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Dhyana in Hinduism

April 14, 2024

For Meditation concept in Pali called Jhana, see Dhyana in Buddhism.

Dhyāna (Sanskrit: ध्यान) in Hinduism means contemplation and meditation.[1] Dhyana is taken up in Yoga practices, and is a means to samadhi and self-knowledge.[2]

A Brahmin meditating (1851)
Malvina Hoffman, Bronze figure of Kashmiri in Meditation, 1930s, Field Museum of Natural History

The various concepts of dhyana and its practice originated in the Sramanic movement of ancient India,[3][4] which started before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira),[5][6] and the practice has been influential within the diverse traditions of Hinduism.[7][8] It is, in Hinduism, a part of a self-directed awareness and unifying Yoga process by which the yogi realizes Self (Atman, soul), one's relationship with other living beings, and Ultimate Reality.[7][9][10] Dhyana is also found in other Indian religions such as Buddhism and Jainism. These developed along with dhyana in Hinduism, partly independently, partly influencing each other.[1] All the while similar traditions developed within Zoroastrianism in Persia under the label daena.

The term Dhyana appears in Aranyaka and Brahmana layers of the Vedas but with unclear meaning, while in the early Upanishads it appears in the sense of "contemplation, meditation" and an important part of self-knowledge process.[7][11] It is described in numerous Upanishads of Hinduism,[12] and in Patanjali's Yogasutras - a key text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy.[13][14]

Etymology and meaning edit

Dhyāna (Sanskrit: ध्यान, Pali: झान) means "contemplation, reflection" and "profound, abstract meditation".[15]

The root of the word is dhi, which in the earliest layer of text of the Vedas refers to "imaginative vision" and associated with goddess Saraswati with powers of knowledge, wisdom and poetic eloquence.[7][16] This term developed into the variant dhya- and dhyana, or "meditation".[7]

Thomas Berry states that dhyana is "sustained attention" and the "application of mind to the chosen point of concentration".[17] Dhyana is contemplating, reflecting on whatever dharana has focused on.[18] If in the sixth limb of yoga one is concentrating on a personal deity, dhyana is its contemplation. If the concentration was on one object, Dhyana is nonjudgmental, non-presumptuous observation of that object.[19] If the focus is on a concept or idea, dhyana is contemplating it in all its aspects, forms and consequences. Dhyana is uninterrupted train of thought, current of cognition, flow of awareness.[20][21][22]

A related term is nididhyāsana, the pondering over Upanishadic statements. It is a composite of three terms, namely dhyai, upasana ("dwelling upon"), and bhavana ("cultivating").[web 1]

Origins edit

The term dhyana is used in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, with somewhat different meanings.[2]

Vedic teachings hold that, since the universal divine Self dwells within the heart, the way to experience and recognize divinity is to turn one's attention inward in a process of contemplative meditation.

—William Mahony, The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination[23]

The origins of the practice of dhyana, which culminates into samadhi, are a matter of dispute.[24][25] According to Bronkhorst, the mainstream concept is evidenced in Jain, Buddhist and early Hindu scriptures.[3][note 1] Dhyana, states Sagarmal Jain, has been essential to Jaina religious practices, but the origins of Dhyana and Yoga in the pre-canonical era (before 6th-century BCE) is unclear, and it likely developed in the Sramanic culture of ancient India,[4] Several śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy.[5][6]

The earliest Jaina texts, on Dhyana such as Sutrakranga, Antakrta-Dasanga and Rsibhashita, mention Uddaka Rāmaputta[note 2] who is said to be the teacher of some meditation methods to Buddha, as well as the originator of Vipassana and Preksha meditation techniques.[4] The Jaina tradition believes Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara, to have founded meditation, but there is no historical confirming evidence. The earliest mention of Dhyana in the canonical Jaina texts simply mention Dhyana as a means of emancipation, but in them ascetic practices are not emphasized nor is the discussion as systematic as in later Jaina texts or Hindu texts such as the Patanjali's Yogasutras.[30] There is no archeological or literary evidence, states Sagarmal Jain, about the origins of systems for Dhyana and Yoga, and there is a great deal of similarity between Jaina, Buddhist, Ajivika, Samkhya, Yoga and other ancient Indian traditions.[4] The earliest texts, such as Tattvarthasutra suggest that these ideas developed in parallel, sometimes with different terms for similar ideas in various Indian traditions, influencing each other.[30]

Buddhism introduced its own ideas, states Bronkhorst, such as the four dhyanas, which did not affect the mainstream meditation traditions in Jaina and Hindu traditions for a long time.[31][note 3] All traditions, Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, introduced unique aspects and context to Dhyana, and mutually influenced each other.[8] According to Bronkhorst, while Jaina and Hindu meditation traditions predate Buddhism, the Buddhist terminology such as Samadhi, may have influenced the wording found in one of the several types of Dhyana found in the Mahabharata as well as parts of Patanjali's Yogasutras.[8]

Alexander Wynne interprets Bronkhorst as stating that dhyana was a Jaina tradition, from which both Hinduism and Buddhism borrowed ideas on meditation.[33] Wynne adds that Bronkhorst opinion "understates the role of meditation" in early Brahmanical tradition.[33] Dhyana was incorporated into Buddhism from Brahmanical practices, suggests Wynne, in the Nikayas ascribed to Alara Kalama and Uddaka Rāmaputta.[34] In early Brahamical yoga, the goal of meditation was considered to be a nondual state identical to unmanifest state of Brahman, where subject-object duality had been dissolved.[10] The early Buddhist practices adapted these old yogic methods, pairing it to mindfulness and attainment of insight.[10] Kalupahana states that the Buddha "reverted to the meditational practices" he had learned from Alara Kalama and Uddaka Rāmaputta.[35]

In Hinduism, state Jones and Ryan, the term first appears in the Upanishads.[2] Techniques of concentration or meditation are a Vedic tradition, states Frits Staal, because these ideas are found in the early Upanishads as dhyana or abhidhyana.[11] In most of the later Hindu yoga traditions, which derive from Patanjali's Raja Yoga, dhyana is "a refined meditative practice",[2] a "deeper concentration of the mind",[2] which is taken up after preceding practices such as mastering pranayama (breath control) and dharana (mental focus).[2]

Discussion in Hindu texts edit

Vedas and Upanishads edit

The term dhyanam appears in Vedic literature, such as hymn 4.36.2 of the Rigveda and verse 10.11.1 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka.[36][37] The term, in the sense of meditation, appears in the Upanishads.[1][37][38] The Kaushitaki Upanishad uses it in the context of mind and meditation in verses 3.2 to 3.6, for example as follows:[39]

मनसा ध्यानमित्येकभूयं वै प्राणाः
With mind, meditate on me as being prānā

— Kaushitaki Upanishad, 3.2[39][40]

The term appears in the context of "contemplate, reflect, meditate" in verses of chapters 1.3, 2.22, 5.1, 7.6, 7.7 and 7.26 of the Chandogya Upanishad, chapters 3.5, 4.5 and 4.6 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and verses 6.9 to 6.24 of the Maitri Upanishad.[38][41] The word Dhyana refers to meditation in Chandogya Upanishad, while the Prashna Upanishad asserts that the meditation on AUM (ॐ) leads to the world of Brahman (Ultimate Reality).[11]

Agnihotra edit

See also: Yajna § The changing nature of Vedic offerings, and Tapas (Indian religions) § Hinduism

The development of meditation in the Vedic era paralleled the ideas of "interiorization", where social, external yajna fire rituals (Agnihotra) were replaced with meditative, internalized rituals (Prana-agnihotra).[11][42][43] This interiorization of Vedic fire-ritual into yogic meditation ideas from Hinduism, that are mentioned in the Samhita and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas and more clearly in chapter 5 of the Chandogya Upanishad (~800 to 600 BCE),[note 4] are also found in later Buddhist texts and esoteric variations such as the Dighanikaya, Mahavairocana-sutra and the Jyotirmnjari, wherein the Buddhist texts describe meditation as "inner forms of fire oblation/sacrifice".[45][46] This interiorization of fire rituals, where life is conceptualized as an unceasing sacrifice and emphasis is placed on meditation occurs in the classic Vedic world, in the early Upanishads and other texts such as the Shrauta Sutras and verse 2.18 of Vedic Vaikhanasa Smarta Sutra.[47]

Beyond the early Upanishads composed before 5th-century BCE, the term Dhyana and the related terms such as Dhyai (Sanskrit: ध्यै, deeply meditate)[48] appears in numerous Upanishads composed after the 5th-century BCE, such as: chapter 1 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, chapters 2 and 3 of Mundaka Upanishad, chapter 3 of Aitareya Upanishad, chapter 11 of Mahanarayana Upanishad, and in various verses of Kaivalya Upanishad, Chulika Upanishad, Atharvasikha Upanishad, Brahma Upanishad, Brahmabindu Upanishad, Amritabindu Upanishad, Tejobindu Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Kshuriki Upanishad, Dhyana-bindu Upanishad, Atharvasiras Upanishad, Maha Upanishad, Pranagnihotra Upanishad, Yogasikha Upanishad, Yogatattva Upanishad, Kathasruti Upanishad, Hamsa Upanishad, Atmaprabodha Upanishad and Visudeva Upanishad.[12]

Dhyana as Dharma

Practice righteousness (dharma), not unrighteousness. Speak the truth, not the untruth. Look at what is distant, not what's near at hand. Look at the highest, not at what's less than highest. (...) The fire is meditation (dhyana), the firewood is truthfulness (satya), the offering is patience (kshanta), the Sruva spoon is modesty (hri), the sacrificial cake is not causing injury to living beings (ahimsa), and the priestly fee is the arduous gift of safety to all creatures.

