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Alphitobius diaperinus

January 05, 2023

Alphitobius diaperinus is a species of beetle in the family Tenebrionidae, the darkling beetles. It is known commonly as the lesser mealworm and the litter beetle. It has a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring nearly worldwide. It is known widely as a pest insect of stored food grain products such as flour, and of poultry-rearing facilities. It is a vector of many kinds of animal pathogens.

Alphitobius diaperinus
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Tenebrionidae
Genus: Alphitobius
Species:
A. diaperinus
Binomial name
Alphitobius diaperinus
Panzer, 1797

Description

The adult lesser mealworm beetle is roughly 6 mm long and widely oval in shape. It is shiny black or brown with reddish brown elytra, the color variable among individuals and changing with age. Much of the body surface is dotted with puncture-like impressions. The antennae are paler at the tips and are covered in tiny, yellowish hairs. The elytra have shallow longitudinal grooves.[1]

The eggs are narrow, whitish or tan, and about 1.5 mm long. The larvae somewhat resemble other mealworms, such as the common mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), but are smaller, measuring up to 11 mm long at the final subadult stage. They are tapering and segmented, with three pairs of legs toward the front end, and whitish when newly emerged from the egg and darken to a yellow-brown. They become pale when preparing to molt between instar stages six to 11 instars occur.[1]

Distribution

This species has long been known throughout the world as a common pest, so its origins are uncertain, but it may have originated in Sub-Saharan Africa. It moved into Europe long ago, and was likely introduced to North America from there.[1]

 
Alphitobius diaperinus in a poultry facility

Biology

A tropical species, the lesser mealworm thrives in warm, humid environments, both natural and established by humans. It inhabits caves, rodent nests, and the nests of birds,[1] including kites, pigeons, hamerkop, house sparrow, and purple martin.[2] It easily colonizes agricultural establishments with abundant food sources and warm conditions, such as grain processing and storage facilities and poultry housing.[1]

The beetle consumes a wide variety of materials, including litter, bird droppings and bat guano, mold, feathers, eggs, and carrion.[1] It feeds on the eggs and larvae of other insects, such as the rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica).[3] It also engages in cannibalism. It commonly feeds on sick or weakened live animals.[1] When it lives in bird housing it may infest and consume dying birds, especially chicks. It was also once observed inhabiting the scrotum of a rat.[2]

The adult female beetle lays usually about 200 to 400 eggs, but it has been known to produce up to 2000. It lays eggs every few days throughout its life, which is generally up to one year long, or up to two years when it is reared in captivity. It deposits the eggs in litter, droppings, grain stores, or cracks in structures. The larvae emerge within a week and take 40 to 100 days to reach maturity, depending on conditions and the food supply. The larvae grow well in high humidity. They pupate alone in secure spots. They are quite active and mobile and burrow quickly when threatened. Larvae and adults are mainly nocturnal, becoming most active at dusk.[1]

As a pest

Impacts

As a pest, the beetle is most damaging to the poultry industry. This is the most common beetle found in poultry litter.[4] The larvae damage poultry housing structures when they search for suitable pupation spots, chewing through wood, fiberglass, and polystyrene insulation. This destruction can be costly to growers, especially in heating energy costs.[1] The beetles consume the birds' feed and irritate the birds by biting them.[5]

Other insect residents of poultry housing include the housefly (Musca domestica) and its predator, Carcinops pumilio, a clown beetle. The fly is a pest which can sometimes be kept under control by the beetle. The lesser mealworm interferes with this ecology by reducing the survival of clown beetle eggs and larvae.[1]

