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Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies

The Empire of Japan occupied the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the war in September 1945. It was one of the most crucial and important periods in modern Indonesian history.

Japanese-occupied Dutch East Indies
Ranryō Higashi Indo
蘭領東印度 (Japanese)
Pendudukan Jepang di Hindia-Belanda (Indonesian)
1942–1945
Motto: Hakkō ichiu
(八紘一宇)
Anthem: Kimigayo

Indonesia Raya (unofficial)
The former Dutch East Indies (dark red) within the Empire of Japan (light red) at its furthest extent
StatusMilitary occupation
by the Empire of Japan
CapitalDjakarta
Common languagesJapanese, Indonesian
GovernmentMilitary occupation
Emperor 
• 1942–1945
Hirohito
Historical eraWorld War II
8 March 1942
1941–1945
27 February 1942
1 March 1942
• Pontianak incidents (Pontianak Massacres)
1943–1944
14 February 1945
15 August 1945
17 August 1945
CurrencyNetherlands Indian roepiah
Today part ofIndonesia
East Timor

In May 1940, Germany occupied the Netherlands, and martial law was declared in the Dutch East Indies. Following the failure of negotiations between the Dutch authorities and the Japanese, Japanese assets in the archipelago were frozen. The Dutch declared war on Japan following the 7 December 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor. The Japanese invasion of the Dutch East Indies began on 10 January 1942, and the Imperial Japanese Army overran the entire colony in less than three months. The Dutch surrendered on 8 March. [1] Initially, most Indonesians welcomed the Japanese as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters. The sentiment changed, however, as between 4 and 10 million Indonesians were recruited as forced labourers (romusha) on economic development and defense projects in Java. Between 200,000 and half a million were sent away from Java to the outer islands, and as far as Burma and Siam. Of those taken off Java, not more than 70,000 survived the war.[2] Four million people died in the Dutch East Indies as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation, including 30,000 European civilian internee deaths.[3]

In 1944–1945, Allied troops largely bypassed the Dutch East Indies and did not fight their way into the most populous parts such as Java and Sumatra. As such, most of the Dutch East Indies was still under occupation at the time of Japan's surrender in August 1945.

The occupation was the first serious challenge to the Dutch in their colony and ended the Dutch colonial rule. By its end, changes were so numerous and extraordinary that the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution became possible.[4] Unlike the Dutch, the Japanese facilitated the politicisation of Indonesians down to the village level. The Japanese educated, trained and armed many young Indonesians and gave their nationalist leaders a political voice. Thus, through both the destruction of the Dutch colonial regime and the facilitation of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese occupation created the conditions for the proclamation of Indonesian independence within days of the Japanese surrender in the Pacific. However, the Netherlands sought to reclaim the Indies, and a bitter five-year diplomatic, military and social struggle ensued, resulting in the Netherlands recognising Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949.

Background

Until 1942, what is now Indonesia was a colony of the Netherlands and was known as the Dutch East Indies. In 1929, during the Indonesian National Awakening, Indonesian nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta (later founding President and Vice-president), foresaw a Pacific War and that a Japanese advance on the Dutch East Indies might be advantageous for the independence cause.[5]

 
Map prepared by the Japanese during World War II, depicting Java, the most populous island in the Dutch East Indies

The Japanese spread the word that they were the 'Light of Asia'. Japan was the only Asian nation that had successfully transformed itself into a modern technological society at the end of the 19th century and it remained independent when most Asian countries had been under European or American power, and had beaten a European power, Russia, in war.[6] Following its military campaign in China, Japan turned its attention to Southeast Asia, advocating to other Asians a 'Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere', which they described as a type of trade zone under Japanese leadership. The Japanese had gradually spread their influence through Asia in the first half of the 20th century and during the 1920s and 1930s had established business links in the Indies. These ranged from small town barbers, photographic studios and salesmen, to large department stores and firms such as Suzuki and Mitsubishi becoming involved in the sugar trade.[7]

The Japanese population peaked in 1931 with 6,949 residents before starting a gradual decrease, largely due to economic tensions between Japan and the Netherlands Indies government.[8] A number of Japanese had been sent by their government to establish links with Indonesian nationalists, particularly with Muslim parties, while Indonesian nationalists were sponsored to visit Japan. Such encouragement of Indonesian nationalism was part of a broader Japanese plan for an 'Asia for the Asians'.[9] While most Indonesians were hopeful for the Japanese promise of an end to the Dutch racially based system, Chinese Indonesians, who enjoyed a privileged position under Dutch rule, were less optimistic.[9] Japanese aggression in Manchuria and China in the late 1930s caused anxiety amongst the Chinese in Indonesia who set up funds to support the anti-Japanese effort. Dutch intelligence services also monitored Japanese living in Indonesia.[9]

In November 1941, Madjlis Rakjat Indonesia, an Indonesian organisation of religious, political and trade union groups, submitted a memorandum to the Dutch East Indies Government requesting the mobilisation of the Indonesian people in the face of the war threat. The memorandum was rejected because the Government did not consider the Madjlis Rakyat Indonesia to be representative of the people. Less than four months later, the Japanese had occupied the archipelago.[10]

Invasion

 
Map of the Japanese administrative areas after April 1943

On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile declared war on Japan.[11] In January the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM) was formed to co-ordinate Allied forces in South East Asia, under the command of General Archibald Wavell.[12] In the weeks leading up to the invasion, senior Dutch government officials went into exile, taking political prisoners, family, and personal staff to Australia. Before the arrival of Japanese troops, there were conflicts between rival Indonesian groups where people were killed, vanished or went into hiding. Chinese- and Dutch-owned properties were ransacked and destroyed.[13]

The invasion in early 1942 was swift and complete. By January 1942, parts of Sulawesi and Kalimantan were under Japanese control. By February, the Japanese had landed on Sumatra where they had encouraged the Acehnese to rebel against the Dutch.[14] On 19 February, having already taken Ambon, the Japanese Eastern Task Force landed in Timor, dropping a special parachute unit into West Timor near Kupang, and landing in the Dili area of Portuguese Timor to drive out the Allied forces which had invaded in December.[15] On 27 February, the Allied navy's last effort to contain Japan was swept aside by their defeat in the Battle of the Java Sea.[14] From 28 February to 1 March 1942, Japanese troops landed on four places along the northern coast of Java almost undisturbed.[16] The fiercest fighting had been in invasion points in Ambon, Timor, Kalimantan, and on the Java Sea. In places where there were no Dutch troops, such as Bali, there was no fighting.[17] On 9 March, the Dutch commander surrendered along with Governor General Jonkheer A.W.L. Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer.[14]

The Japanese occupation was initially greeted with optimistic enthusiasm by Indonesians who came to meet the Japanese army waving flags and shouting support such as "Japan is our older brother" and "banzai Dai Nippon".[18] As the Japanese advanced, rebellious Indonesians in virtually every part of the archipelago killed groups of Europeans (particularly the Dutch) and informed the Japanese reliably on the whereabouts of larger groups.[19] As famed Indonesian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer noted: "With the arrival of the Japanese just about everyone was full of hope, except for those who had worked in the service of the Dutch.[20]

