 cm 83 kg years 4.4 [34]   Least concern[35]
Shark mackerel Grammatorcynus bicarinatus
(Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 		112 cm cm 13.5 kg years 4.5 [36]   Least concern[37]
Double-lined mackerel G. bilineatus
(Rüppell, 1836) 		100 cm 50 cm 3.5 kg years 4.18 [38]   Least concern[39]
Serra Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus brasiliensis
(Collette, Russo & Zavala-Camin, 1978) 		cm cm kg years 3.31 [40]   Least concern[41]
King mackerel S. cavalla
(Cuvier, 1829) 		184 cm 70 cm 45 kg 14 years 4.5 [42] [43]   Least concern[44]
Narrow-barred Spanish mackerel S. commerson
(Lacepède, 1800) 		240 cm 120 cm kg years 4.5 [45] [46]   Near threatened[47]
Monterey Spanish mackerel S. concolor
(Lockington, 1879) 		cm cm kg years 4.24 [48]   Vulnerable[49]
Indo-Pacific king mackerel S. guttatus
(Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 		76 cm 55 cm kg years 4.28 [50] [51]   Data deficient[52]
Korean mackerel S. koreanus
(Kishinouye, 1915) 		150 cm 60 cm 15 kg years 4.2 [53]   Least concern[54]
Streaked Spanish mackerel S. lineolatus
(Cuvier, 1829) 		80 cm 70 cm kg years 4.5 [55]   Least concern[56]
Atlantic Spanish mackerel S. maculatus
(Mitchill, 1815) 		91 cm cm 5.89 kg 5 years 4.5 [57] [58]   Least concern[59]
Papuan Spanish mackerel S. multiradiatus
Munro, 1964 		35 cm cm 0.5 kg years 4.0 [60]   Least concern[61]
Australian spotted mackerel S. munroi
(Collette & Russo, 1980) 		104 cm cm 10.2 kg years 4.3 [62]   Near threatened[63]
Japanese Spanish mackerel S. niphonius
(Cuvier, 1832) 		100 cm cm 7.1 kg years 4.5 [64] [65]   Data deficient[66]
Queen mackerel S. plurilineatus
Fourmanoir, 1966 		120 cm  cm 12.5 kg years 4.2 [67]   Data deficient[68]
Queensland school mackerel S. queenslandicus
(Munro, 1943) 		100 cm 80 cm 12.2 kg years 4.5 [69]   Least concern[70]
Cero mackerel S. regalis
(Bloch, 1793) 		183 cm  cm 7.8 kg years 4.5 [71]   Least concern[72]
Broadbarred king mackerel S. semifasciatus
(Macleay, 1883) 		120 cm cm kg 10 years 4.5 [73]   Least concern[74]
Pacific sierra S. sierra
(Cuvier, 1832) 		99 cm 60 cm 8.2 kg years 4.5 [75]   Least concern[76]
Chinese mackerel S. sinensis
(Cuvier, 1832) 		247 cm 100 cm kg years 4.5 [77]   Data deficient[76]
West African Spanish mackerel S. tritor
(Cuvier, 1832) 		cm cm kg years 4.26 [78]   Least concern[76]

Other mackerel

In addition, a number of species with mackerel-like characteristics in the families Carangidae, Hexagrammidae and Gempylidae are commonly referred to as mackerel. Some confusion had occurred between the Pacific jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus) and the heavily harvested Chilean jack mackerel (T. murphyi). These have been thought at times to be the same species, but are now recognised as separate species.[79]

Other mackerel species
Family Common name Scientific name Maximum
length 		Common
length 		Maximum
weight 		Maximum
age 		Trophic
level 		FishBase FAO IUCN status
Scombridae
Gasterochisma 		Butterfly mackerel Gasterochisma melampus Richardson, 1845 175 cm 153 cm  kg years 4.4 [80]   Least concern[81]
Carangidae
Jack mackerel 		Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus (Linnaeus, 1758) 70 cm 22 cm 2.0 kg years 3.64 [82] [83] Not assessed
Blue jack mackerel T. picturatus (Bowdich, 1825) 60 cm 25 cm kg years 3.32 [84]   Data deficient[85]
Cape horse mackerel T. capensis (Castelnau, 1861) 60 cm 30 cm kg years 3.47 [86] [87] Not assessed[88]
Chilean jack mackerel T. murphyi (Nichols, 1920) 70 cm 45 cm kg 16 years 3.49 [89] [90]   Data deficient[85]
Cunene horse mackerel T. trecae (Cadenat, 1950) 35 cm cm 2.0 kg years 3.49 [91] [92] Not assessed
Greenback horse mackerel T. declivis (Jenyns, 1841) 64 cm 42 cm kg 25 years 3.93 [93] [94] Not assessed[95]
Japanese horse mackerel T. japonicus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844) 50 cm 35 cm 0.66 kg 12 years 3.4 [96] [97] Not assessed
Mediterranean horse mackerel T. mediterraneus (Steindachner, 1868) 60 cm 30 cm kg years 3.59 [98] [99] Not assessed
Pacific jack mackerel T. symmetricus (Ayres, 1855) 81 cm 55 cm kg 30 years 3.56 [100]   Least concern[101]
Yellowtail horse mackerel T. novaezelandiae (Richardson, 1843) 50 cm 35 cm kg 25 years 4.5 [102] Not assessed
Gempylidae
Snake mackerel 		Black snake mackerel Nealotus tripes (Johnson, 1865) 25 cm 15 cm kg years 4.2 [103] Not assessed
Blacksail snake mackerel Thyrsitoides marleyi (Fowler, 1929) 200 cm 100 cm kg years 4.19 [104] Not assessed
Snake mackerel Gempylus serpens (Cuvier, 1829) 100 cm 60 cm kg years 4.35 [105] Not assessed
Violet snake mackerel Nesiarchus nasutus (Johnson, 1862) 130 cm 80 cm kg years 4.33 [106] Not assessed
* White snake mackerel Thyrsitops lepidopoides (Cuvier, 1832) 40 cm 25 cm kg years 3.86 [107] Not assessed
Hexagrammidae Okhotsk atka mackerel Pleurogrammus azonus (Jordan & Metz, 1913) 62 cm cm 1.6 kg 12 years 3.58 [108] [109] Not assessed
Atka mackerel P. monopterygius (Pallas, 1810) 56.5 cm cm 2.0 kg 14 years 3.33 [110] Not assessed
 