The lesser mealworm beetle is a vector of many pathogens. It spreads more than 30 bird diseases.[6] It transmits animal viruses such as rotavirus,[7] the turkey coronavirus, the chicken viruses that cause Marek's disease and infectious bursal disease, and the viruses that cause Newcastle disease, avian influenza,[1] and fowlpox.[8] It transmits bacteria such as Campylobacter jejuni,[9] Salmonella typhimurium serovar, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus species.[1] A single exposure of a chick to a contaminated beetle can result in bacterial colonization of the bird's gut.[10] Chicks are more likely to be infected by eating larvae than adult beetles.[11] The beetle can also transmit Aspergillus fungi. It is a vector for Eimeria, protozoa that cause coccidiosis in birds.[1] It carries fowl tapeworms such as Choanotaenia infundibulum and the nematodes Subulura brumpti and Hadjelia truncata.[12]

Poultry have difficulty digesting the beetle and larva, and if they eat them, they can experience intestinal obstruction and gut lesions.[1] Broiler chickens and turkey poults have slower weight gain when they feed on the beetle.[9]

Like other darkling beetles, this species produces defensive benzoquinone compounds that can be irritating to humans, causing asthma, headaches, rhinitis, conjunctivitis, corneal ulcers, and dermatitis with erythema and papules. The benzoquinones may be carcinogenic.[1]

Before the beetle became problematic in poultry, it was better known as a pest of stored goods, including wheat, barley, rice, oatmeal, soybeans, cowpeas, peanuts, linseed, cottonseed, tobacco,[1] and dried meat.[13]

This beetle can become a household pest if it ends up near human habitation in old litter to be used as compost. It emerges when it is attracted to light from homes.[9]

Management

No agents of biological pest control are used against the lesser mealworm. The fungus Beauveria bassiana is an arthropod pathogen that may prove useful. Some protozoa and spider species are known natural predators.[1]

Control is usually attempted with carbaryl insecticide in the form of powder, liquid, and bait. Thiamethoxam and 9-Tricosene used in conjunction have been shown to be successful in poultry houses. Pyrethroids and boric acid are used. True outbreaks are often uncontrollable and some populations of the beetle have shown resistance to various compounds.[1] Resistance is more common on farms that have been chemically treated for many years.[9] Insecticides are not ideal because they contaminate the poultry and they are not effective on the pest when it burrows out of reach.[14]

Proper maintenance of poultry housing usually keeps the beetle under control, as it propagates in accumulated litter and droppings.[1]

Use

As feed

The larvae of the litter beetle, like certain other larvae of darkling beetles such as mealworms, are used as animal feed, e.g., fed to captive reptiles. They have been reported as a good first food for Central American wood turtle (Rhinoclemmys pulcherrima mannii) hatchlings, because they are more active than common mealworms and their movement stimulates feeding behavior.[15]

As food

 
Freeze-dried larvae of Alphitobius diaperinus (marketed aus buffalo worms) as food, or food ingredient

The larvae are edible insects and also farmed for human consumption by specialized European insect farms, mostly in the Netherlands and Belgium. The larvae are either sold freeze-dried for consumption, or processed into food such as burger patties,[16] pasta,[17] or snack bars.[18] As food, the larvae are commonly marketed under the term buffalo worms, a name that is also used for the larvae of Alphitobius laevigatus which can lead to confusion.[19] The species can be detected using the PCR method.[19] More rarely, the name lesser mealworm is used.[citation needed]

On 4 July 2022, EFSA published an opinion confirming the safety of frozen and freeze-dried larvae of Alphitobius diaperinus for human consumption.[20] Approval as a food is pending.