—Vasistha Dharmasutras 30.1-30.8 [49][50]

Brahma Sutras edit

The Brahma-sutras, which distills the teachings of the Upanishads and is one of three foundational texts of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, states that Dhyana is not Prativedam (or, one for each Veda), and meditation belongs to all Vedic schools.[11]

Adi Shankara dedicates an extensive chapter on meditation, in his commentary on the Brahma-sutras, in Sadhana as essential to spiritual practice.[51] His discussion there is similar to his extensive commentary on Dhyana in his Bhasya on Bhagavad Gita and the early Upanishads.[51]

Dharma Sutras edit

The verse 30.8 of the ancient Vasistha Dharma-sutra declares meditation as a virtue, and interiorized substitute equivalent of a fire sacrifice.[52]

Bhagavad Gita edit

The term Dhyana, and related words with the meaning of meditation appears in many chapters of the Bhagavad Gita, such as in chapters 2, 12, 13 and 18.[12] The chapter 6 of the Gita is titled as the "Yoga of Meditation".[53]

The Bhagavad Gita, one of the three key books of Vedanta school of Hinduism, states four Marga (paths) to purify one's mind and to reach the summit of spirituality – the path of Unselfish Work, the path of Knowledge, the path of Devotion and the path of Meditation (Dhyana).[54] Huston Smith summarizes the need and value of meditation in Gita, as follows (abridged):

To change the analogy, the mind is like a lake, and stones that are dropped into it (or winds) raise waves. Those waves do not let us see who we are. (...) The waters must be calmed. If one remains quiet, eventually the winds that ruffle the water will give up, and then one knows who one is. God is constantly within us, but the mind obscures that fact with agitated waves of worldly desires. Meditation quiets those waves (Bhagavad Gita V.28).

— Huston Smith, Foreword, The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition[54]
 
 
Dhyana along river Ganges in Varanasi (left), Om in Tamil script as an instrument for meditation (right).

Meditation in the Bhagavad Gita is a means to one's spiritual journey, requiring three moral values – Satya (truthfulness), Ahimsa (non-violence) and Aparigraha (non-covetousness).[55] Dhyana in this ancient Hindu text, states Huston Smith, can be about whatever the person wants or finds spiritual, ranging from "the manifestation of divinity in a religious symbol in a human form", or an inspiration in nature such as "a snow-covered mountain, a serene lake in moonlight, or a colorful horizon at sunrise or sunset", or melodic sounds or syllables such as those that "are intoned as mantras and rhythmically repeated" like Om that is audibly or silent contemplated on.[55] The direction of deep meditation, in the text, is towards detaching the mind from sensory distractions and disturbances outside of oneself, submerging it instead on the indwelling spirit and one's soul towards the state of Samadhi, a state of bliss (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 6: Yoga of Meditation).[53][55]

The Gita presents a synthesis[56][57] of the Brahmanical concept of Dharma[56][57][58] with bhakti,[59][58] the yogic ideals[57] of liberation[57] through jnana,[59] and Samkhya philosophy.[web 2][note 5] It is the "locus classicus"[60] of the "Hindu synthesis"[60] which emerged around the beginning of the Common Era,[60] integrating Brahmanic and shramanic ideas with theistic devotion.[60][57][58][web 2]

The Bhagavad Gita talks of four branches of yoga:[54]

  • Karma Yoga: The yoga of work in the world
  • Jnāna yoga: The yoga of knowledge and intellectual endeavor
  • Bhakti Yoga: The yoga of devotion
  • Dhyāna Yoga: The yoga of meditation (sometimes called Raja yoga or Ashtanga yoga)

The Dhyana Yoga system is specifically described by Krishna in chapter 6 of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna.[54]

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali edit

Main article: Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (dated ca. 400 CE),[61] a key text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, Dhyana is the seventh limb of this path, following Dharana and preceding Samadhi.[62] Dhyana is integrally related to Dharana, one leads to other. Dharana is a state of mind, Dhyana the process of mind. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana in that the meditator becomes actively engaged with its focus.

Patanjali defines contemplation (Dhyana) as the mind process, where the mind is fixed on something, and then there is "a course of uniform modification of knowledge".[63] Bronkhorst states that Buddhist influences are noticeable in the first chapter of the Yogasutras, and confirmed by sutra 1.20 because it mentions asamprajnata samadhi is preceded by "trust (sraddha), energy (virya), mindfulness (smriti), concentration (samadhi), and insight (prajna)".[64] According to Bronkhorst, "the definition of Yoga given in the first chapter of the Yoga Sutra does not fit the descriptions contained in the same chapter,"[65] and this may suggest the sutra incorporated Buddhist elements as described in the four jhanas.[66] Wynne, in contrast to Bronkhorst's theory, states that the evidence in early Buddhist texts, such as those found in Suttapitaka, suggest that these foundational ideas on formless meditation and element meditation were borrowed from pre-Buddha Brahamanical sources attested in early Upanishads and ultimately the cosmological theory found in the Nasadiya-sukta of the Rigveda.[33]

Adi Shankara, in his commentary on Yoga Sutras, distinguishes Dhyana from Dharana, by explaining Dhyana as the yoga state when there is only the "stream of continuous thought about the object, uninterrupted by other thoughts of different kind for the same object"; Dharana, states Shankara, is focussed on one object, but aware of its many aspects and ideas about the same object. Shankara gives the example of a yogin in a state of dharana on morning sun may be aware of its brilliance, color and orbit; the yogin in dhyana state contemplates on sun's orbit alone for example, without being interrupted by its color, brilliance or other related ideas.[67]

In Patanjali's Raja Yoga, also called "meditation yoga",[68] dhyana is "a refined meditative practice", a "deeper concentration of the mind", which is taken up after preceding practices. In Hinduism, dhyāna is considered to be an instrument to gain self-knowledge. It is a part of a self-directed awareness and unifying Yoga process by which a world that by default is experienced as disjointed, comes to be experienced as Self, and an integrated oneness with Brahman.[7] The Brahman has been variously defined in Hinduism, ranging from non-theistic non-dualistic Ultimate Reality or supreme soul, to theistic dualistic God.[69][70][71]

Dharana edit

The stage of meditation preceding dhyāna is called dharana.[72][73] Dharana, which means "holding on", is the focusing and holding one's awareness to one object for a long period of time. In Yogasutras, the term implies fixing one's mind on an object of meditation, which could be one's breath or the tip of one's nose or the image of one's personal deity or anything of the yogi's choice.[74]

In the Jangama Dhyāna technique, for example, the meditator concentrates the mind to a spot between the eyebrows. According to Patañjali, this is one method of achieving the initial concentration (dhāraṇā: Yoga Sutras, III: 1) necessary for the mind to become introverted in meditation (dhyāna: Yoga Sutras, III: 2). In deeper practice of the technique, the mind concentrated between the eyebrows begins to automatically lose all location and focus on the watching itself. This step prepares one to begin the practice of Dhyana.

 
Swami Vivekananda in meditating yogic posture.