Still life with mackerel, lemon and tomato, Van Gogh, 1886

The term "mackerel" is also used as a modifier in the common names of other fish, sometimes indicating the fish has vertical stripes similar to a scombroid mackerel:

By extension, the term is applied also to other species such as the mackerel tabby cat,[111] and to inanimate objects such as the altocumulus mackerel sky cloud formation.[112][113]

Characteristics

 
Like other scombroids, mackerel such as this Atlantic mackerel are superb swimmers, and can retract their fins into grooves on their bodies for streamlining. They have deeply forked tails and are smaller and slimmer than tuna.[114][115]

Most mackerel belong to the family Scombridae, which also includes tuna and bonito. Generally, mackerel are much smaller and slimmer than tuna, though in other respects, they share many common characteristics. Their scales, if present at all, are extremely small. Like tuna and bonito, mackerel are voracious feeders, and are swift and manoeuvrable swimmers, able to streamline themselves by retracting their fins into grooves on their bodies. Like other scombroids, their bodies are cylindrical with numerous finlets on the dorsal and ventral sides behind the dorsal and anal fins, but unlike the deep-bodied tuna, they are slim.[114]

The type species for scombroid mackerels is the Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus. These fish are iridescent blue-green above with a silvery underbelly and near-vertical wavy black stripes running along their upper bodies.[28][116][failed verification]

The prominent stripes on the back of mackerels seemingly are there to provide camouflage against broken backgrounds. That is not the case, though, because mackerel live in midwater pelagic environments which have no background.[117] However, fish have an optokinetic reflex in their visual systems that can be sensitive to moving stripes.[118] For fish to school efficiently, they need feedback mechanisms that help them align themselves with adjacent fish, and match their speed. The stripes on neighbouring fish provide "schooling marks", which signal changes in relative position.[117][119]

 
Mackerel, such as these Pacific jack mackerel, usually have vertical stripes on their sides which provide "schooling marks", visual clues that help them stay in formation as they school.[117]

A layer of thin, reflecting platelets is seen on some of the mackerel stripes. In 1998, E J Denton and D M Rowe argued that these platelets transmit additional information to other fish about how a given fish moves. As the orientation of the fish changes relative to another fish, the amount of light reflected to the second fish by this layer also changes. This sensitivity to orientation gives the mackerel "considerable advantages in being able to react quickly while schooling and feeding."[120]

Mackerel range in size from small forage fish to larger game fish. Coastal mackerel tend to be small.[121] The king mackerel is an example of a larger mackerel. Most fish are cold-blooded, but exceptions exist. Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures. Endothermic bony fishes are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the butterfly mackerel, a species of primitive mackerel.[122]

Mackerel are strong swimmers. Known in the latin family as "punctualis piscis" which translates to "punctual fish." This is due to its punctuality of migration during mating season as it moves from warm to cold waters. Atlantic mackerel can swim at a sustained speed of 0.98 m/sec with a burst speed of 5.5 m/sec,[123][124] while chub mackerel can swim at a sustained speed of 0.92 m/sec with a burst speed of 2.25 m/sec.[114]

Distribution

 
King mackerels cruise on long migrations at 10 kilometres per hour.[125][126]

Most mackerel species have restricted distribution ranges.[114]

  • Atlantic Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) occupy the waters off the east coast of North America from the Cape Cod area south to the Yucatan Peninsula. Its population is considered to include two fish stocks, defined by geography. As summer approaches, one stock moves in large schools north from Florida up the coast to spawn in shallow waters off the New England coast. It then returns to winter in deeper waters off Florida. The other stock migrates in large schools along the coast from Mexico to spawn in shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico off Texas. It then returns to winter in deeper waters off the Mexican coast.[58] These stocks are managed separately, even though genetically they are identical.[59]
  • The Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) is a coastal species found only in the north Atlantic. The stock on the west side of the Atlantic is largely independent of the stock on the east side. The stock on the east Atlantic currently operates as three separate stocks, the southern, western and North Sea stocks, each with their own migration patterns. Some mixing of the east Atlantic stocks takes place in feeding grounds towards the north, but there is almost no mixing between the east and west Atlantic stocks.[7][127][128][129][130]
  • Another common coastal species, the chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus), is absent from the Atlantic Ocean but is widespread across both hemispheres in the Pacific, where its migration patterns are somewhat similar to those of Atlantic mackerel. In the northern hemisphere, chub mackerel migrate northwards in the summer to feeding grounds, and southwards in the winter when they spawn in relatively shallow waters. In the southern hemisphere the migrations are reversed. After spawning, some stocks migrate down the continental slope to deeper water and spend the rest of the winter in relative inactivity.[25]
  • The Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi), the most intensively harvested mackerel-like species, is found in the south Pacific from West Australia to the coasts of Chile and Peru.[89] A cousin species, the Pacific jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus), is found in the north Pacific. The Chilean jack mackerel occurs along the coasts in upwelling areas, but also migrates across the open ocean. Its abundance can fluctuate markedly as ocean conditions change,[85] and is particularly affected by the El Niño.

Three species of jack mackerels are found in coastal waters around New Zealand: the Australasian, Chilean, and Pacific jack mackerels. They are mainly captured using purse seine nets, and are managed as a single stock that includes multiple species.[131]

Some mackerel species migrate vertically. Adult snake mackerel conduct a diel vertical migration, staying in deeper water during the day and rising to the surface at night to feed. The young and juveniles also migrate vertically, but in the opposite direction, staying near the surface during the day and moving deeper at night.[132] This species feeds on squid, pelagic crustaceans, lanternfishes, flying fishes, sauries, and other mackerel.[133] It is, in turn, preyed upon by tuna and marlin.[134]

Lifecycle

 
Gannets and other seabirds fuel themselves with mackerel

Mackerel are prolific broadcast spawners, and must breed near the surface of the water because the eggs of the females float. Individual females lay between 300,000 and 1,500,000 eggs.[114] Their eggs and larvae are pelagic, that is, they float free in the open sea. The larvae and juvenile mackerel feed on zooplankton. As adults, they have sharp teeth, and hunt small crustaceans such as copepods, forage fish, shrimp, and squid. In turn, they are hunted by larger pelagic animals such as tuna, billfish, sea lions, sharks, and pelicans.[26][43][135]

Off Madagascar, spinner sharks follow migrating schools of mackerel.[136] Bryde's whales feed on mackerel when they can find them. They use several feeding methods, including skimming the surface, lunging, and bubble nets.[137]

Fisheries

Global capture of mackerel in tonnes reported by the FAO 1950–2009
 
↑  Scombroid mackerels[1]
 
↑  Non-scombroid mackerels[1]
Main commercial species
 
The chub mackerel is the most intensively fished mackerel in the scombroid family.
 