In preparation

Along with Dermestes beetles, species of this genus are used in museums to clean tissues off carcasses during the preparation of zoological specimens.[1]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Dunford, J. C. and P. E. Kaufman. Lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus. Entomology and Nematology. University of Florida, IFAS. 2006.
  2. ^ a b Crook, P. G., et al. (1980). The lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus, in the scrotum of Rattus norvegicus, with notes on other vertebrate associations (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae; Rodentia, Muridae). The Coleopterists Bulletin 393-96.
  3. ^ Dass, R., et al. (1984). Feeding potential and biology of lesser meal worm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panz.) (Col., Tenebrionidae), preying on Corcyra cephalonica St. (Lep., Pyralidae). Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie 98(1‐5), 444-47.
  4. ^ Dinev, I. (2013). The darkling beetle (Alphitobius diaperinus) - A health hazard for broiler chicken production. Trakia Journal of Sciences 11(1), 1-4.
  5. ^ Kozaki, T., et al. (2008). Comparison of two acetylcholinesterase gene cDNAs of the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus, in insecticide susceptible and resistant strains. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 67(3), 130-38.
  6. ^ Arunraj, C., et al. (2013). Lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer, 1797) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) menace in poultry farms in south India. Journal of Biopesticides 6(1), 84-86.
  7. ^ Despins, J. L., et al. (1994). Transmission of enteric pathogens of turkeys by darkling beetle larva (Alphitobius diaperinus).[permanent dead link] The Journal of Applied Poultry Research 3(1) 61-65.
  8. ^ Watson, D. W., et al. (2000). Journal of Medical Entomology 37(3), 480-83.
  9. ^ a b c d Steelman, C. D. (2008). Comparative susceptibility of adult and larval lesser mealworms, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), collected from broiler houses in Arkansas to selected insecticides. 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 25(2), 111-25.
  10. ^ Hazeleger, W. C., et al. (2008). Darkling beetles (Alphitobius diaperinus) and their larvae as potential vectors for the transfer of Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi B variant Java between successive broiler flocks. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74(22), 6887-91.
  11. ^ Leffer, A. M., et al. (2010). Vectorial competence of larvae and adults of Alphitobius diaperinus in the transmission of Salmonella Enteritidis in poultry. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 10(5), 481-87.
  12. ^ Alborzi, A. R. and A. Rahbar. (2012). Introducing Alphitobius diaperinus, (Insecta: Tenebrionidae) as a new intermediate host of Hadjelia truncata (Nematoda).[permanent dead link] Iranian J Parasitol 7(2), 92-98.
  13. ^ Tomberlin, J. K., et al. (2008). Susceptibility of Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) from broiler facilities in Texas to four insecticides. 2014-08-10 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Economic Entomology 101(2), 480-83.
  14. ^ Rezende, S. R. F., et al. (2009). Control of the Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) with entomopathogenic fungi. Revista Brasileira de Ciência Avícola 11(2), 121-27.
  15. ^ Webb, M. R. Care & Breeding of the Central American Wood Turtle, Rhinoclemmys pulcherimma manni. Tortoise Trust. 2010.
  16. ^ Food Navigator (2018-10-12): Article on the insect burger by German start-up Bugfoundation.
  17. ^ Yumda.com (2018-03-05): For the first time: Foodstuffs containing insect proteins on the market.
  18. ^ Nutraingredients.com (2018-09-21): Danish insect-statup targets holistic nutrition with mineral-dense buffalo worm bar.
  19. ^ a b Aline Marien, Hamza Sedefoglu, Frédéric Debode et al. (9 March 2022): Detection of Alphitobius diaperinus by Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction With a Single-Copy Gene Target. In: Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 2022; 9: 718806. doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.718806.
  20. ^ EFSA (4 Juy 2022): Safety of frozen and freeze‐dried formulations of the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus larva) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. In: EFSA Journal 2022;20(7):7325. doi: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7325

Further reading

  • Crippen, T. L. and J. F. Esquivel. (2012). Improved visualization of Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) —Part II: Alimentary canal components and measurements. Psyche 2012, Article ID 607609, 8 pages.
  • Esquivel, J. F., et al. (2012). Improved visualization of Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) — Part I: Morphological features for sex determination of multiple stadia. Psyche 2012, Article ID 328478, 7 pages.
  • Rueda, L. M. and R. C. Axtell. (1996). Temperature-dependent development and survival of the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 10(1), 80–86.