Dhyana edit

The Yogasutras in verse 3.2 and elsewhere, states Edwin Bryant, defines Dhyana as the "continuous flow of the same thought or image of the object of meditation, without being distracted by any other thought".[75] Vivekananda explains Dhyana in Patanjali's Yogasutras as, "When the mind has been trained to remain fixed on a certain internal or external location, there comes to it the power of flowing in an unbroken current, as it were, towards that point. This state is called Dhyana".[76]

While Dharana was the stage in yoga where the yogi held one's awareness to one object for a long period of time, Dhyana is concentrated meditation where he or she contemplates without interruption the object of meditation, beyond any memory of ego or anything else.[74]

In Dhyana, the meditator is not conscious of the act of meditation (i.e. is not aware that he/she is meditating) but is only aware that he/she exists (consciousness of being), his mind and the object of meditation. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana, in that the yogi contemplates on the object of meditation and the object's aspects only, free from distractions, with his mind during Dhyana. With practice, the process of Dhyana awakens self-awareness (soul, the purusha or Atman), the fundamental level of existence and Ultimate Reality in Hinduism, the non-afflicted, conflictless and blissful state of freedom and liberation (moksha).[77][78]

Samadhi edit

Main article: Samadhi § Hinduism

The Dhyana step prepares a yogi to proceed towards practicing Samadhi. Swami Vivekananda describes the teachings of Yogasutras in the following way:

When one has so intensified the power of dhyana as to be able to reject the external part of perception and remain meditating only on the internal part, the meaning, that state is called Samadhi.[note 6]

Michael Washburn states that the Yogasutras text identifies stepwise stages for meditative practice progress, and that "Patanjali distinguishes between Dharana which is effortful focusing of attention, Dhyana which is easy continuous one-pointedness, and Samadhi which is absorption, ecstasy, contemplation".[79] A person who begins meditation practice, usually practices Dharana.[79] With practice he is able to gain ease in which he learns how to contemplate in a sharply focussed fashion, and then "he is able more and more easily to give uninterrupted attention to the meditation object; that is to say, he attains Dhyana".[79] With further practice, the yogi "ceases being detachedly vigilant" and enters "a state of fusion with the meditation object" which is Samadhi.[80]

Samadhi is oneness with the object of meditation. There is no distinction between act of meditation and the object of meditation. Samadhi is of two kinds,[81][web 3] with and without support or an object of meditation:[82]

  • Samprajnata Samadhi, also called savikalpa samadhi and Sabija Samadhi, is object-centered, and is associated with deliberation, reflection, blissful ecstasy that has been assisted by an object or anchor point.[83][82] The first two, deliberation and reflection, form the basis of the various types of samapatti:[83][84]
    • Savitarka, "deliberative":[83] The citta(चित्त)is concentrated upon a gross object of meditation, and the yogi's deliberates and fuses with it, becoming unaware of everything else.[85][note 7] Conceptualization (vikalpa) here is in the form of perception and the knowledge of the object of meditation.[83] When the deliberation is ended this is called nirvitaka samadhi.[86][note 8]
    • Savichara, "reflective":[85] the citta(चित्त)is concentrated upon an abstract object of meditation, which is not perceptible to the senses, but arrived at through inference.[85] The object of meditation can be inferred from the senses, the process of cognition, the mind, the I-am-ness, or the buddhi (intellect).[85][note 9] The stilling of reflection is called nirvichara samapatti.[85][note 10]
  • Asamprajnata Samadhi, also called Nirvikalpa Samadhi[web 3] and Nirbija Samadhi:[web 3] the state achieved when the meditation is without the help of a support or an object.[85]

Both object-centered and objectless-centered meditative practice, in Hindu texts, leads to progressively more bright, pellucid and poised state of "powerful, pure, Sattvic" state of blissful Self, ultimately leading to the knowledge of purusha or Atman-Brahman (soul), states Michael Washburn.[82][87] This is the state, in Hindu tradition, where states Gregor Maehle, the yogi or yogini realizes "the Atman in you is the Atman in everyone", and leading to the realization of Self.[88]

Samyama edit

The practice of Dharana, Dhyana and Samādhi together is designated as Samyama (Sanskrit: संयम, holding together) in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[89] Samyama, asserts the text, is a powerful meditative tool and can be applied to a certain object, or entire class of objects.[89] A yogi who does Samyama on Pratyaya (notions, customs) of men, states sutra 3.19 of the text, knows the series of "psycho-mental states of other men".[89] A yogi after successfully completing Samyama on "distinction of object and idea" realizes the "cries of all creatures", states sutra 3.17.[89] A Samyama on friendliness, compassion and joy leads to these powers emerging within the yogi, states sutra 3.23.[90] The meditation technique discussed in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is thus, states Mircea Eliade, a means to knowledge and siddhi (yogic power).[89][91]

Vācaspati Miśra, a scholar of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, in his bhasya on the Yogasutra's 3.30 wrote, "Whatever the yogin desires to know, he should perform samyama in respect to that object".[92] Moksha (freedom, liberation) is one such practice, where the object of samyama is Sattva (pure existence), Atman (soul) and Purusha (Universal principle) or Bhagavan (God).[93] Adi Shankara, another scholar of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, extensively commented on samyama as a means for Jnana-yoga (path of knowledge) to achieve the state of Jivanmukta (living liberation).[94][95]

Samāpatti edit

Main article: Samāpatti

By the time the Yogasutras were compiled, the Hindu traditions had two broad forms of meditation, namely the ecstatic and enstatic types.[96][97]

Comparison of Dhyana in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism edit

Main articles: Dhyana in Buddhism and Jain meditation
Buddhism

According to Jianxin Li Samprajnata Samadhi of Hinduism may be compared to the rupa jhanas of Buddhism.[98] This interpretation may conflict with Gombrich and Wynne, according to whom the first and second jhana represent concentration, whereas the third and fourth jhana combine concentration with mindfulness.[99] According to Eddie Crangle, the first jhana resembles Patanjali's Samprajnata Samadhi, which both share the application of vitarka and vicara.[100]

Asamprajnata Samadhi, states Jianxin Li, may be compared to the arupa jhanas of Buddhism, and to Nirodha-Samapatti.[98] Crangle and other scholars state that sabija-asamprajnata samadhi resembles the four formless jhanas, with the fourth arupa jhana of Buddhism being analogous to Patanjali's "objectless dhyana and samadhi".[101][102]

The paths to be followed in order to attain enlightenment are remarkably uniform among all the Indian systems: each requires a foundation of moral purification leading eventually to similar meditation practices.

— David Loy, National University of Singapore[103]

According to Sarbacker and other scholars, while there are parallels between Dhyana in Hinduism and in Buddhism, the phenomenological states and the emancipation experiences are described differently.[102][104] Dhyana in Buddhism is aiming towards cessation and realization of shunya (state of null), while Dhyana Hinduism is aiming towards realization of Atman (soul) and consequent union with Brahman.[102] Nirvana (or Nibbana), the desired end through Dhyana in Buddhism, is the realization that there is no permanent self nor permanent consciousness; while Moksha, the desired end through Dhyana in Hinduism, is acceptance of Self, realization of liberating knowledge, the consciousness of Oneness with all existence and understanding the whole universe as the Self.[103][note 11][note 12] Nirvana of Buddhism starts with the premise that "Self is merely an illusion, there is no Self", Moksha of Hinduism on the other hand, starts with the premise that everything is the Self, states David Loy.[103] The soteriological emphasis in Dhyana, therefore is different in Buddhism and Hinduism.[105]

Jainism

Ancient Jaina scholars developed their own theories on Dhyana like other Indian religions,[2] but little detail is mentioned in Jaina texts,[106] and the Dhyana practices varied by sects within the Jaina tradition.[107] Broadly, Jainism texts identify four types of meditation based on the nature of object.[106][108] Arta-dhyana, states Jaina meditation literature, occurs when one's focus is on anguish and unpleasant things.[2] Raudra-dhyana occurs when the focus is on anger or perverse ideas or objects.[108] Dharmya-dhyana focuses on religious ideas or virtuous objects, while Shukla-dhyana is the focus on pure ideas or bright objects.[2][108] This classification of four Dhyana types may have roots, suggests Paul Dundas, in the earlier Hindu texts related to Kashmir Shaivism.[108]

Dundas states that Jaina tradition emphasized Dhyana, but its meditation-related literature likely went through two stages of formulation, the early stage independent of other Indian traditions, one which concerned itself with "cessation of mind and physical activities" rather than their transformation as in other Indian traditions; followed by a later stage, likely post-Yogasutras, where Jaina scholars of different sects restructured the contemplative model to assimilate elements of Hindu and Buddhist techniques on Dhyana.[108] The terminology used in some Jainism texts however, states John Cort, are different.[109]

The premise of Atman (soul) exists, that is found in Hinduism, is also present in Jainism. The soteriological goals of Jaina spiritual meditation are similar to Hindu spiritual meditation, aimed at experiential contact with the "ultimate self", wherein the yogi realizes the blissful, unfettered, formless soul and siddha-hood – a totally liberated state of being.[106]

Related concept: Upasana edit

Two concepts associated with Dhyana found in ancient and medieval Hindu texts are Upasana and Vidya.[38] Upasana means "come near to something, some idea" and denotes the act and state of meditation, while Vidya means knowledge and is the consequence of Dhyana.[110] The term Upasana typically appears in the context of ritual meditative practices, such as before a devotional symbol such as deity or during a yajna type practice or community oriented bhakti worship singing, and is a subtype of Dhyana.[110][111]

The 11th-century Vishishtadvaita Vedanta scholar Ramanuja noted that upasana and dhyana are equated in the Upanishads with other terms such as vedana (knowing) and smrti (remembrance). Ramanuja holds that all these are phases of meditation, adding that they must be done with love or bhakti.