Japanese administration

Expecting that Dutch administrators would be kept by the Japanese to run the colony, most Dutch had refused to leave. Instead, they were sent to detention camps and Japanese or Indonesian replacements were installed in senior and technical positions.[21] Japanese troops took control of government infrastructure and services such as ports and postal services.[17] In addition to the 100,000 European (and some Chinese) civilians interned, 80,000 Dutch, British, Australian, and US Allied troops went to prisoner-of-war camps where the death rates were between 13 and 30 percent.[14] The Indonesian ruling class (composed of local officials and politicians who had formerly worked for the Dutch colonial government) co-operated with the Japanese military authorities, who in turn helped to keep the local political elites in power and employ them to supply newly arrived Japanese industrial concerns and businesses and the armed forces (chiefly auxiliary military and police units run by the Japanese military in the Dutch East Indies). Indonesian co-operation allowed the Japanese military government to focus on securing the large archipelago's waterways and skies and using its islands as defense posts against any Allied attacks (which were assumed to most likely come from Australia).[22]

The Japanese divided Indonesia into three separate regions; Sumatra (along with Malaya) was placed under the 25th Army, Java and Madura were under the 16th Army, while Borneo and eastern Indonesia were controlled by the 2nd South Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy (the IJN) based in Makassar. The 16th Army was headquartered in Jakarta and the 25th Army was based in Singapore until April 1943, when its command was narrowed to just Sumatra and the headquarters moved to Bukittinggi.[4][23]

In Java, the Japanese 16th Army had planned to manage Java as a single entity. However the army had not brought enough administration experts to set up a separate body. A large number of Japanese residents in Java, who could have advised the occupiers, were taken to Australia at the outbreak of war, while a group of civilian administrators were killed in the Battle of the Java Sea. Problems were compounded by the fact that very few Indonesians spoke Japanese. It was only in August 1942 that the administration was formally separated from the army command. The military government (Japanese: 軍政, romanizedgunsei) was then headed by the 16th Army chief of staff (Japanese: 軍政官, romanizedgunseikan). His deputy headed the most important section of the administration, the Department of General Affairs (Japanese: 総務部, romanizedsōmubu), which acted as a secretariat and issued policies. There were three Gunseikan for Java during the occupation:[24][25][26]

Sumatra also had a Gunseikan. In the region controlled by the navy, the plan was to turn to area into a permanent colony administered by civilian Japanese bureaucrats, but still subordinate to the navy. Therefore, the IJN brought administrators with them. The chief civil administrator (Japanese: 総官, romanizedsōkan) reported directly to the commander of the Southwest Area Fleet. Under the Sōkan were three regional administrative departments based in Makassar, Banjarmasin, and Ambon.[27][28]

Treatment of the Indonesian population

Experience of the occupation varied considerably, depending upon where one lived and one's social position. Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced torture, sex slavery, arbitrary arrest and execution, and other war crimes. Many thousands of people were taken away from Indonesia as forced labourers (romusha) for Japanese military projects, including the Burma-Siam and Saketi-Bayah railways, and suffered or died as a result of ill-treatment and starvation. Between 200,000 and half a million romusha recruited from Java were forced to work by the Japanese military.[3]

Tens of thousands of Indonesians were to starve, work as slave labourers, or be forced from their homes. In the National Revolution that followed, tens, even hundreds, of thousands, would die in fighting against the Japanese, Allied forces, and other Indonesians, before independence was achieved.[29][4] A later United Nations report stated that 4,000,000 people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation, including 30,000 European civilian internee deaths.[3] A Dutch government study describing how the Japanese military recruited women as prostitutes by force in Indonesia concluded that among the 200 to 300 European women working in the Japanese military brothels, "some sixty five were most certainly forced into prostitution."[30][31] Other young women (and their families), faced with various pressures in the internment camps or in wartime society, agreed to offers of work, the nature of which was frequently not explicitly stated.[32][33]

 
Netherlands Indian Gulden – the Japanese occupation currency

Underground resistance

 
Indonesian nationalist Amir Sjarifuddin organized an underground resistance against the Japanese occupation.

Next to Sutan Sjahrir who led the student (Pemuda) underground, the only prominent opposition politician was leftist Amir Sjarifuddin who was given 25,000 guilders by the Dutch in early 1942 to organize an underground resistance through his Marxist and nationalist connections. The Japanese arrested Amir in 1943, and he only escaped execution following intervention from Sukarno, whose popularity in Indonesia and hence the importance to the war effort was recognized by the Japanese. Apart from Amir's Surabaya-based group, the active pro-Allied activities were among the Chinese, Ambonese, and Manadonese.[34]

In September 1943 at Amuntai in South Kalimantan there was an attempt to establish an Islamic state, but this was soundly defeated.[35] In the 1943–1944 Pontianak incidents (also known as the Mandor Affair), the Japanese orchestrated a mass arrest of Malay elites and Arabs, Chinese, Javanese, Manadonese, Dayaks, Bugis, Bataks, Minangkabau, Dutch, Indians, and Eurasians in Kalimantan, including all of the Malay Sultans, accused them of plotting to overthrow Japanese rule, and then massacred them.[36][37] The Japanese falsely claimed that all of those ethnic groups and organisations such as the Islamic Pemuda Muhammadijah were involved in a plot to overthrow the Japanese and create a "People's Republic of West Borneo" (Negara Rakyat Borneo Barat).[38] The Japanese claimed that- "Sultans, Chinese, Indonesian government officials, Indians and Arabs, who had been antagonistic to each other, joined together to massacre Japanese.", naming the Sultan of the Pontianak Sultanate as one of the "ringleaders" in the planned rebellion.[39] Up to 25 aristocrats, relatives of the Sultan of Pontianak, and many other prominent individuals were named as participants in the plot by the Japanese and then executed at Mandor.[40][41] The Sultans of Pontianak, Sambas, Ketapang, Soekadana, Simbang, Koeboe, Ngabang, Sanggau, Sekadau, Tajan, Singtan, and Mempawa were all executed by the Japanese, respectively, their names were Sjarif Mohamed Alkadri, Mohamad Ibrahim Tsafidedin, Goesti Saoenan, Tengkoe Idris, Goesti Mesir, Sjarif Saleh, Goesti Abdoel Hamid, Ade Mohamad Arif, Goesti Mohamad Kelip, Goesti Djapar, Raden Abdul Bahri Danoe Perdana, and Mohammed Ahoufiek.[42] They are known as the "12 Dokoh".[43] In Java, the Japanese jailed Syarif Abdul Hamid Alqadrie, the son of Sultan Syarif Mohamad Alkadrie (Sjarif Mohamed Alkadri).[44] Since he was in Java during the executions, the future Hamid II was the only male in his family not killed, while the Japanese beheaded all 28 other male relatives of Pontianak Sultan Mohammed Alkadri.[45] Later in 1944, the Dayaks assassinated a Japanese man named Nakatani, who was involved in the incident and who was known for his cruelty. Sultan of Pontianak Mohamed Alkadri's fourth son, Pengeran Agoen (Pangeran Agung), and another son, Pengeran Adipati (Pangeran Adipati), were both killed by the Japanese in the incident.[46] The Japanese had beheaded both Pangeran Adipati and Pangeran Agung,[47] in a public execution.[48] The Japanese extermination of the Malay elite of Pontianak paved the way for a new Dayak elite to arise in its place.[49] According to Mary F. Somers Heidhues, during May and June 1945, some Japanese were killed in a rebellion by the Dayaks in Sanggau.[50] According to Jamie S. Davidson, this rebellion, during which many Dayaks and Japanese were killed, occurred from April through August 1945, and was called the "Majang Desa War".[51] The Pontianak Incidents, or Affairs, are divided into two Pontianak incidents by scholars, variously categorised according to mass killings and arrests, which occurred in several stages on different dates. The Pontianak incident negatively impacted the Chinese community in Kalimantan.[52][53]