Chilean jack mackerel have been overfished and the population may be in danger of collapsing. Here an entire school of about 400 tons is encircled by a purse seiner.

Chub mackerel, Scomber japonicus, are the most intensively fished scombroid mackerel. They account for about half the total capture production of scombroid mackerels.[1] As a species, they are easily confused with Atlantic mackerel. Chub mackerel migrate long distances in oceans and across the Mediterranean. They can be caught with drift nets and suitable trawls, but are most usually caught with surround nets at night by attracting them with lampara lamps.[138]

The remaining catch of scombroid mackerels is divided equally between the Atlantic mackerel and all other scombroid mackerels. Just these two species (Chub mackerel and Atlantic mackerel) account for about 75% of the total catch of scombroid mackerels.[1]

Chilean jack mackerel are the most commonly fished nonscombroid mackerel, fished as heavily as chub mackerel.[1][90] The species has been overfished, and its fishery may now be in danger of collapsing.[139][140]

Smaller mackerel behave like herrings, and are captured in similar ways.[141] Fish species like these, which school near the surface, can be caught efficiently by purse seining. Huge purse-seine vessels use spotter planes to locate the schooling fish. Then they close in using sophisticated sonar to track the shape of the school, which is then encircled with fast auxiliary boats that deploy purse seines as they speed around the school.[142][143]

Suitably designed trollers can also catch mackerels effectively when they swim near the surface. Trollers typically have several long booms which they lift and drop with "topping lifts". They haul their lines with electric or hydraulic reels.[144] Fish aggregating devices are also used to target mackerel.[145]

Management

The North Sea has been overfished to the point where the ecological balance has become disrupted and many jobs in the fishing industry have been lost.[146]

The Southeast US region spans the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the US Southeast Atlantic. Overfishing of king and Spanish mackerel occurred in the 1980s. Regulations were introduced to restrict the size, fishing locations, and bag limits for recreational fishers and commercial fishers. Gillnets were banned in waters off Florida. By 2001, the mackerel stocks had bounced back.[147]

As food

 
Atlantic mackerel on ice at a fish store
Main article: Mackerel as food

Mackerel is an important food fish that is consumed worldwide.[148] As an oily fish, it is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids.[149] The flesh of mackerel spoils quickly, especially in the tropics, and can cause scombroid food poisoning. Accordingly, it should be eaten on the day of capture, unless properly refrigerated or cured.[150]

Mackerel preservation is not simple. Before the 19th-century development of canning and the widespread availability of refrigeration, salting and smoking were the principal preservation methods available.[151] Historically in England, this fish was not preserved, but was consumed only in its fresh form. However, spoilage was common, leading the authors of The Cambridge Economic History of Europe to remark: "There are more references to stinking mackerel in English literature than to any other fish!"[141] In France, mackerel was traditionally pickled with large amounts of salt, which allowed it to be sold widely across the country.[141]

For many years mackerel was regarded as 'unclean' in the UK and other places due to folklore which suggested that the fish fed on the corpses of dead sailors.[152] A 1976 survey of housewives in Britain undertaken by the White Fish Authority indicated a reluctance to departing from buying the traditional staples of cod, haddock or salmon. Less than 10% of the survey's 1,931 respondents had ever bought mackerel and only 3% did so regularly. As a result of this trend many UK fishmongers during the 1970s did not display or even stock mackerel.[152]

References

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Further reading

  • Ahlstrom, EH (1956). "Eggs and larvae of anchovy, jack mackerel, and Pacific mackerel" (PDF). CalCOFI Reports. 5: 33–42.
  • Bertrand, A; Barbieri, MA; Gerlotto, F; Leiva, F; Cordova, J (2006). "Determinism and plasticity of fish schooling behaviour as exemplified by the South Pacific jack mackerel Trachurus murphyi" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 311: 145–156. Bibcode:2006MEPS..311..145B. doi:10.3354/meps311145. (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2019.
  • Bigelow HB and Schroeder WC (1953) Fishes of the Gulf of Maine: Mackerel Fisheries Bulletin, Volume 53, Number 74, United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
  • Burton M and Burton R (2002) International Wildlife Encyclopedia Marshall Cavendish, pp. 1517–1518. ISBN 978-0-7614-7266-7.
  • Hays, GC (1996). "Large-scale patterns of diel vertical migration in the North Atlantic" (PDF). Deep-Sea Research Part I. 43 (10): 1601–1615. Bibcode:1996DSRI...43.1601H. doi:10.1016/s0967-0637(96)00078-7.
  • Keay JN (2001) Handling and processing mackerel Torry advisory note 66.
  • Masuda, R; Shoji, J; Nakatama Sand, Tanaka T (2003). "Development of schooling behavior in Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus niphonius during early ontogeny" (PDF). Fisheries Science. 69 (4): 772–776. doi:10.1046/j.1444-2906.2003.00685.x.
  • Nakayama, S; Masuda, R; Tanaka, M (2007). "Onsets of schooling behavior and social transmission in chub mackerel Scomber japonicus" (PDF). Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 61 (9): 1383–1390. doi:10.1007/s00265-007-0368-4. S2CID 56667.
  • Nakayama, A; Masuda, R; Shoji, J; Takeuchi, T; Tanaka, M (2003). "Effect of prey items on the development of schooling behavior in chub mackerel Scomber japonicus in the laboratory" (PDF). Fisheries Science. 69 (4): 670–676. doi:10.1046/j.1444-2906.2003.00673.x.
  • Nakayama, S; Masuda, R; Tanaka, M (2007). "Onsets of schooling behavior and social transmission in chub mackerel Scomber japonicus". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 61 (9): 1383–1390. doi:10.1007/s00265-007-0368-4. JSTOR 27823518. S2CID 56667.
  • SPRFMO(2009) Working draft.