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Bhagavad Gita[26] (2nd-century BCE); Katha Upanishad[27] (pre- or post-Buddha, ca. 5th century BCE); Maitrayaniya Upanishad[28] (ca, 3rd century BCE).
  2. ^ Scholars such as Hans Wolfgang Schumann state that Uddaka Rāmaputta was a Vedic era teacher of Upanishadic ideas.[29]
  3. ^ According to Bronkhorst, Buddhism probably had a marginal influence before Asoka, while this mainstream did influence Buddhism; but the specific Buddhist form of meditation, with the four dhyanas, are considered to be an authentic Buddhist development.[32]
  4. ^ See 6.1.4 of Taittiriya Samhita, 3.2 of Aitareya Aranyaka, 8.11 of Satapatha Aranyaka, sections 5.18 through 5.24 of Chandogya Upanishad. Also see discussion on Agnihotra to Pranagnihotra evolution by Staal.[44]
  5. ^ The Bhagavad Gita also integrates theism and transcendentalism[web 2] or spiritual monism,[58] and identifies a God of personal characteristics with the Brahman of the Vedic tradition.[web 2]
  6. ^ See Swami Vivekenanda on Dhyana and Samadhi in Raja Yoga.
  7. ^ Yoga Sutra 1.42: "Deliberative (savitarka) samapatti is that samadhi in which words, objects, and knowledge are commingled through conceptualization."[83]
  8. ^ Yoga Sutra 1.43: "When memory is purified, the mind appears to be emptied of its own nature and only the object shines forth. This is superdeliberative (nirvitaka) samapatti."[86]
  9. ^ Following Yoga Sutra 1.17, meditation on the sense of "I-am-ness" is also grouped, in other descriptions
  10. ^ Yoga Sutra 1.44: "In this way, reflective (savichara) and super-reflective (nirvichara) samapatti, which are based on subtle objects, are also explained."[85]
  11. ^ Loy's discussion covers Samkhya-Yoga, Nyaya-Vaishesika and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophies.
  12. ^ Crangle states, "Buddhists denied the authenticity of any claim by non-Buddhists to the attainment of the ninth state which is the release of Nirvana: the destruction of consciousness and sensation which was specifically a discovery of the Buddha".[104]

References edit

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Sources edit

Published sources edit

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Web-sources edit

  1. ^ George Feuerstein Nididhyasitavyah - the deep pondering of self (atman), whereupon the Self (Brahman) become known
  2. ^ a b c d Arthur Llewellyn Basham, Hinduism - The Bhagavad Gita, Encyclopædia Britannica
  3. ^ a b c Sri Swami Sivananda, Raja Yoga Samadhi

External links edit

  • George Feuerstein, Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana)
  • Yogi Baba Prem Yogacharya, The Myths of Meditation! Light on Dhyana. 16 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine
  • Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati, Integrating 50+ Varieties of Yoga Meditation