The Acehnese Ulama (Islamic clerics) fought against both the Dutch and the Japanese, revolting against the Dutch in February 1942 and against Japan in November 1942. The revolt was led by the All-Aceh Religious Scholars' Association (PUSA), and was centred around Tjot Plieng village religious school. Japanese troops armed with mortars and machine guns were attacked by sword-wielding Acehnese led by Tengku Abdul Djalil. The Japanese suffered 18 dead in the uprising while over a hundred Acehnese died, and the school and village mosque were destroyed.[35][54]

Japanese effort in building a puppet state

 
Young Indonesian boys being trained by the Imperial Japanese Army

In the decades before the war, the Dutch had been overwhelmingly successful in suppressing the small nationalist movement in Indonesia such that the Japanese proved fundamental for coming Indonesian independence. During the occupation, the Japanese encouraged and backed Indonesian nationalistic sentiments, created new Indonesian institutions, and promoted nationalist leaders such as Sukarno. The openness now provided to Indonesian nationalism, combined with the Japanese destruction of much of the Dutch colonial state, were fundamental to the Indonesian National Revolution that followed World War Two.[55]

As Japan's territorial expansion was halted, then reversed, Japan, the 16th Army in Java in particular, became more favorable to the idea of Indonesian involvement in the governance of Java. A Central Advisory Board was established, headed by pre-war independence figure Sukarno, with Indonesians appointed as advisors. In October 1943, the Japanese established a volunteer force to defend against a future allied invasion, the Defenders of the Homeland (Indonesian: Pembela Tanah Air, PETA; Japanese: 郷土防衛義勇軍, romanizedkyōdo bōei giyūgun) Then in 1944 the Java Service Association (Jawa Hokokai) was formed to mobilise the masses for Japanese interests.[56]

On 7 September 1944, Japanese Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso promised independence for the 'East Indies' "in the future". The authorities in Java then allowed the flying of the Indonesian flag at Jawa Hokokai buildings. Naval liaison officer in Batavia Rear-admiral Tadashi Maeda provided official funds for tours around the archipelago by Sukarno and fellow independence activist Hatta, officially as part of their Jawa Hokokai responsibilities. In October 1944, Maeda established a Free Indonesia Dormitory to prepare youth leaders for an independent Indonesia. With the war situation becoming increasingly dire, in March 1945 the Japanese announced the formation of an Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK), comprising members of the older political generation, including Sukarno and Hatta. Chaired by Rajiman Wediodiningrat, in two sessions in May and June, it decided on the basis for an independent nation and produced a draft constitution. Meanwhile, the younger activists, known as the pemuda, wanted much more overt moves towards independence than the older generation were willing to risk, resulting in a split between the generations.[57][58]

1966 ABC report examining Sukarno's alliance between imperial Japan and the Indonesian nationalist movement

On 29 April 1945, Lt. Gen. Kumakichi Harada, the commander of 16th Army in Java established the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (Indonesian: Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan (BPUPK); Japanese: 独立準備調査会, Dokuritsu Junbi Chōsakai), as the initial stage of the establishment of independence for the area under the control of the 16th Army.[59]

End of the occupation

 
Japanese commanders listening to the terms of surrender

General MacArthur wanted to fight his way with Allied troops to liberate Java in 1944–45 but was ordered not to by the joint chiefs and President Roosevelt. He did successfully conduct the Western New Guinea campaign in 1944 which liberated much of Dutch New Guinea. The U.S. built Naval Base Morotai, which opened in September 1944 after the Battle of Morotai, so they could use the facilities for the Philippines campaign. Some Australian bases were built during the war. The Borneo campaign between May and July 1945 was ordered by MacArthur to liberate British Borneo and Dutch Borneo. The Japanese occupation officially ended with the Japanese surrender in the Pacific and two days later Sukarno declared Indonesian Independence; Indonesian forces spent the next four years fighting the Dutch for independence. According to historian Theodore Friend, American restraint from fighting their way into Java saved Japanese, Javanese, Dutch, and American lives, but also impeded international support for Indonesian independence.[60]

At the end of the war, there were around 300,000 Japanese civilian and military personnel in the East Indies. The Dutch East Indies, alongside French Indochina, were transferred from the American-led South West Pacific Area Command, to the UK-led South East Asia Command with effect 15 August 1945. Consequently, the UK became the lead nation in the reoccupation of the territories.[61] The priorities for the UK occupation was to take the surrender of, and repatriate, Japanese forces, and also the Recovery of Allied Prisoners of War and Internees (RAPWI) operation.[62] Repatriation of Japanese prisoners of war was delayed due to their low priority for sea-borne transport in the Allied Shipping Pool.[61] By April 1946, only 48,000 had been repatriated, however, the majority were evacuated in May and June.[61] However, around 100,000 Japanese prisoners of war were retained for use as labour until early 1946.[63] It was reported that approximately 25,000 Japanese soldiers allied themselves with Indonesian nationalists and were subsequently beyond Allied control.[61] Some eventually assimilated themselves into local communities. Many of these soldiers joined the TNI or other Indonesian military organizations, and a number of these former Japanese soldiers died during the Indonesian National Revolution, such as Abdul Rachman (Ichiki Tatsuo).[64][65][66]

 
Japanese soldiers on trial

The final stages of warfare were initiated in October 1945 when, in accordance with the terms of their surrender, the Japanese tried to re-establish the authority they relinquished to Indonesians in the towns and cities. Japanese military police killed Republican pemuda in Pekalongan (Central Java) on 3 October, and Japanese troops drove Republican pemuda out of Bandung in West Java and handed the city to the British, but the fiercest fighting involving the Japanese was in Semarang. On 14 October, British forces began to occupy the city. Retreating Republican forces retaliated by killing between 130 and 300 Japanese prisoners they were holding. Five hundred Japanese and 2,000 Indonesians had been killed and the Japanese had almost captured the city six days later when British forces arrived.[67]

I, of course, knew that we had been forced to keep Japanese troops under arms to protect our lines of communication and vital areas ... but it was nevertheless a great shock to me to find over a thousand Japanese troops guarding the nine miles of road from the airport to the town.[68]

— Lord Mountbatten of Burma in April 1946 after visiting Sumatra, referring to the use of Japanese Surrendered Personnel.