External links

 
Look up mackerel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • Atlantic Mackerel British Marine Life Study Society. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
  • Mackerel nutrition facts
  • "Mackerel" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.

January 09, 2023
mackerel, this, article, about, species, fish, food, food, other, uses, disambiguation, common, name, applied, number, different, species, pelagic, fish, mostly, from, family, scombridae, they, found, both, temperate, tropical, seas, mostly, living, along, coa. This article is about the species of fish For its use as food see Mackerel as food For other uses see Mackerel disambiguation Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of pelagic fish mostly from the family Scombridae They are found in both temperate and tropical seas mostly living along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment MackerelSome species of mackerel migrate in schools for long distances along the coast and other species cross oceansGlobal commercial capture of mackerel in tonnesreported by the FAO 1950 2009 1 Mackerel species typically have deeply forked tails and vertical tiger like stripes on their backs with an iridescent green blue quality 2 3 Many are restricted in their distribution ranges and live in separate populations or fish stocks based on geography Some stocks migrate in large schools along the coast to suitable spawning grounds where they spawn in fairly shallow waters After spawning they return the way they came in smaller schools to suitable feeding grounds often near an area of upwelling From there they may move offshore into deeper waters and spend the winter in relative inactivity Other stocks migrate across oceans Smaller mackerel are forage fish for larger predators including larger mackerel and Atlantic cod 4 Flocks of seabirds whales dolphins sharks and schools of larger fish such as tuna and marlin follow mackerel schools and attack them in sophisticated and cooperative ways Mackerel flesh is high in omega 3 oils and is intensively harvested by humans In 2009 over 5 million tons were landed by commercial fishermen 1 Sport fishermen value the fighting abilities of the king mackerel 5 Contents 1 Species 1 1 Scombroid mackerels 1 1 1 Scombrini the true mackerels 1 1 2 Scomberomorini the Spanish mackerels 1 2 Other mackerel 2 Characteristics 3 Distribution 4 Lifecycle 5 Fisheries 6 Management 7 As food 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksSpecies EditOver 30 different species principally belonging to the family Scombridae are commonly referred to as mackerel The term mackerel is derived from Old French and may have originally meant either marked spotted or pimp procurer The latter connection is not altogether clear but mackerel spawn enthusiastically in shoals near the coast and medieval ideas on animal procreation were creative 6 Scombroid mackerels Edit About 21 species in the family Scombridae are commonly called mackerel The type species for the scombroid mackerel is the Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus Until recently Atlantic chub mackerel and Indo Pacific chub mackerel were thought to be subspecies of the same species In 1999 Collette established on molecular and morphological considerations that these are separate species 7 Mackerel are smaller with shorter lifecycles than their close relatives the tuna which are also members of the same family 8 9 Scombrini the true mackerels Edit The true mackerels belong to the tribe Scombrini 10 The tribe consists of seven species each belonging to one of two genera Scomber or Rastrelliger 11 12 True Mackerels tribe Scombrini Common name Scientific name Maximumlength Commonlength Maximumweight Maximumage Trophiclevel FishBase FAO IUCN statusShort mackerel Rastrelliger brachysoma Bleeker 1851 34 5 cm 13 6 in 20 cm 7 9 in 2 72 13 14 Data deficient 15 Island mackerel R faughni Matsui 1967 20 cm 7 9 in 0 75 kg 1 7 lb 3 4 16 Data deficient 17 Indian mackerel R kanagurta Cuvier 1816 35 cm 14 in 25 cm 9 8 in 4 years 3 19 18 19 Data deficient 20 Blue mackerel Scomber australasicus Cuvier 1832 44 cm 17 in 30 cm 12 in 1 36 kg 3 0 lb 4 2 21 Least concern 22 Atlantic chub mackerel S colias Gmelin 1789 3 91 23 Least concern 24 Chub mackerel S japonicus Houttuyn 1782 64 cm 25 in 30 cm 12 in 2 9 kg 6 4 lb 18 years 3 09 25 26 Least concern 27 Atlantic mackerel S scombrus Linnaeus 1758 66 cm 26 in 30 cm 12 in 3 4 kg 7 5 lb 12 years west18 years east 3 65 28 29 Least concern 7 Scomberomorini the Spanish mackerels Edit The Spanish mackerels belong to the tribe Scomberomorini which is the cousin tribe of the true mackerels 30 This tribe consists of 21 species in all 18 of those are classified into the genus Scomberomorus 31 two into Grammatorcynus 32 and a single species into the monotypic genus Acanthocybium 33 Spanish Mackerels tribe Scomberomorini Common name Scientific name Maximumlength Commonlength Maximumweight Maximumage Trophiclevel FishBase FAO IUCN statusWahoo Acanthocybium solandri Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes 1832 250 cm 170 cm 83 kg years 4 4 34 Least concern 35 Shark mackerel Grammatorcynus bicarinatus Quoy amp Gaimard 1825 112 cm cm 13 5 kg years 4 5 36 Least concern 37 Double lined mackerel G bilineatus Ruppell 1836 100 cm 50 cm 3 5 kg years 4 18 38 Least concern 39 Serra Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus brasiliensis Collette Russo amp Zavala Camin 1978 cm cm kg years 3 31 40 Least concern 41 King mackerel S cavalla Cuvier 1829 184 cm 70 cm 45 kg 14 years 4 5 42 43 Least concern 44 Narrow barred Spanish mackerel S commerson Lacepede 1800 240 cm 120 cm kg years 4 5 45 46 Near threatened 47 Monterey Spanish mackerel S concolor Lockington 1879 cm cm kg years 4 24 48 Vulnerable 49 Indo Pacific king mackerel S guttatus Bloch amp Schneider 1801 76 cm 55 cm kg years 4 28 50 51 Data deficient 52 Korean mackerel S koreanus Kishinouye 1915 150 cm 60 cm 15 kg years 4 2 53 Least concern 54 Streaked Spanish mackerel S lineolatus Cuvier 1829 80 cm 70 cm kg years 4 5 55 Least concern 56 Atlantic Spanish mackerel S maculatus Mitchill 1815 91 cm cm 5 89 kg 5 years 4 5 57 58 Least concern 59 Papuan Spanish mackerel S multiradiatusMunro 1964 35 cm cm 0 5 kg years 4 0 60 Least concern 61 Australian spotted mackerel S munroi Collette amp Russo 1980 104 cm cm 10 2 kg years 4 3 62 Near threatened 63 Japanese Spanish mackerel S niphonius Cuvier 1832 100 cm cm 7 1 kg years 4 5 64 65 Data deficient 66 Queen mackerel S plurilineatusFourmanoir 1966 120 cm cm 12 5 kg years 4 2 67 Data deficient 68 Queensland school mackerel S queenslandicus Munro 1943 100 cm 80 cm 12 2 kg years 4 5 69 Least concern 70 Cero mackerel S regalis Bloch 1793 183 cm cm 7 8 kg years 4 5 71 Least concern 72 Broadbarred king mackerel S semifasciatus Macleay 1883 120 cm cm kg 10 years 4 5 73 Least concern 74 Pacific sierra S sierra Cuvier 1832 99 cm 60 cm 8 2 kg years 4 5 75 Least concern 76 Chinese mackerel S sinensis Cuvier 1832 247 cm 100 cm kg years 4 5 77 Data deficient 76 West African Spanish mackerel S tritor Cuvier 1832 cm cm kg