April 14, 2024
dhyana, hinduism, meditation, concept, pali, called, jhana, dhyana, buddhism, dhyāna, sanskrit, hinduism, means, contemplation, meditation, dhyana, taken, yoga, practices, means, samadhi, self, knowledge, brahmin, meditating, 1851, malvina, hoffman, bronze, fi. For Meditation concept in Pali called Jhana see Dhyana in Buddhism Dhyana Sanskrit ध य न in Hinduism means contemplation and meditation 1 Dhyana is taken up in Yoga practices and is a means to samadhi and self knowledge 2 A Brahmin meditating 1851 Malvina Hoffman Bronze figure of Kashmiri in Meditation 1930s Field Museum of Natural HistoryThe various concepts of dhyana and its practice originated in the Sramanic movement of ancient India 3 4 which started before the 6th century BCE pre Buddha pre Mahavira 5 6 and the practice has been influential within the diverse traditions of Hinduism 7 8 It is in Hinduism a part of a self directed awareness and unifying Yoga process by which the yogi realizes Self Atman soul one s relationship with other living beings and Ultimate Reality 7 9 10 Dhyana is also found in other Indian religions such as Buddhism and Jainism These developed along with dhyana in Hinduism partly independently partly influencing each other 1 All the while similar traditions developed within Zoroastrianism in Persia under the label daena The term Dhyana appears in Aranyaka and Brahmana layers of the Vedas but with unclear meaning while in the early Upanishads it appears in the sense of contemplation meditation and an important part of self knowledge process 7 11 It is described in numerous Upanishads of Hinduism 12 and in Patanjali s Yogasutras a key text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy 13 14 Contents 1 Etymology and meaning 2 Origins 3 Discussion in Hindu texts 3 1 Vedas and Upanishads 3 1 1 Agnihotra 3 2 Brahma Sutras 3 3 Dharma Sutras 3 4 Bhagavad Gita 3 5 The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali 3 5 1 Dharana 3 5 2 Dhyana 3 5 3 Samadhi 3 5 4 Samyama 3 5 5 Samapatti 4 Comparison of Dhyana in Hinduism Buddhism and Jainism 5 Related concept Upasana 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Sources 9 1 Published sources 9 2 Web sources 10 External linksEtymology and meaning editDhyana Sanskrit ध य न Pali झ न means contemplation reflection and profound abstract meditation 15 The root of the word is dhi which in the earliest layer of text of the Vedas refers to imaginative vision and associated with goddess Saraswati with powers of knowledge wisdom and poetic eloquence 7 16 This term developed into the variant dhya and dhyana or meditation 7 Thomas Berry states that dhyana is sustained attention and the application of mind to the chosen point of concentration 17 Dhyana is contemplating reflecting on whatever dharana has focused on 18 If in the sixth limb of yoga one is concentrating on a personal deity dhyana is its contemplation If the concentration was on one object Dhyana is nonjudgmental non presumptuous observation of that object 19 If the focus is on a concept or idea dhyana is contemplating it in all its aspects forms and consequences Dhyana is uninterrupted train of thought current of cognition flow of awareness 20 21 22 A related term is nididhyasana the pondering over Upanishadic statements It is a composite of three terms namely dhyai upasana dwelling upon and bhavana cultivating web 1 Origins editThe term dhyana is used in Jainism Buddhism and Hinduism with somewhat different meanings 2 Vedic teachings hold that since the universal divine Self dwells within the heart the way to experience and recognize divinity is to turn one s attention inward in a process of contemplative meditation William Mahony The Artful Universe An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination 23 The origins of the practice of dhyana which culminates into samadhi are a matter of dispute 24 25 According to Bronkhorst the mainstream concept is evidenced in Jain Buddhist and early Hindu scriptures 3 note 1 Dhyana states Sagarmal Jain has been essential to Jaina religious practices but the origins of Dhyana and Yoga in the pre canonical era before 6th century BCE is unclear and it likely developed in the Sramanic culture of ancient India 4 Several sramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE pre Buddha pre Mahavira and these influenced both the astika and nastika traditions of Indian philosophy 5 6 The earliest Jaina texts on Dhyana such as Sutrakranga Antakrta Dasanga and Rsibhashita mention Uddaka Ramaputta note 2 who is said to be the teacher of some meditation methods to Buddha as well as the originator of Vipassana and Preksha meditation techniques 4 The Jaina tradition believes Rishabhanatha the first Tirthankara to have founded meditation but there is no historical confirming evidence The earliest mention of Dhyana in the canonical Jaina texts simply mention Dhyana as a means of emancipation but in them ascetic practices are not emphasized nor is the discussion as systematic as in later Jaina texts or Hindu texts such as the Patanjali s Yogasutras 30 There is no archeological or literary evidence states Sagarmal Jain about the origins of systems for Dhyana and Yoga and there is a great deal of similarity between Jaina Buddhist Ajivika Samkhya Yoga and other ancient Indian traditions 4 The earliest texts such as Tattvarthasutra suggest that these ideas developed in parallel sometimes with different terms for similar ideas in various Indian traditions influencing each other 30 Buddhism introduced its own ideas states Bronkhorst such as the four dhyanas which did not affect the mainstream meditation traditions in Jaina and Hindu traditions for a long time 31 note 3 All traditions Jainism Buddhism and Hinduism introduced unique aspects and context to Dhyana and mutually influenced each other 8 According to Bronkhorst while Jaina and Hindu meditation traditions predate Buddhism the Buddhist terminology such as Samadhi may have influenced the wording found in one of the several types of Dhyana found in the Mahabharata as well as parts of Patanjali s Yogasutras 8 Alexander Wynne interprets Bronkhorst as stating that dhyana was a Jaina tradition from which both Hinduism and Buddhism borrowed ideas on meditation 33 Wynne adds that Bronkhorst opinion understates the role of meditation in early Brahmanical tradition 33 Dhyana was incorporated into Buddhism from Brahmanical practices suggests Wynne in the Nikayas ascribed to Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta 34 In early Brahamical yoga the goal of meditation was considered to be a nondual state identical to unmanifest state of Brahman where subject object duality had been dissolved 10 The early Buddhist practices adapted these old yogic methods pairing it to mindfulness and attainment of insight 10 Kalupahana states that the Buddha reverted to the meditational practices he had learned from Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta 35 In Hinduism state Jones and Ryan the term first appears in the Upanishads 2 Techniques of concentration or meditation are a Vedic tradition states Frits Staal because these ideas are found in the early Upanishads as dhyana or abhidhyana 11 In most of the later Hindu yoga traditions which derive from Patanjali s Raja Yoga dhyana is a refined meditative practice 2 a deeper concentration of the mind 2 which is taken up after preceding practices such as mastering pranayama breath control and dharana mental focus 2 Discussion in Hindu texts editVedas and Upanishads edit The term dhyanam appears in Vedic literature such as hymn 4 36 2 of the Rigveda and verse 10 11 1 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka 36 37 The term in the sense of meditation appears in the Upanishads 1 37 38 The Kaushitaki Upanishad uses it in the context of mind and meditation in verses 3 2 to 3 6 for example as follows 39 मनस ध य नम त य कभ य व प र ण With mind meditate on me as being prana Kaushitaki Upanishad 3 2 39 40 The term appears in the context of contemplate reflect meditate in verses of chapters 1 3 2 22 5 1 7 6 7 7 and 7 26 of the Chandogya Upanishad chapters 3 5 4 5 and 4 6 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and verses 6 9 to 6 24 of the Maitri Upanishad 38 41 The word Dhyana refers to meditation in Chandogya Upanishad while the Prashna Upanishad asserts that the meditation on AUM ॐ leads to the world of Brahman Ultimate Reality 11 Agnihotra edit See also Yajna The changing nature of Vedic offerings and Tapas Indian religions Hinduism The development of meditation in the Vedic era paralleled the ideas of interiorization where social external yajna fire rituals Agnihotra were replaced with meditative internalized rituals Prana agnihotra 11 42 43 This interiorization of Vedic fire ritual into yogic meditation ideas from Hinduism that are mentioned in the Samhita and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas and more clearly in chapter 5 of the Chandogya Upanishad 800 to 600 BCE note 4 are also found in later Buddhist texts and esoteric variations such as the Dighanikaya Mahavairocana sutra and the Jyotirmnjari wherein the Buddhist texts describe meditation as inner forms of fire oblation sacrifice 45 46 This interiorization of fire rituals where life is conceptualized as an unceasing sacrifice and emphasis is placed on meditation occurs in the classic Vedic world in the early Upanishads and other texts such as the Shrauta Sutras and verse 2 18 of Vedic Vaikhanasa Smarta Sutra 47 Beyond the early Upanishads composed before 5th century BCE the term Dhyana and the related terms such as Dhyai Sanskrit ध य deeply meditate 48 appears in numerous Upanishads composed after the 5th century BCE such as chapter 1 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad chapters 2 and 3 of Mundaka Upanishad chapter 3 of Aitareya Upanishad chapter 11 of Mahanarayana Upanishad and in various verses of Kaivalya Upanishad Chulika Upanishad Atharvasikha Upanishad Brahma Upanishad Brahmabindu Upanishad Amritabindu Upanishad Tejobindu Upanishad Paramahamsa Upanishad Kshuriki Upanishad Dhyana bindu Upanishad Atharvasiras Upanishad Maha Upanishad Pranagnihotra Upanishad Yogasikha Upanishad Yogatattva Upanishad Kathasruti Upanishad Hamsa Upanishad Atmaprabodha Upanishad and Visudeva Upanishad 12 Dhyana as DharmaPractice righteousness dharma not unrighteousness Speak the truth not the untruth Look at what is distant not what s near at hand Look at the highest