From 6 March 1946 to 24 December 1949, the returning Dutch authorities held 448 war crimes trials against 1,038 suspects. 969 of those were condemned (93.4%) with 236 (24.4%) receiving a death sentence.[69][70]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Ricklefs 2008, p. 323-325.
  2. ^ Ricklefs 2008, p. 337.
  3. ^ a b c Dower 1986, p. 296.
  4. ^ a b c Ricklefs 2008, p. 325.
  5. ^ Friend 2003, p. 29.
  6. ^ Vickers 2013, pp. 86–87.
  7. ^ Vickers 2013, pp. 85–86.
  8. ^ Yamamoto 2000.
  9. ^ a b c Vickers 2013, p. 86.
  10. ^ Bidien 1945, pp. 345–346.
  11. ^ Ricklefs 2008, pp. 324–325.
  12. ^ War History Office 2015, p. 437.
  13. ^ Taylor 2003, pp. 310–311.
  14. ^ a b c d Vickers 2013, p. 90.
  15. ^ Horton 2007.
  16. ^ Pike 2016, pp. 322–333.
  17. ^ a b Taylor 2003, p. 310.
  18. ^ Mizuma 2013, pp. 49–68
  19. ^ Womack 2006, pp. 194–196.
  20. ^ Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1998, pp. 157–158) quoted in Vickers (2013, p. 85)
  21. ^ Cribb & Brown 1995, p. 13.
  22. ^ Taylor 2003, p. 311.
  23. ^ Reid 1971, p. 22.
  24. ^ Benda 1956, p. 543.
  25. ^ Muhammad Abdul Aziz 2012, pp. 152–153.
  26. ^ Cribb & Kahin 2004, p. 465.
  27. ^ Muhammad Abdul Aziz 2012, pp. 152–154.
  28. ^ Post 2009, pp. 74–75.
  29. ^ Vickers 2013, p. 94.
  30. ^ Asian Women's Fund.
  31. ^ Soh 2008, p. 21.
  32. ^ Soh 2008, p. 22.
  33. ^ Poelgeest 1994, p. 2.
  34. ^ Reid 1974, p. 12.
  35. ^ a b Ricklefs 2008, p. 331.
  36. ^ Heidhues 2003, p. 204.
  37. ^ Ooi 2013, p. 42.
  38. ^ Heidhues 2003, p. 205.
  39. ^ ed. Kratoska 2013, p. 160.
  40. ^ Davidson 2002, p. 79.
  41. ^ Davidson 2003, p. 9.
  42. ^ ed. Kratoska 2002, pp. 167–168.
  43. ^ Ooi 2013.
  44. ^ Ooi 2013, p. 176.
  45. ^ Zweers 2011, p. 6.
  46. ^ ed. Kratoska 2013, p. 168.
  47. ^ Heidhues 2003, p. 207.
  48. ^ Felton 2007, p. 86.
  49. ^ Davidson 2009, p. 37.
  50. ^ Heidhues 2003, p. 206.
  51. ^ Davidson 2003, p. 8.
  52. ^ Hui 2011, p. 42.
  53. ^ Baldacchino 2013, p. 75.
  54. ^ Reid 2013, p. 120.
  55. ^ Vickers 2013, p. 85.
  56. ^ Ricklefs 2008, pp. 334–336.
  57. ^ Ricklefs 2008, pp. 334–339.
  58. ^ Reid 1974, p. 14.
  59. ^ Kusuma & Elson 2011, p. 196.
  60. ^ Friend 2003, p. 33.
  61. ^ a b c d Dennis, Peter (1987). Troubled Days of Peace: Mountbatten and South East Asia Command, 1945-46. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 227. ISBN 0-7190-2205-3.
  62. ^ "Far East Prisoners of War History". 17 August 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  63. ^ 'Concentration and Repatriation of JSP in SEAC: Briefs for SAC returning to London 30 May 1946, WO 172/1813.
  64. ^ Horton 2016, p. 127.
  65. ^ Gotō 1976, pp. 57–68.
  66. ^ McMillan 2006, p. 79.
  67. ^ Ricklefs 2008, p. 349.
  68. ^ Kibata 2000, p. 146.
  69. ^ Piccigallo 1979.
  70. ^ Borch 2017, p. 36.

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  • Kratoska, Paul H. (2013). Southeast Asian Minorities in the Wartime Japanese Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-12506-5. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  • Kusuma, A.B.; Elson, R.E. (2011), "A note on the sources for the 1945 constitutional debates in Indonesia" (PDF), Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 167 (2–3): 196–209, doi:10.1163/22134379-90003589, ISSN 0006-2294
  • Martinkus, John (2004). Indonesia's Secret War in Aceh (illustrated ed.). Random House Australia. ISBN 978-1-74051-209-1. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  • Mizuma, Masanori (2013). ひと目でわかる「アジア解放」時代の日本精神 [Japanese spirit in the "Liberation of Asia" era that can be seen at a glance] (in Japanese). PHP Institute. ISBN 978-4-569-81389-9.
  • McMillan, Richard (2006). The British Occupation of Indonesia: 1945-1946 Britain, The Netherlands and the Indonesian Revolution. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-25427-9.
  • Muhammad Abdul Aziz (2012). Japan's Colonialism and Indonesia. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-94-011-9233-0.
  • Nasution, Abdul Haris (1963). Tentara Nasional Indonesia, Volume 1. Ganaco. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  • Piccigallo, Philip R. (1979). The Japanese On Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945–1951. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-78033-0.
  • Pike, Frances (2016). Hirohito's War: The Pacific War, 1941-1945. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-02122-8.
  • Poelgeest, Bart van (24 January 1994). "Report of a study of Dutch government documents on the forced prostitution of Dutch women in the Dutch East Indies during the Japanese occupation (Unofficial Translation)" (PDF). Digital Museum: The Comfort Women Issue and the Asian Women's Fund. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
  • Post, Peter (2009). The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-19017-7.
  • Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1998). The Mute's Soliloquy. Translated by Willem Samuels. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-028904-6.
  • Reid, Anthony (October 1971). "The Birth of the Republic of Sumatra" (PDF). Indonesia. 12 (12): 21–4. doi:10.2307/3350656. JSTOR 3350656.
  • Reid, Anthony (1974). The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950. Melbourne: Longman Pty. ISBN 978-0-582-71046-7.
  • Reid, Anthony (2013). The Blood of the People: Revolution and the End of Traditional Rule in Northern Sumatra. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-81-7835-776-8.
  • Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (2008). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1200 (4th ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-14918-3.
  • Sai, Siew-Min; Hoon, Chang-Yau, eds. (2013). Chinese Indonesians Reassessed: History, Religion and Belonging. Vol. 52 of Routledge contemporary Southeast Asia series (illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-60801-5. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
  • Soh, Chunghee Sarah (2008). The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan. University of Chicago Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-226-76777-2.
  • Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10518-6.
  • Vickers, Adrian (2013). A History Modern of Indonesia (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-62445-0.
  • War History Office of the National Defense College of Japan (2015). Remmelink, Willem (ed.). The Invasion of the Dutch East Indies (PDF). Leiden University Press. doi:10.26530/OAPEN_595090. ISBN 978-94-006-0229-8. S2CID 163579476.
  • Womack, Tom (2006). The Dutch Naval Air Force against Japan: The Defense of the Netherlands East Indies, 1941–1942. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2365-1.
  • Yamamoto, Mayumi (2000). "Spell of the Rebel, Monumental Apprehensions: Japanese Discourses On Pieter Erberveld" (PDF). Indonesia. 77 (77): 109–143.

Further reading

  • Anderson, Ben (1972). Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944–1946. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0687-4.
  • Hillen, Ernest (1993). The Way of a Boy: A Memoir of Java. Toronto: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-85049-5.
  • Zweers, Louis (Spring 2011). "The crown jewels lost and found" (PDF). The Newsletter. No. 56. International Institute for Asian Studies.