years 4 26 78 Least concern 76 Other mackerel Edit In addition a number of species with mackerel like characteristics in the families Carangidae Hexagrammidae and Gempylidae are commonly referred to as mackerel Some confusion had occurred between the Pacific jack mackerel Trachurus symmetricus and the heavily harvested Chilean jack mackerel T murphyi These have been thought at times to be the same species but are now recognised as separate species 79 Other mackerel speciesFamily Common name Scientific name Maximumlength Commonlength Maximumweight Maximumage Trophiclevel FishBase FAO IUCN statusScombridaeGasterochisma Butterfly mackerel Gasterochisma melampus Richardson 1845 175 cm 153 cm kg years 4 4 80 Least concern 81 CarangidaeJack mackerel Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus Linnaeus 1758 70 cm 22 cm 2 0 kg years 3 64 82 83 Not assessedBlue jack mackerel T picturatus Bowdich 1825 60 cm 25 cm kg years 3 32 84 Data deficient 85 Cape horse mackerel T capensis Castelnau 1861 60 cm 30 cm kg years 3 47 86 87 Not assessed 88 Chilean jack mackerel T murphyi Nichols 1920 70 cm 45 cm kg 16 years 3 49 89 90 Data deficient 85 Cunene horse mackerel T trecae Cadenat 1950 35 cm cm 2 0 kg years 3 49 91 92 Not assessedGreenback horse mackerel T declivis Jenyns 1841 64 cm 42 cm kg 25 years 3 93 93 94 Not assessed 95 Japanese horse mackerel T japonicus Temminck amp Schlegel 1844 50 cm 35 cm 0 66 kg 12 years 3 4 96 97 Not assessedMediterranean horse mackerel T mediterraneus Steindachner 1868 60 cm 30 cm kg years 3 59 98 99 Not assessedPacific jack mackerel T symmetricus Ayres 1855 81 cm 55 cm kg 30 years 3 56 100 Least concern 101 Yellowtail horse mackerel T novaezelandiae Richardson 1843 50 cm 35 cm kg 25 years 4 5 102 Not assessedGempylidaeSnake mackerel Black snake mackerel Nealotus tripes Johnson 1865 25 cm 15 cm kg years 4 2 103 Not assessedBlacksail snake mackerel Thyrsitoides marleyi Fowler 1929 200 cm 100 cm kg years 4 19 104 Not assessedSnake mackerel Gempylus serpens Cuvier 1829 100 cm 60 cm kg years 4 35 105 Not assessedViolet snake mackerel Nesiarchus nasutus Johnson 1862 130 cm 80 cm kg years 4 33 106 Not assessed White snake mackerel Thyrsitops lepidopoides Cuvier 1832 40 cm 25 cm kg years 3 86 107 Not assessedHexagrammidae Okhotsk atka mackerel Pleurogrammus azonus Jordan amp Metz 1913 62 cm cm 1 6 kg 12 years 3 58 108 109 Not assessedAtka mackerel P monopterygius Pallas 1810 56 5 cm cm 2 0 kg 14 years 3 33 110 Not assessed Still life with mackerel lemon and tomato Van Gogh 1886 The term mackerel is also used as a modifier in the common names of other fish sometimes indicating the fish has vertical stripes similar to a scombroid mackerel Mackerel icefish Champsocephalus gunnari Mackerel pike Cololabis saira Mackerel scad Decapterus macarellus Mackerel shark several species Shortfin mako shark Isurus oxyrinchus Mackerel tuna Euthynnus affinis Mackerel tail goldfish Carassius auratusBy extension the term is applied also to other species such as the mackerel tabby cat 111 and to inanimate objects such as the altocumulus mackerel sky cloud formation 112 113 Characteristics Edit Like other scombroids mackerel such as this Atlantic mackerel are superb swimmers and can retract their fins into grooves on their bodies for streamlining They have deeply forked tails and are smaller and slimmer than tuna 114 115 Most mackerel belong to the family Scombridae which also includes tuna and bonito Generally mackerel are much smaller and slimmer than tuna though in other respects they share many common characteristics Their scales if present at all are extremely small Like tuna and bonito mackerel are voracious feeders and are swift and manoeuvrable swimmers able to streamline themselves by retracting their fins into grooves on their bodies Like other scombroids their bodies are cylindrical with numerous finlets on the dorsal and ventral sides behind the dorsal and anal fins but unlike the deep bodied tuna they are slim 114 The type species for scombroid mackerels is the Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus These fish are iridescent blue green above with a silvery underbelly and near vertical wavy black stripes running along their upper bodies 28 116 failed verification The prominent stripes on the back of mackerels seemingly are there to provide camouflage against broken backgrounds That is not the case though because mackerel live in midwater pelagic environments which have no background 117 However fish have an optokinetic reflex in their visual systems that can be sensitive to moving stripes 118 For fish to school efficiently they need feedback mechanisms that help them align themselves with adjacent fish and match their speed The stripes on neighbouring fish provide schooling marks which signal changes in relative position 117 119 Mackerel such as these Pacific jack mackerel usually have vertical stripes on their sides which provide schooling marks visual clues that help them stay in formation as they school 117 A layer of thin reflecting platelets is seen on some of the mackerel stripes In 1998 E J Denton and D M Rowe argued that these platelets transmit additional information to other fish about how a given fish moves As the orientation of the fish changes relative to another fish the amount of light reflected to the second fish by this layer also changes This sensitivity to orientation gives the mackerel considerable advantages in being able to react quickly while schooling and feeding 120 Mackerel range in size from small forage fish to larger game fish Coastal mackerel tend to be small 121 The king mackerel is an example of a larger mackerel Most fish are cold blooded but exceptions exist Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures Endothermic bony fishes are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the butterfly mackerel a species of primitive mackerel 122 Mackerel are strong swimmers Known in the latin family as punctualis piscis which translates to punctual fish This is due to its punctuality of migration during mating season as it moves from warm to cold waters Atlantic mackerel can swim at a sustained speed of 0 98 m sec with a burst speed of 5 5 m sec 123 124 while chub mackerel can swim at a sustained speed of 0 92 m sec with a burst speed of 2 25 m sec 114 Distribution Edit King mackerels cruise on long migrations at 10 kilometres per hour 125 126 Most mackerel species have restricted distribution ranges 114 Atlantic Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus maculatus occupy the waters off the east coast of North America from the Cape Cod area south to the Yucatan Peninsula Its population is considered to include two fish stocks defined by geography As summer approaches one stock moves in large schools north from Florida up the coast to spawn in shallow waters off the New England coast It then returns to winter in deeper waters off Florida The other stock migrates in large schools along the coast from Mexico to spawn in shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico off Texas It then returns to winter in deeper waters off the Mexican coast 58 