not at what s less than highest The fire is meditation dhyana the firewood is truthfulness satya the offering is patience kshanta the Sruva spoon is modesty hri the sacrificial cake is not causing injury to living beings ahimsa and the priestly fee is the arduous gift of safety to all creatures Vasistha Dharmasutras 30 1 30 8 49 50 Brahma Sutras edit The Brahma sutras which distills the teachings of the Upanishads and is one of three foundational texts of the Vedanta school of Hinduism states that Dhyana is not Prativedam or one for each Veda and meditation belongs to all Vedic schools 11 Adi Shankara dedicates an extensive chapter on meditation in his commentary on the Brahma sutras in Sadhana as essential to spiritual practice 51 His discussion there is similar to his extensive commentary on Dhyana in his Bhasya on Bhagavad Gita and the early Upanishads 51 Dharma Sutras edit The verse 30 8 of the ancient Vasistha Dharma sutra declares meditation as a virtue and interiorized substitute equivalent of a fire sacrifice 52 Bhagavad Gita edit The term Dhyana and related words with the meaning of meditation appears in many chapters of the Bhagavad Gita such as in chapters 2 12 13 and 18 12 The chapter 6 of the Gita is titled as the Yoga of Meditation 53 The Bhagavad Gita one of the three key books of Vedanta school of Hinduism states four Marga paths to purify one s mind and to reach the summit of spirituality the path of Unselfish Work the path of Knowledge the path of Devotion and the path of Meditation Dhyana 54 Huston Smith summarizes the need and value of meditation in Gita as follows abridged To change the analogy the mind is like a lake and stones that are dropped into it or winds raise waves Those waves do not let us see who we are The waters must be calmed If one remains quiet eventually the winds that ruffle the water will give up and then one knows who one is God is constantly within us but the mind obscures that fact with agitated waves of worldly desires Meditation quiets those waves Bhagavad Gita V 28 Huston Smith Foreword The Bhagavad Gita Twenty fifth Anniversary Edition 54 nbsp nbsp Dhyana along river Ganges in Varanasi left Om in Tamil script as an instrument for meditation right Meditation in the Bhagavad Gita is a means to one s spiritual journey requiring three moral values Satya truthfulness Ahimsa non violence and Aparigraha non covetousness 55 Dhyana in this ancient Hindu text states Huston Smith can be about whatever the person wants or finds spiritual ranging from the manifestation of divinity in a religious symbol in a human form or an inspiration in nature such as a snow covered mountain a serene lake in moonlight or a colorful horizon at sunrise or sunset or melodic sounds or syllables such as those that are intoned as mantras and rhythmically repeated like Om that is audibly or silent contemplated on 55 The direction of deep meditation in the text is towards detaching the mind from sensory distractions and disturbances outside of oneself submerging it instead on the indwelling spirit and one s soul towards the state of Samadhi a state of bliss Bhagavad Gita Chapter 6 Yoga of Meditation 53 55 The Gita presents a synthesis 56 57 of the Brahmanical concept of Dharma 56 57 58 with bhakti 59 58 the yogic ideals 57 of liberation 57 through jnana 59 and Samkhya philosophy web 2 note 5 It is the locus classicus 60 of the Hindu synthesis 60 which emerged around the beginning of the Common Era 60 integrating Brahmanic and shramanic ideas with theistic devotion 60 57 58 web 2 The Bhagavad Gita talks of four branches of yoga 54 Karma Yoga The yoga of work in the world Jnana yoga The yoga of knowledge and intellectual endeavor Bhakti Yoga The yoga of devotion Dhyana Yoga The yoga of meditation sometimes called Raja yoga or Ashtanga yoga The Dhyana Yoga system is specifically described by Krishna in chapter 6 of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna 54 The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali edit Main article Yoga Sutras of Patanjali In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali dated ca 400 CE 61 a key text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy Dhyana is the seventh limb of this path following Dharana and preceding Samadhi 62 Dhyana is integrally related to Dharana one leads to other Dharana is a state of mind Dhyana the process of mind Dhyana is distinct from Dharana in that the meditator becomes actively engaged with its focus Patanjali defines contemplation Dhyana as the mind process where the mind is fixed on something and then there is a course of uniform modification of knowledge 63 Bronkhorst states that Buddhist influences are noticeable in the first chapter of the Yogasutras and confirmed by sutra 1 20 because it mentions asamprajnata samadhi is preceded by trust sraddha energy virya mindfulness smriti concentration samadhi and insight prajna 64 According to Bronkhorst the definition of Yoga given in the first chapter of the Yoga Sutra does not fit the descriptions contained in the same chapter 65 and this may suggest the sutra incorporated Buddhist elements as described in the four jhanas 66 Wynne in contrast to Bronkhorst s theory states that the evidence in early Buddhist texts such as those found in Suttapitaka suggest that these foundational ideas on formless meditation and element meditation were borrowed from pre Buddha Brahamanical sources attested in early Upanishads and ultimately the cosmological theory found in the Nasadiya sukta of the Rigveda 33 Adi Shankara in his commentary on Yoga Sutras distinguishes Dhyana from Dharana by explaining Dhyana as the yoga state when there is only the stream of continuous thought about the object uninterrupted by other thoughts of different kind for the same object Dharana states Shankara is focussed on one object but aware of its many aspects and ideas about the same object Shankara gives the example of a yogin in a state of dharana on morning sun may be aware of its brilliance color and orbit the yogin in dhyana state contemplates on sun s orbit alone for example without being interrupted by its color brilliance or other related ideas 67 In Patanjali s Raja Yoga also called meditation yoga 68 dhyana is a refined meditative practice a deeper concentration of the mind which is taken up after preceding practices In Hinduism dhyana is considered to be an instrument to gain self knowledge It is a part of a self directed awareness and unifying Yoga process by which a world that by default is experienced as disjointed comes to be experienced as Self and an integrated oneness with Brahman 7 The Brahman has been variously defined in Hinduism ranging from non theistic non dualistic Ultimate Reality or supreme soul to theistic dualistic God 69 70 71 Dharana edit The stage of meditation preceding dhyana is called dharana 72 73 Dharana which means holding on is the focusing and holding one s awareness to one object for a long period of time In Yogasutras the term implies fixing one s mind on an object of meditation which could be one s breath or the tip of one s nose or the image of one s personal deity or anything of the yogi s choice 74 In the Jangama Dhyana technique for example the meditator concentrates the mind to a spot between the eyebrows According to Patanjali this is one method of achieving the initial concentration dharaṇa Yoga Sutras III 1 necessary for the mind to become introverted in meditation dhyana Yoga Sutras III 2 In deeper practice of the technique the mind concentrated between the eyebrows begins to automatically lose all location and focus on the watching itself This step prepares one to begin the practice of Dhyana nbsp Swami Vivekananda in meditating yogic posture Dhyana edit The Yogasutras in verse 3 2 and elsewhere states Edwin Bryant defines Dhyana as the continuous flow of the same thought or image of the object of meditation without being distracted by any other thought 75 Vivekananda explains Dhyana in Patanjali s Yogasutras as When the mind has been trained to remain fixed on a certain internal or external location there comes to it the power of flowing in an unbroken current as it were towards that point This state is called Dhyana 76 While Dharana was the stage in yoga where the yogi held one s awareness to one object for a long period of time Dhyana is concentrated meditation where he or she contemplates without interruption the object of meditation beyond any memory of ego or anything else 74 In Dhyana the meditator is not conscious of the act of meditation i e is not aware that he she is meditating but is only aware that he she exists consciousness of being his mind and the object of meditation Dhyana is distinct from Dharana in that the yogi contemplates on the object of meditation and the object s aspects only free from distractions with his mind during Dhyana With practice the process of Dhyana awakens self awareness soul the purusha or Atman the fundamental level of existence and Ultimate Reality in Hinduism the non afflicted conflictless and blissful state of freedom and liberation moksha 77 78 Samadhi edit Main article Samadhi Hinduism The Dhyana step prepares a yogi to proceed towards practicing Samadhi Swami Vivekananda describes the teachings of Yogasutras in the following way When one has so intensified the power of dhyana as to be able to reject the external part of perception and remain meditating only on the internal part the meaning that state is called Samadhi note 6 Michael Washburn states that the Yogasutras text identifies stepwise stages for meditative practice progress and that Patanjali distinguishes between Dharana which is effortful focusing of attention Dhyana which is easy continuous one pointedness and Samadhi which is absorption ecstasy contemplation 79 A person who begins meditation practice usually practices Dharana 79 With practice he is able to gain ease in which he learns how to contemplate in a sharply focussed fashion and then he is able more and more easily to give uninterrupted attention to the meditation object that is to say he attains Dhyana 79 With further practice the yogi ceases being detachedly vigilant and enters a state of fusion with the meditation object which is Samadhi 80 Samadhi is oneness with the object of meditation There is no distinction between act of meditation and the object of meditation Samadhi is of two kinds 81 web 3 with and without support or an object of meditation 82 Samprajnata