External links

  •   Media related to Japanese occupation of Indonesia at Wikimedia Commons

japanese, occupation, dutch, east, indies, empire, japan, occupied, dutch, east, indies, indonesia, during, world, from, march, 1942, until, after, september, 1945, most, crucial, important, periods, modern, indonesian, history, japanese, occupied, dutch, east. The Empire of Japan occupied the Dutch East Indies now Indonesia during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the war in September 1945 It was one of the most crucial and important periods in modern Indonesian history Japanese occupied Dutch East IndiesRanryō Higashi Indo蘭領東印度 Japanese Pendudukan Jepang di Hindia Belanda Indonesian 1942 1945Flag of the Empire of Japan amp Flag of Indonesia Imperial SealMotto Hakkō ichiu 八紘一宇 Anthem Kimigayo source source track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track track Indonesia Raya unofficial source source The former Dutch East Indies dark red within the Empire of Japan light red at its furthest extentStatusMilitary occupationby the Empire of JapanCapitalDjakartaCommon languagesJapanese IndonesianGovernmentMilitary occupationEmperor 1942 1945HirohitoHistorical eraWorld War II Dutch capitulation8 March 1942 Pacific War1941 1945 First Battle of the Java Sea27 February 1942 Second Battle of the Java Sea1 March 1942 Pontianak incidents Pontianak Massacres 1943 1944 PETA insurgency14 February 1945 Surrender of Japan15 August 1945 Independence proclaimed17 August 1945CurrencyNetherlands Indian roepiahPreceded by Succeeded byDutch East IndiesPortuguese Timor IndonesiaDutch East IndiesPortuguese TimorToday part ofIndonesiaEast TimorIn May 1940 Germany occupied the Netherlands and martial law was declared in the Dutch East Indies Following the failure of negotiations between the Dutch authorities and the Japanese Japanese assets in the archipelago were frozen The Dutch declared war on Japan following the 7 December 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor The Japanese invasion of the Dutch East Indies began on 10 January 1942 and the Imperial Japanese Army overran the entire colony in less than three months The Dutch surrendered on 8 March 1 Initially most Indonesians welcomed the Japanese as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters The sentiment changed however as between 4 and 10 million Indonesians were recruited as forced labourers romusha on economic development and defense projects in Java Between 200 000 and half a million were sent away from Java to the outer islands and as far as Burma and Siam Of those taken off Java not more than 70 000 survived the war 2 Four million people died in the Dutch East Indies as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation including 30 000 European civilian internee deaths 3 In 1944 1945 Allied troops largely bypassed the Dutch East Indies and did not fight their way into the most populous parts such as Java and Sumatra As such most of the Dutch East Indies was still under occupation at the time of Japan s surrender in August 1945 The occupation was the first serious challenge to the Dutch in their colony and ended the Dutch colonial rule By its end changes were so numerous and extraordinary that the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution became possible 4 Unlike the Dutch the Japanese facilitated the politicisation of Indonesians down to the village level The Japanese educated trained and armed many young Indonesians and gave their nationalist leaders a political voice Thus through both the destruction of the Dutch colonial regime and the facilitation of Indonesian nationalism the Japanese occupation created the conditions for the proclamation of Indonesian independence within days of the Japanese surrender in the Pacific However the Netherlands sought to reclaim the Indies and a bitter five year diplomatic military and social struggle ensued resulting in the Netherlands recognising Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949 Contents 1 Background 2 Invasion 3 Japanese administration 4 Treatment of the Indonesian population 4 1 Underground resistance 4 2 Japanese effort in building a puppet state 5 End of the occupation 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksBackground EditUntil 1942 what is now Indonesia was a colony of the Netherlands and was known as the Dutch East Indies In 1929 during the Indonesian National Awakening Indonesian nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta later founding President and Vice president foresaw a Pacific War and that a Japanese advance on the Dutch East Indies might be advantageous for the independence cause 5 Map prepared by the Japanese during World War II depicting Java the most populous island in the Dutch East Indies The Japanese spread the word that they were the Light of Asia Japan was the only Asian nation that had successfully transformed itself into a modern technological society at the end of the 19th century and it remained independent when most Asian countries had been under European or American power and had beaten a European power Russia in war 6 Following its military campaign in China Japan turned its attention to Southeast Asia advocating to other Asians a Greater East Asian Co Prosperity Sphere which they described as a type of trade zone under Japanese leadership The Japanese had gradually spread their influence through Asia in the first half of the 20th century and during the 1920s and 1930s had established business links in the Indies These ranged from small town barbers photographic studios and salesmen to large department stores and firms such as Suzuki and Mitsubishi becoming involved in the sugar trade 7 The Japanese population peaked in 1931 with 6 949 residents before starting a gradual decrease largely due to economic tensions between Japan and the Netherlands Indies government 8 A number of Japanese had been sent by their government to establish links with Indonesian nationalists particularly with Muslim parties while Indonesian nationalists were sponsored to visit Japan Such encouragement of Indonesian nationalism was part of a broader Japanese plan for an Asia for the Asians 9 While most Indonesians were hopeful for the Japanese promise of an end to the Dutch racially based system Chinese Indonesians who enjoyed a privileged position under Dutch rule were less optimistic 9 Japanese aggression in Manchuria and China in the late 1930s caused anxiety amongst the Chinese in Indonesia who set up funds to support the anti Japanese effort Dutch intelligence services also monitored Japanese living in Indonesia 9 In November 1941 Madjlis Rakjat Indonesia an Indonesian organisation of religious political and trade union groups submitted a memorandum to the Dutch East Indies Government requesting the mobilisation of the Indonesian people in the face of the war threat The memorandum was rejected because the Government did not consider the Madjlis Rakyat Indonesia to be representative of the people Less than four months later the Japanese had occupied the archipelago 10 Invasion EditMain article Dutch East Indies campaign Map of the Japanese administrative areas after April 1943 On 8 December 1941 the Dutch government in exile declared war on Japan 11 In January the American British Dutch Australian Command ABDACOM was formed to co ordinate Allied forces in South East Asia under the command of General Archibald Wavell 12 In the weeks leading up to the invasion senior Dutch government officials went into exile taking political prisoners family and personal staff to Australia Before the arrival of Japanese troops there were conflicts between rival Indonesian groups where people were killed vanished or went into hiding Chinese and Dutch owned properties were ransacked and destroyed 13 The invasion in early 1942 was swift and complete By January 1942 parts of Sulawesi and Kalimantan were under Japanese control By February the Japanese had landed on Sumatra where they had encouraged the Acehnese to rebel against the Dutch 14 On 19 February having already taken Ambon the Japanese Eastern Task Force landed in Timor dropping a special parachute unit into West Timor near Kupang and landing in the Dili area of Portuguese Timor to drive out the Allied forces which had invaded in December 15 On 27 February the Allied navy s last effort to contain Japan was swept aside by their defeat in the Battle of the Java Sea 14 From 28 February to 1 March 1942 Japanese troops landed on four places along the northern coast of Java almost undisturbed 16 The fiercest fighting had been in invasion points in Ambon Timor Kalimantan and on the Java Sea In places where there were no Dutch troops such as Bali there was no fighting 17 On 9 March the Dutch commander surrendered along with Governor General Jonkheer A W L Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer 14 The Japanese occupation was initially greeted with optimistic enthusiasm by Indonesians who came to meet the