These stocks are managed separately even though genetically they are identical 59 The Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus is a coastal species found only in the north Atlantic The stock on the west side of the Atlantic is largely independent of the stock on the east side The stock on the east Atlantic currently operates as three separate stocks the southern western and North Sea stocks each with their own migration patterns Some mixing of the east Atlantic stocks takes place in feeding grounds towards the north but there is almost no mixing between the east and west Atlantic stocks 7 127 128 129 130 Another common coastal species the chub mackerel Scomber japonicus is absent from the Atlantic Ocean but is widespread across both hemispheres in the Pacific where its migration patterns are somewhat similar to those of Atlantic mackerel In the northern hemisphere chub mackerel migrate northwards in the summer to feeding grounds and southwards in the winter when they spawn in relatively shallow waters In the southern hemisphere the migrations are reversed After spawning some stocks migrate down the continental slope to deeper water and spend the rest of the winter in relative inactivity 25 The Chilean jack mackerel Trachurus murphyi the most intensively harvested mackerel like species is found in the south Pacific from West Australia to the coasts of Chile and Peru 89 A cousin species the Pacific jack mackerel Trachurus symmetricus is found in the north Pacific The Chilean jack mackerel occurs along the coasts in upwelling areas but also migrates across the open ocean Its abundance can fluctuate markedly as ocean conditions change 85 and is particularly affected by the El Nino Three species of jack mackerels are found in coastal waters around New Zealand the Australasian Chilean and Pacific jack mackerels They are mainly captured using purse seine nets and are managed as a single stock that includes multiple species 131 Some mackerel species migrate vertically Adult snake mackerel conduct a diel vertical migration staying in deeper water during the day and rising to the surface at night to feed The young and juveniles also migrate vertically but in the opposite direction staying near the surface during the day and moving deeper at night 132 This species feeds on squid pelagic crustaceans lanternfishes flying fishes sauries and other mackerel 133 It is in turn preyed upon by tuna and marlin 134 Lifecycle Edit Gannets and other seabirds fuel themselves with mackerel Mackerel are prolific broadcast spawners and must breed near the surface of the water because the eggs of the females float Individual females lay between 300 000 and 1 500 000 eggs 114 Their eggs and larvae are pelagic that is they float free in the open sea The larvae and juvenile mackerel feed on zooplankton As adults they have sharp teeth and hunt small crustaceans such as copepods forage fish shrimp and squid In turn they are hunted by larger pelagic animals such as tuna billfish sea lions sharks and pelicans 26 43 135 Off Madagascar spinner sharks follow migrating schools of mackerel 136 Bryde s whales feed on mackerel when they can find them They use several feeding methods including skimming the surface lunging and bubble nets 137 Fisheries EditGlobal capture of mackerel in tonnes reported by the FAO 1950 2009 Scombroid mackerels 1 Non scombroid mackerels 1 Main commercial species The chub mackerel is the most intensively fished mackerel in the scombroid family Chilean jack mackerel have been overfished and the population may be in danger of collapsing Here an entire school of about 400 tons is encircled by a purse seiner Chub mackerel Scomber japonicus are the most intensively fished scombroid mackerel They account for about half the total capture production of scombroid mackerels 1 As a species they are easily confused with Atlantic mackerel Chub mackerel migrate long distances in oceans and across the Mediterranean They can be caught with drift nets and suitable trawls but are most usually caught with surround nets at night by attracting them with lampara lamps 138 The remaining catch of scombroid mackerels is divided equally between the Atlantic mackerel and all other scombroid mackerels Just these two species Chub mackerel and Atlantic mackerel account for about 75 of the total catch of scombroid mackerels 1 Chilean jack mackerel are the most commonly fished nonscombroid mackerel fished as heavily as chub mackerel 1 90 The species has been overfished and its fishery may now be in danger of collapsing 139 140 Smaller mackerel behave like herrings and are captured in similar ways 141 Fish species like these which school near the surface can be caught efficiently by purse seining Huge purse seine vessels use spotter planes to locate the schooling fish Then they close in using sophisticated sonar to track the shape of the school which is then encircled with fast auxiliary boats that deploy purse seines as they speed around the school 142 143 Suitably designed trollers can also catch mackerels effectively when they swim near the surface Trollers typically have several long booms which they lift and drop with topping lifts They haul their lines with electric or hydraulic reels 144 Fish aggregating devices are also used to target mackerel 145 Images and videos Longlining for mackerel Narrow barred Spanish mackerel largest of the scombroid mackerels and a fine game fish for sport fishermen External video Bluefin Baitball YouTube Atlantic Mackerel Purse Seining 2007 YouTubeManagement EditThe North Sea has been overfished to the point where the ecological balance has become disrupted and many jobs in the fishing industry have been lost 146 The Southeast US region spans the Gulf of Mexico the Caribbean Sea and the US Southeast Atlantic Overfishing of king and Spanish mackerel occurred in the 1980s Regulations were introduced to restrict the size fishing locations and bag limits for recreational fishers and commercial fishers Gillnets were banned in waters off Florida By 2001 the mackerel stocks had bounced back 147 As food Edit Atlantic mackerel on ice at a fish store Main article Mackerel as food Mackerel is an important food fish that is consumed worldwide 148 As an oily fish it is a rich source of omega 3 fatty acids 149 The flesh of mackerel spoils quickly especially in the tropics and can cause scombroid food poisoning Accordingly it should be eaten on the day of capture unless properly refrigerated or cured 150 Mackerel preservation is not simple Before the 19th century development of canning and the widespread availability of refrigeration salting and smoking were the principal preservation methods available 151 Historically in England this fish was not preserved but was consumed only in its fresh form However spoilage was common leading the authors of The Cambridge Economic History of Europe to remark There are more references to stinking mackerel in English literature than to any other fish 141 In France mackerel was traditionally pickled with large amounts of salt which allowed it to be sold widely across the country 141 For many years mackerel