Samadhi also called savikalpa samadhi and Sabija Samadhi is object centered and is associated with deliberation reflection blissful ecstasy that has been assisted by an object or anchor point 83 82 The first two deliberation and reflection form the basis of the various types of samapatti 83 84 Savitarka deliberative 83 The citta च त त is concentrated upon a gross object of meditation and the yogi s deliberates and fuses with it becoming unaware of everything else 85 note 7 Conceptualization vikalpa here is in the form of perception and the knowledge of the object of meditation 83 When the deliberation is ended this is called nirvitaka samadhi 86 note 8 Savichara reflective 85 the citta च त त is concentrated upon an abstract object of meditation which is not perceptible to the senses but arrived at through inference 85 The object of meditation can be inferred from the senses the process of cognition the mind the I am ness or the buddhi intellect 85 note 9 The stilling of reflection is called nirvichara samapatti 85 note 10 Asamprajnata Samadhi also called Nirvikalpa Samadhi web 3 and Nirbija Samadhi web 3 the state achieved when the meditation is without the help of a support or an object 85 Both object centered and objectless centered meditative practice in Hindu texts leads to progressively more bright pellucid and poised state of powerful pure Sattvic state of blissful Self ultimately leading to the knowledge of purusha or Atman Brahman soul states Michael Washburn 82 87 This is the state in Hindu tradition where states Gregor Maehle the yogi or yogini realizes the Atman in you is the Atman in everyone and leading to the realization of Self 88 Samyama edit The practice of Dharana Dhyana and Samadhi together is designated as Samyama Sanskrit स यम holding together in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali 89 Samyama asserts the text is a powerful meditative tool and can be applied to a certain object or entire class of objects 89 A yogi who does Samyama on Pratyaya notions customs of men states sutra 3 19 of the text knows the series of psycho mental states of other men 89 A yogi after successfully completing Samyama on distinction of object and idea realizes the cries of all creatures states sutra 3 17 89 A Samyama on friendliness compassion and joy leads to these powers emerging within the yogi states sutra 3 23 90 The meditation technique discussed in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is thus states Mircea Eliade a means to knowledge and siddhi yogic power 89 91 Vacaspati Misra a scholar of the Vedanta school of Hinduism in his bhasya on the Yogasutra s 3 30 wrote Whatever the yogin desires to know he should perform samyama in respect to that object 92 Moksha freedom liberation is one such practice where the object of samyama is Sattva pure existence Atman soul and Purusha Universal principle or Bhagavan God 93 Adi Shankara another scholar of the Vedanta school of Hinduism extensively commented on samyama as a means for Jnana yoga path of knowledge to achieve the state of Jivanmukta living liberation 94 95 Samapatti edit Main article Samapatti This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it January 2016 By the time the Yogasutras were compiled the Hindu traditions had two broad forms of meditation namely the ecstatic and enstatic types 96 97 Comparison of Dhyana in Hinduism Buddhism and Jainism editMain articles Dhyana in Buddhism and Jain meditation BuddhismAccording to Jianxin Li Samprajnata Samadhi of Hinduism may be compared to the rupa jhanas of Buddhism 98 This interpretation may conflict with Gombrich and Wynne according to whom the first and second jhana represent concentration whereas the third and fourth jhana combine concentration with mindfulness 99 According to Eddie Crangle the first jhana resembles Patanjali s Samprajnata Samadhi which both share the application of vitarka and vicara 100 Asamprajnata Samadhi states Jianxin Li may be compared to the arupa jhanas of Buddhism and to Nirodha Samapatti 98 Crangle and other scholars state that sabija asamprajnata samadhi resembles the four formless jhanas with the fourth arupa jhana of Buddhism being analogous to Patanjali s objectless dhyana and samadhi 101 102 The paths to be followed in order to attain enlightenment are remarkably uniform among all the Indian systems each requires a foundation of moral purification leading eventually to similar meditation practices David Loy National University of Singapore 103 According to Sarbacker and other scholars while there are parallels between Dhyana in Hinduism and in Buddhism the phenomenological states and the emancipation experiences are described differently 102 104 Dhyana in Buddhism is aiming towards cessation and realization of shunya state of null while Dhyana Hinduism is aiming towards realization of Atman soul and consequent union with Brahman 102 Nirvana or Nibbana the desired end through Dhyana in Buddhism is the realization that there is no permanent self nor permanent consciousness while Moksha the desired end through Dhyana in Hinduism is acceptance of Self realization of liberating knowledge the consciousness of Oneness with all existence and understanding the whole universe as the Self 103 note 11 note 12 Nirvana of Buddhism starts with the premise that Self is merely an illusion there is no Self Moksha of Hinduism on the other hand starts with the premise that everything is the Self states David Loy 103 The soteriological emphasis in Dhyana therefore is different in Buddhism and Hinduism 105 JainismAncient Jaina scholars developed their own theories on Dhyana like other Indian religions 2 but little detail is mentioned in Jaina texts 106 and the Dhyana practices varied by sects within the Jaina tradition 107 Broadly Jainism texts identify four types of meditation based on the nature of object 106 108 Arta dhyana states Jaina meditation literature occurs when one s focus is on anguish and unpleasant things 2 Raudra dhyana occurs when the focus is on anger or perverse ideas or objects 108 Dharmya dhyana focuses on religious ideas or virtuous objects while Shukla dhyana is the focus on pure ideas or bright objects 2 108 This classification of four Dhyana types may have roots suggests Paul Dundas in the earlier Hindu texts related to Kashmir Shaivism 108 Dundas states that Jaina tradition emphasized Dhyana but its meditation related literature likely went through two stages of formulation the early stage independent of other Indian traditions one which concerned itself with cessation of mind and physical activities rather than their transformation as in other Indian traditions followed by a later stage likely post Yogasutras where Jaina scholars of different sects restructured the contemplative model to assimilate elements of Hindu and Buddhist techniques on Dhyana 108 The terminology used in some Jainism texts however states John Cort are different 109 The premise of Atman soul exists that is found in Hinduism is also present in Jainism The soteriological goals of Jaina spiritual meditation are similar to Hindu spiritual meditation aimed at experiential contact with the ultimate self wherein the yogi realizes the blissful unfettered formless soul and siddha hood a totally liberated state of being 106 Related concept Upasana editTwo concepts associated with Dhyana found in ancient and medieval Hindu texts are Upasana and Vidya 38 Upasana means come near to something some idea and denotes the act and state of meditation while Vidya means knowledge and is the consequence of Dhyana 110 The term Upasana typically appears in the context of ritual meditative practices such as before a devotional symbol such as deity or during a yajna type practice or community oriented bhakti worship singing and is a subtype of Dhyana 110 111 The 11th century Vishishtadvaita Vedanta scholar Ramanuja noted that upasana and dhyana are equated in the Upanishads with other terms such as vedana knowing and smrti remembrance Ramanuja holds that all these are phases of meditation adding that they must be done with love or bhakti See also edit nbsp Hinduism portalYoga philosophy Sahaja Yoga Ashtanga Yoga Pranava yoga Raja Yoga Samadhi Samyama Dhyana in Buddhism Jain meditation History of meditationNotes edit Bhagavad Gita 26 2nd century BCE Katha Upanishad 27 pre or post Buddha ca 5th century BCE Maitrayaniya Upanishad 28 ca 3rd century BCE Scholars such as Hans Wolfgang Schumann state that Uddaka Ramaputta was a Vedic era teacher of Upanishadic ideas 29 According to Bronkhorst Buddhism probably had a marginal influence before Asoka while this mainstream did influence Buddhism but the specific Buddhist form of meditation with the four dhyanas are considered to be an authentic Buddhist development 32 See 6 1 4 of Taittiriya Samhita 3 2 of Aitareya Aranyaka 8 11 of Satapatha Aranyaka sections 5 18 through 5 24 of Chandogya Upanishad Also see discussion on Agnihotra to Pranagnihotra evolution by Staal 44 The Bhagavad Gita also integrates theism and transcendentalism web 2 or spiritual monism 58 and identifies a God of personal characteristics with the Brahman of the Vedic tradition web 2 See Swami Vivekenanda on Dhyana and Samadhi in Raja Yoga Yoga Sutra 1 42 Deliberative savitarka samapatti is that samadhi in which words objects and knowledge are commingled through conceptualization 83 Yoga Sutra 1 43 When memory is purified the mind appears to be emptied of its own nature and only the object shines forth This is superdeliberative nirvitaka samapatti 86 Following Yoga Sutra 1 17 meditation on the sense of I am ness is also grouped in other descriptions Yoga Sutra 1 44 In this way reflective savichara and super reflective nirvichara samapatti which are based on subtle objects are also explained 85 Loy s discussion covers Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaishesika and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophies Crangle states Buddhists denied the authenticity of any claim by non Buddhists to the attainment of the ninth state which is the release of Nirvana the destruction of consciousness and sensation which was specifically a discovery of the Buddha 104 References edit a b c Jones amp Ryan 2006 pp 283 284 a b c d e f g h i Jones amp Ryan 2006 p 283 a b Bronkhorst 1993 p 53 a b c d Sagarmal Jain 2015 Yoga in Jainism Editor Christopher Key Chapple Routledge ISBN 978 1138829077 pages 14 15 a b Reginald Ray 1999 Buddhist Saints in India Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195134834 pp 237 240 247 249 a b Andrew J Nicholson 2013 Unifying Hinduism Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231149877 Chapter 9 a b c d e f William Mahony 1997 The Artful Universe An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791435809 pages 171 177 222 a b c Bronkhorst 1993 pp 65 83 Edwin Bryant 2009 The Yoga sutras of Patanjali a new edition translation and commentary with insights from the traditional commentators North Point Press ISBN 978 0865477360 pages xxii xxix xxx a b c Wynne 2007 p 94 a b c d e Frits Staal 2009 Discovering the Vedas Origins Mantras Rituals Insights Penguin ISBN 978 0143099864 pages 182 184 a b c G A Jacob 1963 A concordance of the Principal Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita Motilal Banarsidass OCLC 1827024 pages 472 474 Whicher 1998 p 49 Stuart Sarbacker 2011 Yoga Powers Editor Knut A Jacobsen Brill ISBN 978 9004212145 page 195 dhyAna Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary 2008 revision Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon Germany Jan Gonda 1963 The Vision of Vedic Poets Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3110153156 pages 289 301 Thomas Berry 1992 Religions of India Hinduism Yoga Buddhism Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231107815 page 101 Jan Gonda 1963 The Vision of Vedic Poets Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3110153156 pages 289 290 Charlotte Bell 2007 Mindful Yoga Mindful Life A Guide for Everyday Practice Rodmell Press ISBN 978 1930485204 pages 151 159 GN Jha Translator 1907 The Yoga darsana The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa Book 3 Harvard University Archives pages 94 95 K Ramakrishna Rao 2005 Consciousness Studies Cross Cultural Perspectives McFarland ISBN 978 0786422784 page 315 TR Anantharaman 1996 Ancient Yoga and Modern Science PHISPC monograph Volume 14 Issue 7 ISBN 978 8121507523 pages 44 45 William Mahony 1997 The Artful Universe An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791435809 page 170 Bronkhorst 1993 Wynne 2007 Bronkhorst 1993 p 45 Bronkhorst 1993 p 46 Bronkhorst 1993 p 47 Hans Wolfgang Schumann 2004 The Historical Buddha The Times Life and Teachings of the Founder of Buddhism Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120818170 page 49 a b Sagarmal Jain 2015 Yoga in Jainism Editor Christopher Key Chapple Routledge ISBN 978 1138829077 pages 14 28 Bronkhorst 1993 p 68 77 Bronkhorst 1993 p 95 122 123 a b c Wynne 2007 pp 96 97 Wynne 2007 pp 11 15 94 Kalupahana 1994 p 24 Maurice Bloomfield A Vedic concordance Harvard University Press page 523 a b Jan Gonda 1963 The Vision of Vedic Poets Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3110153156 pages 292 293 a b c William Cenkner 1995 A Tradition of Teachers Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120809321 pages 23 25 a b Paul Deussen Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814684 pages 25 58 Max Muller Translator Kaushitaki Upanishad Oxford University Press page 294 Paul Deussen 1997 Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814677 pages 174 180 181 351 364 Henk Bodewitz 1997 Jaiminiya Brahmaṇa I 1 65 Translation and Commentary Brill Academic ISBN 978 9004036048 pp 23 230 233 with footnote 6 328 329 Paul Deussen 1997 Sixty Upanishads of the Veda Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120814677 pages 645 646 JF Staal 2008 Reprint Original 1961 Advaita and Neoplatonism DBNL OCLC 2026357 pages 72 73 Tsunehiko Sugiki 2015 Homa Variations The Study of Ritual Change across the Longue Duree Editors Richard Payne and Michael Witzel Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199351589 pages 167 169 176 177 186 193 194 Yael Bentor 2000 Interiorized Fire Rituals in India and in Tibet Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol 120 No 4 pages 594 613 Yael Bentor 2000 Interiorized Fire Rituals in India and in Tibet Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol 120 No 4 pages 596 597 Dhyai Sanskrit English Dictionary Koeln University Germany Patrick Olivelle 1999 Dharmasutras Oxford World Classics Oxford University Press ISBN 0 192838822 pages 325 326 For Sanskrit manuscript original see Archive Georg Buhler The Sacred Books of the East at Google Books Volume XIV Part II Editor Max Muller Oxford University Press pages 138 139 a b William Cenkner 1995 A Tradition of Teachers Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120809321 pages 71 82 with footnotes Henk Bodewitz 1999 Violence Denied Editors Jan E M Houben and Karel Rijk van Kooij BRILL ISBN 978 9004113442 page 28 footnote 19 a b Eknath Easwaran 2011 Essence of the Bhagavad Gita Nilgiri ISBN 978 1586380687 pages 126 146 280 a b c d Winthrop Sargeant 2009 The Bhagavad Gita Twenty fifth Anniversary Edition Editor Christopher Chapple State University of New York Press ISBN 978 1438428420 page xv a b c Winthrop Sargeant 2009 The Bhagavad Gita Twenty fifth Anniversary Edition Editor Christopher Chapple State University of New York Press ISBN 978 1438428420 pages xvi 272 321 331 a b Deutsch amp Dalvi 2004 p 61 a b c d e Scheepers 2000 a b c d Raju 1992 p 211 a b Deutsch amp Dalvi 2004 p 61 62 a b c d Hiltebeitel 2002 Maas 2006 Lochtefeld 2002 p 196 585 The Yoga Philosophy TR Tatya Translator with Bhojaraja commentary Harvard University Archives page 94 95 Bronkhorst 1993 pp 49 71 Bronkhorst 1993 p 73 Bronkhorst 1993 p 74 Trevor Leggett 1983 Shankara on the Yoga Sutras Volume 2 Routledge ISBN 978 0710095398 pages 283 284 Vyn Bailey 2009 Patanjali s Meditation Yoga Simon amp Schuster Australia ISBN 978 0731806485 Stephen Philips 1998 Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Brahman to Derrida Editor Edward Craig Routledge ISBN 978 0415187077 pages 1 4 Klaus K Klostermaier 2007 A Survey of Hinduism Third Edition State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791470824 Chapter 12 Atman and Brahman Self and All Michael Myers 2000 Brahman A Comparative Theology Routledge ISBN 978 0700712571 pages 124 127 Underwood 2005 Smith 2005 a b The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 Edition Volume 4 ISBN 978 0852299616 page 56 Article on Yoga Edwin Bryant 2009 The Yoga sutras of Patanjali a new edition translation and commentary with insights from the traditional commentators North Point Press ISBN 978 0865477360 pages 303 305 Swami Vivekananda 1915 The Complete Works of the Swami Vivekananda at Google Books Volume 1 2nd Edition Harvard University Archives page 206 Archive 2 Vedanta Philosophy Lectures p 82 at Google Books Basant Pradhan 2014 Yoga and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy Springer Academic ISBN 978 3319091044 pages 49 50 RS Bajpai 2002 The Splendours And Dimensions Of Yoga Atlantic Publishers ISBN 978 8171569649 pages 189 196 a b c Michael Washburn 1988 The Ego and the Dynamic Ground A Transpersonal Theory of Human Development State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0887066115 page 219 Michael Washburn 1988 The Ego and the Dynamic Ground A Transpersonal Theory of Human Development State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0887066115 page 220 Jones amp Ryan 2006 p 377 a b c Michael Washburn 1988 The Ego and the Dynamic Ground A Transpersonal Theory of Human Development State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0887066115 pages 220 221 a b c d e Maehle 2007 p 177 Whicher 1998 p 254 a b c d e f g Maehle 2007 p 179 a b Maehle 2007 p 178 Maehle 2007 pp 179 180 237 240 Maehle 2007 pp 239 240 with discussion on sutra 3 8 a b c d e Mircea Eliade Willard Ropes Trask and David Gordon White 2009 Yoga Immortality and Freedom Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0691142036 pages 85 87 Maehle 2007 pp 251 252 Stephen Phillips 2009 Yoga Karma and Rebirth A Brief History and Philosophy Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0231144858 pages 141 142 Mircea Eliade Willard Ropes Trask and David Gordon White 2009 Yoga Immortality and Freedom Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0691142036 page 88 with footnote 119 TS Rukmani 1993 Researches in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy Editor Rama Karaṇa Sarma Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120809949 pages 218 220 also 217 224 Jeaneane D Fowler 2012 The Bhagavad Gita Sussex University Press ISBN 978 1845193461 pages 53 83 85 148 149 Jonathan Bader 1990 Meditation in Saṅkara s Vedanta Aditya Prakashan ISBN 978 8185179513 pages 42 46 Stuart Ray Sarbacker 2006 Samadhi State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791465547 pages 53 60 Frits Staal 1975 Exploring Mysticism A Methodological Essay University of California Press ISBN 978 0520031197 pages 86 91 a b Jianxin Li n d Wynne 2007 p 106 140 note 58 Crangle 1984 p 191 Crangle 1984 pp 191 194 a b c Stuart Ray Sarbacker 2006 Samadhi SUNY Press ISBN 978 0791465547 pages 104 106 a b c David Loy 1982 Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same International Philosophical Quarterly 23 1 pp 65 74 a b Crangle 1984 p 194 Stuart Ray Sarbacker 2006 Samadhi SUNY Press ISBN 978 0791465547 pages 106 108 a b c Padmanabh S Jaini 2014 The Jaina Path of Purification Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120815780 pages 251 258 Kurt Titze 2001 Jainism Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120815346 page 266 a b c d e Paul Dundas 2002 The Jains Routledge ISBN 978 0415266055 pages 166 169 John Cort 1998 Open Boundaries Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0791437865 pages 17 20 a b William Cenkner 1995 A Tradition of Teachers Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120809321 pages 23 25 74 75 John C Plott 1974 A Philosophy of Devotion Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 0842606196 pages 70 71Sources editPublished sources edit Bronkhorst Johannes 1993 The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India Motilal Banarsidass Comans Michael 1993 The Question of the Importance of Samadhi in Modern and Classical Advaita Vedanta In Philosophy East and West Vol 43 No 1 Jan 1993 pp 19 38 Comans Michael 2000 The Method of Early Advaita Vedanta A Study of Gauḍapada Saṅkara Suresvara and Padmapada Delhi Motilal Banarsidass Crangle Eddie 1984 A Comparison of Hindu and Buddhist Techniques of Attaining Samadhi PDF in Hutch R A Fenner P G eds Under The Shade of the Coolibah Tree Australian 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