Japanese army waving flags and shouting support such as Japan is our older brother and banzai Dai Nippon 18 As the Japanese advanced rebellious Indonesians in virtually every part of the archipelago killed groups of Europeans particularly the Dutch and informed the Japanese reliably on the whereabouts of larger groups 19 As famed Indonesian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer noted With the arrival of the Japanese just about everyone was full of hope except for those who had worked in the service of the Dutch 20 Japanese administration EditExpecting that Dutch administrators would be kept by the Japanese to run the colony most Dutch had refused to leave Instead they were sent to detention camps and Japanese or Indonesian replacements were installed in senior and technical positions 21 Japanese troops took control of government infrastructure and services such as ports and postal services 17 In addition to the 100 000 European and some Chinese civilians interned 80 000 Dutch British Australian and US Allied troops went to prisoner of war camps where the death rates were between 13 and 30 percent 14 The Indonesian ruling class composed of local officials and politicians who had formerly worked for the Dutch colonial government co operated with the Japanese military authorities who in turn helped to keep the local political elites in power and employ them to supply newly arrived Japanese industrial concerns and businesses and the armed forces chiefly auxiliary military and police units run by the Japanese military in the Dutch East Indies Indonesian co operation allowed the Japanese military government to focus on securing the large archipelago s waterways and skies and using its islands as defense posts against any Allied attacks which were assumed to most likely come from Australia 22 The Japanese divided Indonesia into three separate regions Sumatra along with Malaya was placed under the 25th Army Java and Madura were under the 16th Army while Borneo and eastern Indonesia were controlled by the 2nd South Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy the IJN based in Makassar The 16th Army was headquartered in Jakarta and the 25th Army was based in Singapore until April 1943 when its command was narrowed to just Sumatra and the headquarters moved to Bukittinggi 4 23 In Java the Japanese 16th Army had planned to manage Java as a single entity However the army had not brought enough administration experts to set up a separate body A large number of Japanese residents in Java who could have advised the occupiers were taken to Australia at the outbreak of war while a group of civilian administrators were killed in the Battle of the Java Sea Problems were compounded by the fact that very few Indonesians spoke Japanese It was only in August 1942 that the administration was formally separated from the army command The military government Japanese 軍政 romanized gunsei was then headed by the 16th Army chief of staff Japanese 軍政官 romanized gunseikan His deputy headed the most important section of the administration the Department of General Affairs Japanese 総務部 romanized sōmubu which acted as a secretariat and issued policies There were three Gunseikan for Java during the occupation 24 25 26 Imamura Hitoshi Harada Kumakichi Yamamoto MoichiroSumatra also had a Gunseikan In the region controlled by the navy the plan was to turn to area into a permanent colony administered by civilian Japanese bureaucrats but still subordinate to the navy Therefore the IJN brought administrators with them The chief civil administrator Japanese 総官 romanized sōkan reported directly to the commander of the Southwest Area Fleet Under the Sōkan were three regional administrative departments based in Makassar Banjarmasin and Ambon 27 28 Treatment of the Indonesian population EditExperience of the occupation varied considerably depending upon where one lived and one s social position Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced torture sex slavery arbitrary arrest and execution and other war crimes Many thousands of people were taken away from Indonesia as forced labourers romusha for Japanese military projects including the Burma Siam and Saketi Bayah railways and suffered or died as a result of ill treatment and starvation Between 200 000 and half a million romusha recruited from Java were forced to work by the Japanese military 3 Tens of thousands of Indonesians were to starve work as slave labourers or be forced from their homes In the National Revolution that followed tens even hundreds of thousands would die in fighting against the Japanese Allied forces and other Indonesians before independence was achieved 29 4 A later United Nations report stated that 4 000 000 people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation including 30 000 European civilian internee deaths 3 A Dutch government study describing how the Japanese military recruited women as prostitutes by force in Indonesia concluded that among the 200 to 300 European women working in the Japanese military brothels some sixty five were most certainly forced into prostitution 30 31 Other young women and their families faced with various pressures in the internment camps or in wartime society agreed to offers of work the nature of which was frequently not explicitly stated 32 33 Netherlands Indian Gulden the Japanese occupation currency Underground resistance Edit Indonesian nationalist Amir Sjarifuddin organized an underground resistance against the Japanese occupation Next to Sutan Sjahrir who led the student Pemuda underground the only prominent opposition politician was leftist Amir Sjarifuddin who was given 25 000 guilders by the Dutch in early 1942 to organize an underground resistance through his Marxist and nationalist connections The Japanese arrested Amir in 1943 and he only escaped execution following intervention from Sukarno whose popularity in Indonesia and hence the importance to the war effort was recognized by the Japanese Apart from Amir s Surabaya based group the active pro Allied activities were among the Chinese Ambonese and Manadonese 34 In September 1943 at Amuntai in South Kalimantan there was an attempt to establish an Islamic state but this was soundly defeated 35 In the 1943 1944 Pontianak incidents also known as the Mandor Affair the Japanese orchestrated a mass arrest of Malay elites and Arabs Chinese Javanese Manadonese Dayaks Bugis Bataks Minangkabau Dutch Indians and Eurasians in Kalimantan including all of the Malay Sultans accused them of plotting to overthrow Japanese rule and then massacred them 36 37 The Japanese falsely claimed that all of those ethnic groups and organisations such as the Islamic Pemuda Muhammadijah were involved in a plot to overthrow the Japanese and create a People s Republic of West Borneo Negara Rakyat Borneo Barat 38 The Japanese claimed that Sultans Chinese Indonesian government officials Indians and Arabs who had been antagonistic to each other joined together to massacre Japanese naming the Sultan of the Pontianak Sultanate as one of the ringleaders in the planned rebellion 39 Up to 25 aristocrats relatives of the Sultan of Pontianak and many other prominent individuals were named as participants in the plot by the Japanese and then executed at Mandor 40 41 The Sultans of Pontianak Sambas Ketapang Soekadana Simbang Koeboe Ngabang Sanggau Sekadau Tajan Singtan and Mempawa were all executed by the Japanese respectively their names were Sjarif Mohamed Alkadri Mohamad Ibrahim Tsafidedin Goesti Saoenan Tengkoe Idris Goesti Mesir Sjarif Saleh Goesti Abdoel Hamid Ade Mohamad Arif Goesti Mohamad Kelip Goesti Djapar Raden Abdul Bahri Danoe Perdana and Mohammed Ahoufiek 42 They are known as the 12 Dokoh 43 In Java the Japanese jailed Syarif Abdul Hamid Alqadrie the son of Sultan Syarif Mohamad Alkadrie Sjarif Mohamed Alkadri 44 Since he was in Java during the executions the future Hamid II was the only male in his family not killed while the Japanese beheaded all 28 other male relatives of Pontianak Sultan Mohammed Alkadri 45 Later in 1944 the Dayaks assassinated a Japanese man named Nakatani who was involved in the incident and who was known for his cruelty Sultan of Pontianak Mohamed Alkadri s fourth son Pengeran Agoen Pangeran Agung and another son Pengeran Adipati Pangeran Adipati were both killed by the Japanese in the incident 46 The Japanese had beheaded both Pangeran Adipati and Pangeran Agung 47 in a public execution 48 The Japanese extermination of the Malay elite of Pontianak paved the way for a new Dayak elite to arise in its place 49 According to Mary F Somers Heidhues during May and June 1945 some Japanese were killed in a rebellion by the Dayaks in Sanggau 50 According to Jamie S Davidson this rebellion during which many Dayaks and Japanese were killed occurred from April through August 1945 and was called the Majang Desa War 51 The Pontianak Incidents or Affairs are divided into two Pontianak incidents by scholars