was regarded as unclean in the UK and other places due to folklore which suggested that the fish fed on the corpses of dead sailors 152 A 1976 survey of housewives in Britain undertaken by the White Fish Authority indicated a reluctance to departing from buying the traditional staples of cod haddock or salmon Less than 10 of the survey s 1 931 respondents had ever bought mackerel and only 3 did so regularly As a result of this trend many UK fishmongers during the 1970s did not display or even stock mackerel 152 References Edit a b c d e f g Based on data sourced from the relevant FAO Species Fact Sheets Mackerel Scientific name Scomber scombrus The Wildlife Trusts Retrieved 2 August 2022 Mackerel to fish or not to fish Marine Stewardship Council Retrieved 2 August 2022 Daan N December 1973 A quantitative analysis of the food intake of North Sea cod Gadus Morhua Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 6 4 479 517 Bibcode 1973NJSR 6 479D doi 10 1016 0077 7579 73 90002 1 King mackerel Merriam Webster s Collegiate Dictionary 11th ed Merriam Webster 2008 p 688 ISBN 9780877798095 Mackerel Online Etymology Dictionary Archived from the original on 22 December 2018 Retrieved 3 March 2012 a b c Collette B Boustany A Carpenter K E Di Natale A Fox W Graves J Juan Jorda M Kada O Nelson R Oxenford H 2011 Scomber scombrus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170354A6764313 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170354A6764313 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Juan Jorda MJ Mosqueira I Cooper AB Freire J Dulvy NK 2011 Global population trajectories of tunas and their relatives Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 51 20650 20655 Bibcode 2011PNAS 10820650J doi 10 1073 pnas 1107743108 PMC 3251139 PMID 22143785 Tuna and mackerel populations have reduced by 60 in the last century ScienceDaily 8 February 2012 Archived from the original on 7 July 2017 Scombrini Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 10 December 2012 Scomber Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 10 December 2012 Rastrelliger Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 10 December 2012 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Rastrelliger brachysoma in FishBase March 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Rastrelliger brachysoma Bleeker 1851 FAO Archived from the original on 18 October 2018 Retrieved 2 March 2012 Collette B Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R 2011 Rastrelliger brachysoma IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170318A6745895 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170318A6745895 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Rastrelliger faughni in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R 2011 Rastrelliger faughni IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170324A6748697 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170324A6748697 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Rastrelliger kanagurta in FishBase March 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Rastrelliger kanagurta Cuvier 1817 FAO Archived from the original on 6 August 2018 Retrieved 2 March 2012 Collette B Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R 2011 Rastrelliger kanagurta IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170328A6750032 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170328A6750032 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomber australasicus in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Acero A Canales Ramirez C Cardenas G Carpenter K E Chang S K Chiang W Di Natale A Fox W Guzman Mora A Juan Jorda M Miyabe N Montano Cruz R Nelson R Salas E Schaefer K Serra R Sun C Uozumi Y Wang S Wu J Yanez E Yeh S 2011 Scomber australasicus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170329A6750490 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170329A6750490 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomber colias in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Amorim A F Boustany A Carpenter K E de Oliveira Leite Jr N Di Natale A Fox W Fredou F L Graves J Viera Hazin F H Juan Jorda M Kada O Minte Vera C Miyabe N Nelson R Oxenford H Teixeira Lessa R P Pires Ferreira Travassos P E 2011 Scomber colias IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170357A6767497 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170357A6767497 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 a b Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomber japonicus in FishBase March 2012 version a b Species Fact Sheet Scomber japonicus Houttuyn 1782 FAO Archived from the original on 21 December 2018 Retrieved 2 March 2012 Collette B Acero A Canales Ramirez C Cardenas G Carpenter K E Chang S K Di Natale A Fox W Guzman Mora A Juan Jorda M Miyabe N Montano Cruz R Nelson R Salas E Schaefer K Serra R Sun C Uozumi Y Wang S Wu J Yeh S 2011 Scomber japonicus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170306A6737373 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170306A6737373 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 a b Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomber scombrus in FishBase March 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Scomber scombrus Linnaeus 1758 FAO Archived from the original on 2 May 2019 Retrieved 2 March 2012 Scomberomorini Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 10 December 2012 Scomberomorus Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 10 December 2012 Grammatorcynus Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 10 December 2012 Acanthocybium Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 10 December 2012 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Acanthocybium solandri in FishBase December 2012 version Collette B Acero A Amorim A F Boustany A Canales Ramirez C Cardenas G Carpenter K E de Oliveira Leite Jr N Di Natale A Die D Fox W Fredou F L Graves J Guzman Mora A Viera Hazin F H Hinton M Juan Jorda M Kada O Minte Vera C Miyabe N Montano Cruz R Nelson R Oxenford H Restrepo V Salas E Schaefer K Schratwieser J Serra R Sun C Teixeira Lessa R P Pires Ferreira Travassos P E Uozumi Y Yanez E 2011 Acanthocybium solandri IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170331A6750961 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170331A6750961 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Grammatorcynus bicarinatus in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Fox W Nelson R 2011 Grammatorcynus bicarinatus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170308A6738658 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170308A6738658 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Grammatorcynus bilineatus in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Chiang W Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R 2011 Grammatorcynus bilineatus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170358A6768577 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170358A6768577 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus brasiliensis