January 05, 2023
alphitobius, diaperinus, species, beetle, family, tenebrionidae, darkling, beetles, known, commonly, lesser, mealworm, litter, beetle, cosmopolitan, distribution, occurring, nearly, worldwide, known, widely, pest, insect, stored, food, grain, products, such, f. Alphitobius diaperinus is a species of beetle in the family Tenebrionidae the darkling beetles It is known commonly as the lesser mealworm and the litter beetle It has a cosmopolitan distribution occurring nearly worldwide It is known widely as a pest insect of stored food grain products such as flour and of poultry rearing facilities It is a vector of many kinds of animal pathogens Alphitobius diaperinusScientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ArthropodaClass InsectaOrder ColeopteraFamily TenebrionidaeGenus AlphitobiusSpecies A diaperinusBinomial nameAlphitobius diaperinusPanzer 1797 Contents 1 Description 2 Distribution 3 Biology 4 As a pest 4 1 Impacts 4 2 Management 5 Use 5 1 As feed 5 2 As food 5 3 In preparation 6 References 7 Further readingDescription EditThe adult lesser mealworm beetle is roughly 6 mm long and widely oval in shape It is shiny black or brown with reddish brown elytra the color variable among individuals and changing with age Much of the body surface is dotted with puncture like impressions The antennae are paler at the tips and are covered in tiny yellowish hairs The elytra have shallow longitudinal grooves 1 The eggs are narrow whitish or tan and about 1 5 mm long The larvae somewhat resemble other mealworms such as the common mealworm Tenebrio molitor but are smaller measuring up to 11 mm long at the final subadult stage They are tapering and segmented with three pairs of legs toward the front end and whitish when newly emerged from the egg and darken to a yellow brown They become pale when preparing to molt between instar stages six to 11 instars occur 1 Distribution EditThis species has long been known throughout the world as a common pest so its origins are uncertain but it may have originated in Sub Saharan Africa It moved into Europe long ago and was likely introduced to North America from there 1 Alphitobius diaperinus in a poultry facilityBiology EditA tropical species the lesser mealworm thrives in warm humid environments both natural and established by humans It inhabits caves rodent nests and the nests of birds 1 including kites pigeons hamerkop house sparrow and purple martin 2 It easily colonizes agricultural establishments with abundant food sources and warm conditions such as grain processing and storage facilities and poultry housing 1 The beetle consumes a wide variety of materials including litter bird droppings and bat guano mold feathers eggs and carrion 1 It feeds on the eggs and larvae of other insects such as the rice moth Corcyra cephalonica 3 It also engages in cannibalism It commonly feeds on sick or weakened live animals 1 When it lives in bird housing it may infest and consume dying birds especially chicks It was also once observed inhabiting the scrotum of a rat 2 The adult female beetle lays usually about 200 to 400 eggs but it has been known to produce up to 2000 It lays eggs every few days throughout its life which is generally up to one year long or up to two years when it is reared in captivity It deposits the eggs in litter droppings grain stores or cracks in structures The larvae emerge within a week and take 40 to 100 days to reach maturity depending on conditions and the food supply The larvae grow well in high humidity They pupate alone in secure spots They are quite active and mobile and burrow quickly when threatened Larvae and adults are mainly nocturnal becoming most active at dusk 1 As a pest EditImpacts Edit As a pest the beetle is most damaging to the poultry industry This is the most common beetle found in poultry litter 4 The larvae damage poultry housing structures when they search for suitable pupation spots chewing through wood fiberglass and polystyrene insulation This destruction can be costly to growers especially in heating energy costs 1 The beetles consume the birds feed and irritate the birds by biting them 5 Other insect residents of poultry housing include the housefly Musca domestica and its predator Carcinops pumilio a clown beetle The fly is a pest which can sometimes be kept under control by the beetle The lesser mealworm interferes with this ecology by reducing the survival of clown beetle eggs and larvae 1 The