variously categorised according to mass killings and arrests which occurred in several stages on different dates The Pontianak incident negatively impacted the Chinese community in Kalimantan 52 53 The Acehnese Ulama Islamic clerics fought against both the Dutch and the Japanese revolting against the Dutch in February 1942 and against Japan in November 1942 The revolt was led by the All Aceh Religious Scholars Association PUSA and was centred around Tjot Plieng village religious school Japanese troops armed with mortars and machine guns were attacked by sword wielding Acehnese led by Tengku Abdul Djalil The Japanese suffered 18 dead in the uprising while over a hundred Acehnese died and the school and village mosque were destroyed 35 54 Japanese effort in building a puppet state Edit Young Indonesian boys being trained by the Imperial Japanese Army In the decades before the war the Dutch had been overwhelmingly successful in suppressing the small nationalist movement in Indonesia such that the Japanese proved fundamental for coming Indonesian independence During the occupation the Japanese encouraged and backed Indonesian nationalistic sentiments created new Indonesian institutions and promoted nationalist leaders such as Sukarno The openness now provided to Indonesian nationalism combined with the Japanese destruction of much of the Dutch colonial state were fundamental to the Indonesian National Revolution that followed World War Two 55 As Japan s territorial expansion was halted then reversed Japan the 16th Army in Java in particular became more favorable to the idea of Indonesian involvement in the governance of Java A Central Advisory Board was established headed by pre war independence figure Sukarno with Indonesians appointed as advisors In October 1943 the Japanese established a volunteer force to defend against a future allied invasion the Defenders of the Homeland Indonesian Pembela Tanah Air PETA Japanese 郷土防衛義勇軍 romanized kyōdo bōei giyugun Then in 1944 the Java Service Association Jawa Hokokai was formed to mobilise the masses for Japanese interests 56 On 7 September 1944 Japanese Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso promised independence for the East Indies in the future The authorities in Java then allowed the flying of the Indonesian flag at Jawa Hokokai buildings Naval liaison officer in Batavia Rear admiral Tadashi Maeda provided official funds for tours around the archipelago by Sukarno and fellow independence activist Hatta officially as part of their Jawa Hokokai responsibilities In October 1944 Maeda established a Free Indonesia Dormitory to prepare youth leaders for an independent Indonesia With the war situation becoming increasingly dire in March 1945 the Japanese announced the formation of an Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence BPUPK comprising members of the older political generation including Sukarno and Hatta Chaired by Rajiman Wediodiningrat in two sessions in May and June it decided on the basis for an independent nation and produced a draft constitution Meanwhile the younger activists known as the pemuda wanted much more overt moves towards independence than the older generation were willing to risk resulting in a split between the generations 57 58 source source source source source source track 1966 ABC report examining Sukarno s alliance between imperial Japan and the Indonesian nationalist movement On 29 April 1945 Lt Gen Kumakichi Harada the commander of 16th Army in Java established the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence Indonesian Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan BPUPK Japanese 独立準備調査会 Dokuritsu Junbi Chōsakai as the initial stage of the establishment of independence for the area under the control of the 16th Army 59 End of the occupation Edit Japanese commanders listening to the terms of surrender General MacArthur wanted to fight his way with Allied troops to liberate Java in 1944 45 but was ordered not to by the joint chiefs and President Roosevelt He did successfully conduct the Western New Guinea campaign in 1944 which liberated much of Dutch New Guinea The U S built Naval Base Morotai which opened in September 1944 after the Battle of Morotai so they could use the facilities for the Philippines campaign Some Australian bases were built during the war The Borneo campaign between May and July 1945 was ordered by MacArthur to liberate British Borneo and Dutch Borneo The Japanese occupation officially ended with the Japanese surrender in the Pacific and two days later Sukarno declared Indonesian Independence Indonesian forces spent the next four years fighting the Dutch for independence According to historian Theodore Friend American restraint from fighting their way into Java saved Japanese Javanese Dutch and American lives but also impeded international support for Indonesian independence 60 At the end of the war there were around 300 000 Japanese civilian and military personnel in the East Indies The Dutch East Indies alongside French Indochina were transferred from the American led South West Pacific Area Command to the UK led South East Asia Command with effect 15 August 1945 Consequently the UK became the lead nation in the reoccupation of the territories 61 The priorities for the UK occupation was to take the surrender of and repatriate Japanese forces and also the Recovery of Allied Prisoners of War and Internees RAPWI operation 62 Repatriation of Japanese prisoners of war was delayed due to their low priority for sea borne transport in the Allied Shipping Pool 61 By April 1946 only 48 000 had been repatriated however the majority were evacuated in May and June 61 However around 100 000 Japanese prisoners of war were retained for use as labour until early 1946 63 It was reported that approximately 25 000 Japanese soldiers allied themselves with Indonesian nationalists and were subsequently beyond Allied control 61 Some eventually assimilated themselves into local communities Many of these soldiers joined the TNI or other Indonesian military organizations and a number of these former Japanese soldiers died during the Indonesian National Revolution such as Abdul Rachman Ichiki Tatsuo 64 65 66 Japanese soldiers on trial The final stages of warfare were initiated in October 1945 when in accordance with the terms of their surrender the Japanese tried to re establish the authority they relinquished to Indonesians in the towns and cities Japanese military police killed Republican pemuda in Pekalongan Central Java on 3 October and Japanese troops drove Republican pemuda out of Bandung in West Java and handed the city to the British but the fiercest fighting involving the Japanese was in Semarang On 14 October British forces began to occupy the city Retreating Republican forces retaliated by killing between 130 and 300 Japanese prisoners they were holding Five hundred Japanese and 2 000 Indonesians had been killed and the Japanese had almost captured the city six days later when British forces arrived 67 I of course knew that we had been forced to keep Japanese troops under arms to protect our lines of communication and vital areas but it was nevertheless a great shock to me to find over a thousand Japanese troops guarding the nine miles of road from the airport to the town 68 Lord Mountbatten of Burma in April 1946 after visiting Sumatra referring to the use of Japanese Surrendered Personnel From 6 March 1946 to 24 December 1949 the returning Dutch authorities held 448 war crimes trials against 1 038 suspects 969 of those were condemned 93 4 with 236 24 4 receiving a death sentence 69 70 See also Edit Indonesia portal New Guinea portalBulu prison massacre Japanese colonial empire Japanese run internment campsNotes Edit Ricklefs 2008 p 323 325 Ricklefs 2008 p 337 a b c Dower 1986 p 296 a b c Ricklefs 2008 p 325 Friend 2003 p 29 Vickers 2013 pp 86 87 Vickers 2013 pp 85 86 Yamamoto 2000 a b c Vickers 2013 p 86 Bidien 1945 pp 345 346 Ricklefs 2008 pp 324 325 War History Office 2015 p 437 Taylor 2003 pp 310 311 a b c d Vickers 2013 p 90 Horton 2007 Pike 2016 pp 322 333 a b Taylor 2003 p 310 Mizuma 2013 pp 49 68 Womack 2006 pp 194 196 Pramoedya Ananta Toer 1998 pp 157 158 quoted in Vickers 2013 p 85 Cribb amp Brown 1995 p 13 Taylor 2003 p 311 Reid 1971 p 22 Benda 1956 p 543 Muhammad Abdul Aziz 2012 pp 152 153 Cribb amp Kahin 2004 p 465 Muhammad Abdul Aziz 2012 pp 152 154 Post 2009 pp 74 75 Vickers 2013 p 94 Asian Women s Fund Soh 2008 p 21 Soh 2008 p 22 Poelgeest 1994 p 2 Reid 1974 p 12 a b Ricklefs 2008 p 331 Heidhues 2003 p 204 Ooi 2013 p 42 Heidhues 2003 p 205 ed Kratoska 2013 p 160 Davidson 2002 p 79 Davidson 2003 p 9 ed Kratoska 2002 pp 167 168 Ooi 2013 Ooi 2013 p 176 Zweers 2011 p 6 ed Kratoska 2013 p 168 Heidhues 2003 p 207 Felton 2007 p 86 Davidson 2009 p 37 Heidhues 2003 p 206 Davidson 2003 p 8 Hui 2011 p 42 Baldacchino 2013 p 75 Reid 2013 p 120 Vickers 2013 p 85 Ricklefs 2008 pp 334 336 Ricklefs 2008 pp 334 339 Reid 1974 p 14 Kusuma