in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Amorim A F Boustany A Carpenter K E de Oliveira Leite Jr N Di Natale A Fox W Fredou F L Graves J Viera Hazin F H Juan Jorda M Minte Vera C Miyabe N Nelson R Oxenford H Teixeira Lessa R P Pires Ferreira Travassos P E 2011 Scomberomorus brasiliensis IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170335A6753567 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170335A6753567 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus cavalla in FishBase March 2012 version a b Species Fact Sheet Scomberomorus cavalla Cuvier 1829 FAO Archived from the original on 15 October 2018 Retrieved 2 March 2012 Collette B Amorim A F Boustany A Carpenter K E de Oliveira Leite Jr N Di Natale A Fox W Fredou F L Graves J Viera Hazin F H Juan Jorda M Minte Vera C Miyabe N Nelson R Oxenford H Teixeira Lessa R P Pires Ferreira Travassos P E 2011 Scomberomorus cavalla IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170339A6755835 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170339A6755835 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus commerson in FishBase March 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Scomberomorus commerson Lacepede 1800 FAO Archived from the original on 16 October 2018 Retrieved 2 March 2012 Collette B Chang S K Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Miyabe N Nelson R 2011 Scomberomorus commerson IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170316A6745396 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170316A6745396 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus concolor in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Acero A Boustany A Canales Ramirez C Cardenas G Carpenter K E Di Natale A Die D Fox W Graves J Hinton M Juan Jorda M Minte Vera C Miyabe N Montano Cruz R Nelson R Restrepo V Schaefer K Schratwieser J Serra R Yanez E 2011 Scomberomorus concolor IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T20047A9138383 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T20047A9138383 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus guttatus in FishBase March 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Scomberomorus guttatus Bloch amp Schneider 1801 FAO Archived from the original on 9 October 2018 Retrieved 2 March 2012 Collette B Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R 2011 Scomberomorus guttatus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170311A6742170 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170311A6742170 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus koreanus in FishBase December 2012 version Collette B Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R 2011 Scomberomorus koreanus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170343A6757043 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170343A6757043 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus lineolatus in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R 2011 Scomberomorus lineolatus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170353A6764121 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170353A6764121 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus maculatus in FishBase March 2012 version a b Species Fact Sheet Scomberomorus maculatus Mitchill 1815 FAO Archived from the original on 24 July 2018 Retrieved 2 March 2012 a b Collette B Boustany A Carpenter K E Fox W Graves J Juan Jorda M Nelson R Oxenford H 2011 Scomberomorus maculatus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170323A6748550 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170323A6748550 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus multiradiatus in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Carpenter K E Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R 2011 Scomberomorus multiradiatus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170347A6760831 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170347A6760831 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus munroi in FishBase March 2012 version Collette B Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R 2011 Scomberomorus munroi IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T170330A6750789 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2011 2 RLTS T170330A6750789 en Retrieved 11 November 2021 Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2012 Scomberomorus niphonius in FishBase March 2012 version Species Fact Sheet Scomberomorus niphonius Cuvier 1831 FAO Archived from the original on 12 January 2018 Retrieved 2 March 2012 Collette B Chang S K Di Natale A Fox W Juan Jorda M Nelson R Uozumi Y 2011 Scomberomorus niphonius IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 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Gerlotto F Leiva F Cordova J 2006 Determinism and plasticity of fish schooling behaviour as exemplified by the South Pacific jack mackerel Trachurus murphyi PDF Marine Ecology Progress Series 311 145 156 Bibcode 2006MEPS 311 145B doi 10 3354 meps311145 Archived PDF from the original on 27 April 2019 Bigelow HB and Schroeder WC 1953 Fishes of the Gulf of Maine Mackerel Fisheries Bulletin Volume 53 Number 74 United States Fish and Wildlife Service Burton M and Burton R 2002 International Wildlife Encyclopedia Marshall Cavendish pp 1517 1518 ISBN 978 0 7614 7266 7 Hays GC 1996 Large scale patterns of diel vertical migration in the North Atlantic PDF Deep Sea Research Part I 43 10 1601 1615 Bibcode 1996DSRI 43 1601H doi 10 1016 s0967 0637 96 00078 7 Keay JN 2001 Handling and processing mackerel Torry advisory note 66 Masuda R Shoji J Nakatama Sand Tanaka T 2003 Development of schooling behavior in Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus niphonius during early ontogeny PDF Fisheries Science 69 4 772 776 doi 10 1046 j 1444 2906 2003 00685 x Nakayama S Masuda R Tanaka M 2007 Onsets of schooling behavior and social transmission in chub mackerelScomber japonicus PDF Behav Ecol Sociobiol 61 9 1383 1390 doi 10 1007 s00265 007 0368 4 S2CID 56667 Nakayama A Masuda R Shoji J Takeuchi T Tanaka M 2003 Effect of prey items on the development of schooling behavior in chub mackerel Scomber japonicus in the laboratory PDF Fisheries Science 69 4 670 676 doi 10 1046 j 1444 2906 2003 00673 x Nakayama S Masuda R Tanaka M 2007 Onsets of schooling behavior and social transmission in chub mackerel Scomber japonicus Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 61 9 1383 1390 doi 10 1007 s00265 007 0368 4 JSTOR 27823518 S2CID 56667 SPRFMO 2009 Information describing Chilean jack mackerel Trachurus murphyi fisheries relating to the South Pacific Regional Fishery Management Organisation Working draft External links Edit Look up mackerel in Wiktionary the free dictionary Atlantic Mackerel British Marine Life Study Society Retrieved 3 March 2012 Mackerel nutrition facts Fishing for mackerel Mackerel New International Encyclopedia 1905 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Mackerel amp oldid 1131499194, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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