lesser mealworm beetle is a vector of many pathogens It spreads more than 30 bird diseases 6 It transmits animal viruses such as rotavirus 7 the turkey coronavirus the chicken viruses that cause Marek s disease and infectious bursal disease and the viruses that cause Newcastle disease avian influenza 1 and fowlpox 8 It transmits bacteria such as Campylobacter jejuni 9 Salmonella typhimurium serovar Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus species 1 A single exposure of a chick to a contaminated beetle can result in bacterial colonization of the bird s gut 10 Chicks are more likely to be infected by eating larvae than adult beetles 11 The beetle can also transmit Aspergillus fungi It is a vector for Eimeria protozoa that cause coccidiosis in birds 1 It carries fowl tapeworms such as Choanotaenia infundibulum and the nematodes Subulura brumpti and Hadjelia truncata 12 Poultry have difficulty digesting the beetle and larva and if they eat them they can experience intestinal obstruction and gut lesions 1 Broiler chickens and turkey poults have slower weight gain when they feed on the beetle 9 Like other darkling beetles this species produces defensive benzoquinone compounds that can be irritating to humans causing asthma headaches rhinitis conjunctivitis corneal ulcers and dermatitis with erythema and papules The benzoquinones may be carcinogenic 1 Before the beetle became problematic in poultry it was better known as a pest of stored goods including wheat barley rice oatmeal soybeans cowpeas peanuts linseed cottonseed tobacco 1 and dried meat 13 This beetle can become a household pest if it ends up near human habitation in old litter to be used as compost It emerges when it is attracted to light from homes 9 Management Edit No agents of biological pest control are used against the lesser mealworm The fungus Beauveria bassiana is an arthropod pathogen that may prove useful Some protozoa and spider species are known natural predators 1 Control is usually attempted with carbaryl insecticide in the form of powder liquid and bait Thiamethoxam and 9 Tricosene used in conjunction have been shown to be successful in poultry houses Pyrethroids and boric acid are used True outbreaks are often uncontrollable and some populations of the beetle have shown resistance to various compounds 1 Resistance is more common on farms that have been chemically treated for many years 9 Insecticides are not ideal because they contaminate the poultry and they are not effective on the pest when it burrows out of reach 14 Proper maintenance of poultry housing usually keeps the beetle under control as it propagates in accumulated litter and droppings 1 Use EditAs feed Edit The larvae of the litter beetle like certain other larvae of darkling beetles such as mealworms are used as animal feed e g fed to captive reptiles They have been reported as a good first food for Central American wood turtle Rhinoclemmys pulcherrima mannii hatchlings because they are more active than common mealworms and their movement stimulates feeding behavior 15 As food Edit Freeze dried larvae of Alphitobius diaperinus marketed aus buffalo worms as food or food ingredient The larvae are edible insects and also farmed for human consumption by specialized European insect farms mostly in the Netherlands and Belgium The larvae are either sold freeze dried for consumption or processed into food such as burger patties 16 pasta 17 or snack bars 18 As food the larvae are commonly marketed under the term buffalo worms a name that is also used for the larvae of Alphitobius laevigatus which can lead to confusion 19 The species can be detected using the PCR method 19 More rarely the name lesser mealworm is used citation needed On 4 July 2022 EFSA published an opinion confirming the safety of frozen and freeze dried larvae of Alphitobius diaperinus for human consumption 20 Approval as a food is pending In preparation Edit Along with Dermestes beetles species of this genus are used in museums to clean tissues off carcasses during the preparation of zoological specimens 1 References Edit a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Dunford J C and P E Kaufman Lesser mealworm Alphitobius diaperinus Entomology and Nematology University of Florida IFAS 2006 a b Crook P G et al 1980 The lesser mealworm Alphitobius diaperinus in the scrotum of Rattus norvegicus with notes on other vertebrate associations Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Rodentia