amp Elson 2011 p 196 Friend 2003 p 33 a b c d Dennis Peter 1987 Troubled Days of Peace Mountbatten and South East Asia Command 1945 46 Manchester Manchester University Press p 227 ISBN 0 7190 2205 3 Far East Prisoners of War History 17 August 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Concentration and Repatriation of JSP in SEAC Briefs for SAC returning to London 30 May 1946 WO 172 1813 Horton 2016 p 127 Gotō 1976 pp 57 68 McMillan 2006 p 79 Ricklefs 2008 p 349 Kibata 2000 p 146 Piccigallo 1979 Borch 2017 p 36 References EditAsian Women s Fund Women made to become comfort women Netherlands Digital Museum The Comfort Women Issue and the Asian Women s Fund Retrieved 14 July 2021 Baldacchino Godfrey ed 2013 The Political Economy of Divided Islands Unified Geographies Multiple Polities Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 137 02313 1 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Benda Harry S 1956 The Beginnings of the Japanese Occupation of Java The Far Eastern Quarterly 14 4 541 560 doi 10 2307 2941923 JSTOR 2941923 S2CID 155352132 Bidien Charles 5 December 1945 Independence the Issue Far Eastern Survey 14 24 345 348 doi 10 2307 3023219 ISSN 0362 8949 JSTOR 3023219 Borch Frederic L 2017 Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies 1946 1949 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 877716 8 Cribb Robert Brown Colin 1995 Modern Indonesia A History Since 1945 Harlow Essex England Longman Group ISBN 978 0 582 05713 5 Cribb R B Kahin Audrey 2004 Historical Dictionary of Indonesia Scarecrow Press ISBN 978 0 8108 4935 8 Davidson Jamie Seth 2002 Violence and Politics in West Kalimantan Indonesia University of Washington ISBN 978 0 493 91910 2 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Davidson Jamie S August 2003 Primitive Politics The Rise and Fall of the Dayak Unity Party in West Kalimantan Indonesia PDF Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series ARI Working Paper Asia Research Institute of the National University of Singapore 9 Retrieved 13 July 2021 Davidson Jamie Seth 2009 From Rebellion to Riots Collective Violence on Indonesian Borneo NUS Press ISBN 978 9971 69 427 2 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Dennis Peter 1987 Troubled Days of Peace Mountbatten and South East Asia Command 1945 46 Manchester Manchester University Press ISBN 0 7190 2205 3 Dower John SW 1986 War Without Mercy Race and Power in the Pacific War Pantheon ISBN 0 394 75172 8 Federspiel Howard M 2007 Sultans Shamans and Saints Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia illustrated ed University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 3052 6 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Friend Theodore 2003 Indonesian Destinies The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 01834 1 Gin Ooi Keat 2013 Post War Borneo 1945 1950 Nationalism Empire and State Building Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 05810 5 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Gotō Kenichi October 1976 Life and Death of Abdul Rachman 1906 49 One Aspect of Japanese Indonesian Relationships PDF Indonesia 22 22 57 68 doi 10 2307 3350977 JSTOR 3350977 Heidhues Mary F Somers 2003 Golddiggers Farmers and Traders in the Chinese Districts of West Kalimantan Indonesia Vol 34 of Southeast Asia publications series illustrated ed SEAP Publications ISBN 978 0 87727 733 0 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Horton William Bradley 2007 Ethnic Cleavage in Timorese Society The Black Columns in Occupied Portuguese Timor 1942 国際開発学研究 6 2 Horton William Bradley July 2016 History Unhinged World War II and the Reshaping of Indonesian History A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of Literature Waseda University ed Tokyo Waseda University Hui Yew Foong 2011 Strangers at Home History and Subjectivity Among the Chinese Communities of West Kalimantan Indonesia Brill ISBN 978 90 04 17340 8 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Jong Louis 2002 The collapse of a colonial society the Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War Vol 206 of Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Nederlands Geologisch Mijnbouwkundig Genootschap Volume 206 of Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal Land en Volkenkunde illustrated ed KITLV Press ISBN 978 90 6718 203 4 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Kahin George McTurnan 1952 Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia Ithaca New York Cornell University Press Kibata Yōichi 2000 Japanese Treatment of British Prisoners of War The Historical Context In Kosuge Margaret Towle Phillip Kibata Yōichi eds Japanese Prisoners of War Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 979 433 287 9 Kratoska Paul H 2013 Southeast Asian Minorities in the Wartime Japanese Empire Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 12506 5 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Kusuma A B Elson R E 2011 A note on the sources for the 1945 constitutional debates in Indonesia PDF Bijdragen tot de Taal Land en Volkenkunde 167 2 3 196 209 doi 10 1163 22134379 90003589 ISSN 0006 2294 Martinkus John 2004 Indonesia s Secret War in Aceh illustrated ed Random House Australia ISBN 978 1 74051 209 1 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Mizuma Masanori 2013 ひと目でわかる アジア解放 時代の日本精神 Japanese spirit in the Liberation of Asia era that can be seen at a glance in Japanese PHP Institute ISBN 978 4 569 81389 9 McMillan Richard 2006 The British Occupation of Indonesia 1945 1946 Britain The Netherlands and the Indonesian Revolution Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 134 25427 9 Muhammad Abdul Aziz 2012 Japan s Colonialism and Indonesia Springer Science amp Business Media ISBN 978 94 011 9233 0 Nasution Abdul Haris 1963 Tentara Nasional Indonesia Volume 1 Ganaco Retrieved 10 March 2014 Piccigallo Philip R 1979 The Japanese On Trial Allied War Crimes Operations in the East 1945 1951 University of Texas Press ISBN 978 0 292 78033 0 Pike Frances 2016 Hirohito s War The Pacific War 1941 1945 Bloomsbury Publishing ISBN 978 1 350 02122 8 Poelgeest Bart van 24 January 1994 Report of a study of Dutch government documents on the forced prostitution of Dutch women in the Dutch East Indies during the Japanese occupation Unofficial Translation PDF Digital Museum The Comfort Women Issue and the Asian Women s Fund Retrieved 14 July 2021 Post Peter 2009 The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War Brill ISBN 978 90 04 19017 7 Pramoedya Ananta Toer 1998 The Mute s Soliloquy Translated by Willem Samuels Penguin ISBN 0 14 028904 6 Reid Anthony October 1971 The Birth of the Republic of Sumatra PDF Indonesia 12 12 21 4 doi 10 2307 3350656 JSTOR 3350656 Reid Anthony 1974 The Indonesian National Revolution 1945 1950 Melbourne Longman Pty ISBN 978 0 582 71046 7 Reid Anthony 2013 The Blood of the People Revolution and the End of Traditional Rule in Northern Sumatra University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 81 7835 776 8 Ricklefs Merle Calvin 2008 A History of Modern Indonesia Since c 1200 4th ed Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 137 14918 3 Sai Siew Min Hoon Chang Yau eds 2013 Chinese Indonesians Reassessed History Religion and Belonging Vol 52 of Routledge contemporary Southeast Asia series illustrated ed Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 60801 5 Retrieved 10 March 2014 Soh Chunghee Sarah 2008 The Comfort Women Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan University of Chicago Press p 22 ISBN 978 0 226 76777 2 Taylor Jean Gelman 2003 Indonesia Peoples and Histories New Haven and London Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 10518 6 Vickers Adrian 2013 A History Modern of Indonesia 2nd ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 62445 0 War History Office of the National Defense College of Japan 2015 Remmelink Willem ed The Invasion of the Dutch East Indies PDF Leiden University Press doi 10 26530 OAPEN 595090 ISBN 978 94 006 0229 8 S2CID 163579476 Womack Tom 2006 The Dutch Naval Air Force against Japan The Defense of the Netherlands East Indies 1941 1942 McFarland ISBN 978 0 7864 2365 1 Yamamoto Mayumi 2000 Spell of the Rebel Monumental Apprehensions Japanese Discourses On Pieter Erberveld PDF Indonesia 77 77 109 143 Further reading EditAnderson Ben 1972 Java in a Time of Revolution Occupation and Resistance 1944 1946 Ithaca N Y Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 0687 4 Hillen Ernest 1993 The Way of a Boy A Memoir of Java Toronto Viking ISBN 978 0 670 85049 5 Zweers Louis Spring 2011 The crown jewels lost and found PDF The Newsletter No 56 International Institute for Asian Studies External links Edit Media related to Japanese occupation of Indonesia at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies amp oldid 1149448944, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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