Muridae The Coleopterists Bulletin 393 96 Dass R et al 1984 Feeding potential and biology of lesser meal worm Alphitobius diaperinus Panz Col Tenebrionidae preying on Corcyra cephalonica St Lep Pyralidae Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Entomologie 98 1 5 444 47 Dinev I 2013 The darkling beetle Alphitobius diaperinus A health hazard for broiler chicken production Trakia Journal of Sciences 11 1 1 4 Kozaki T et al 2008 Comparison of two acetylcholinesterase gene cDNAs of the lesser mealworm Alphitobius diaperinus in insecticide susceptible and resistant strains Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 67 3 130 38 Arunraj C et al 2013 Lesser mealworm Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer 1797 Coleoptera Tenebrionidae menace in poultry farms in south India Journal of Biopesticides 6 1 84 86 Despins J L et al 1994 Transmission of enteric pathogens of turkeys by darkling beetle larva Alphitobius diaperinus permanent dead link The Journal of Applied Poultry Research 3 1 61 65 Watson D W et al 2000 Limited transmission of turkey coronavirus in young turkeys by adult Alphitobius diaperinus Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Journal of Medical Entomology 37 3 480 83 a b c d Steelman C D 2008 Comparative susceptibility of adult and larval lesser mealworms Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer Coleoptera Tenebrionidae collected from broiler houses in Arkansas to selected insecticides Archived 2016 03 03 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 25 2 111 25 Hazeleger W C et al 2008 Darkling beetles Alphitobius diaperinus and their larvae as potential vectors for the transfer of Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi B variant Java between successive broiler flocks Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74 22 6887 91 Leffer A M et al 2010 Vectorial competence of larvae and adults of Alphitobius diaperinus in the transmission of Salmonella Enteritidis in poultry Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 10 5 481 87 Alborzi A R and A Rahbar 2012 Introducing Alphitobius diaperinus Insecta Tenebrionidae as a new intermediate host of Hadjelia truncata Nematoda permanent dead link Iranian J Parasitol 7 2 92 98 Tomberlin J K et al 2008 Susceptibility of Alphitobius diaperinus Coleoptera Tenebrionidae from broiler facilities in Texas to four insecticides Archived 2014 08 10 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Economic Entomology 101 2 480 83 Rezende S R F et al 2009 Control of the Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer Coleoptera Tenebrionidae with entomopathogenic fungi Revista Brasileira de Ciencia Avicola 11 2 121 27 Webb M R Care amp Breeding of the Central American Wood Turtle Rhinoclemmys pulcherimma manni Tortoise Trust 2010 Food Navigator 2018 10 12 Article on the insect burger by German start up Bugfoundation Yumda com 2018 03 05 For the first time Foodstuffs containing insect proteins on the market Nutraingredients com 2018 09 21 Danish insect statup targets holistic nutrition with mineral dense buffalo worm bar a b Aline Marien Hamza Sedefoglu Frederic Debode et al 9 March 2022 Detection of Alphitobius diaperinus by Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction With a Single Copy Gene Target In Frontiers in Veterinary Science 2022 9 718806 doi 10 3389 fvets 2022 718806 EFSA 4 Juy 2022 Safety of frozen and freeze dried formulations of the lesser mealworm Alphitobius diaperinus larva as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation EU 2015 2283 In EFSA Journal 2022 20 7 7325 doi https doi org 10 2903 j efsa 2022 7325Further reading EditCrippen T L and J F Esquivel 2012 Improved visualization of Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Part II Alimentary canal components and measurements Psyche 2012 Article ID 607609 8 pages Esquivel J F et al 2012 Improved visualization of Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Part I Morphological features for sex determination of multiple stadia Psyche 2012 Article ID 328478 7 pages Rueda L M and R C Axtell 1996 Temperature dependent development and survival of the lesser mealworm Alphitobius diaperinus Medical and Veterinary Entomology 10 1 80 86 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Alphitobius diaperinus amp oldid 1118401939, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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