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Foodborne illness

Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and food poisoning)[1] is any illness resulting from the contamination of food by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites,[2] as well as prions (the agents of mad cow disease), and toxins such as aflatoxins in peanuts, poisonous mushrooms, and various species of beans that have not been boiled for at least 10 minutes.

Symptoms vary depending on the cause. They often include vomiting, fever, and aches, and may include diarrhea. Bouts of vomiting can be repeated with an extended delay in between. This is because even if infected food was eliminated from the stomach in the first bout, microbes, like bacteria (if applicable), can pass through the stomach into the intestine and begin to multiply. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine.

For contaminants requiring an incubation period, symptoms may not manifest for hours to days, depending on the cause and on the quantity of consumption. Longer incubation periods tend to cause those affected to not associate the symptoms with the item consumed, so they may misattribute the symptoms to gastroenteritis, for example.

Causes edit

 
Poorly stored food in a refrigerator

Foodborne illness usually arises from improper handling, preparation, or food storage. Good hygiene practices before, during, and after food preparation can reduce the chances of contracting an illness. There is a consensus in the public health community that regular hand-washing is one of the most effective defenses against the spread of foodborne illness. The action of monitoring food to ensure that it will not cause foodborne illness is known as food safety. Foodborne disease can also be caused by a large variety of toxins that affect the environment.[3]

Furthermore, foodborne illness can be caused by a number of chemicals, such as pesticides, medicines, and natural toxic substances such as vomitoxin, poisonous mushrooms or reef fish.[4]

Bacteria edit

Bacteria are a common cause of foodborne illness. In 2000, the United Kingdom reported the individual bacteria involved as the following: Campylobacter jejuni 77.3%, Salmonella 20.9%, Escherichia coli O157:H7 1.4%, and all others less than 0.56%.[5]

In the past, bacterial infections were thought to be more prevalent because few places had the capability to test for norovirus and no active surveillance was being done for this particular agent. Toxins from bacterial infections are delayed because the bacteria need time to multiply. As a result, symptoms associated with intoxication are usually not seen until 12–72 hours or more after eating contaminated food. However, in some cases, such as Staphylococcal food poisoning, the onset of illness can be as soon as 30 minutes after ingesting contaminated food.[6]

 
Salmonella

A 2022 study concluded that washing uncooked chicken could increase the risk of pathogen transfer, and that specific washing conditions can decrease the risk of transfer.[7][8]

Most common bacterial foodborne pathogens are:

Other common bacterial foodborne pathogens are:[15]

Less common bacterial agents:[citation needed]

Enterotoxins edit

In addition to disease caused by direct bacterial infection, some foodborne illnesses are caused by enterotoxins (exotoxins targeting the intestines). Enterotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed. Symptom onset varies with the toxin but may be rapid in onset, as in the case of enterotoxins of Staphylococcus aureus in which symptoms appear in one to six hours.[16] This causes intense vomiting including or not including diarrhea (resulting in staphylococcal enteritis), and staphylococcal enterotoxins (most commonly staphylococcal enterotoxin A but also including staphylococcal enterotoxin B) are the most commonly reported enterotoxins although cases of poisoning are likely underestimated.[17] It occurs mainly in cooked and processed foods due to competition with other biota in raw foods, and humans are the main cause of contamination as a substantial percentage of humans are persistent carriers of S. aureus.[17] The CDC has estimated about 240,000 cases per year in the United States.[18]

The rare but potentially deadly disease botulism occurs when the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum grows in improperly canned low-acid foods and produces botulin, a powerful paralytic toxin.[citation needed]

Pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis, certain species of Pseudomonas and Vibrio, and some other bacteria, produce the lethal tetrodotoxin, which is present in the tissues of some living animal species rather than being a product of decomposition.[citation needed]

Emerging foodborne pathogens edit

Scandinavian outbreaks of Yersinia enterocolitica have recently increased to an annual basis, connected to the non-canonical contamination of pre-washed salad.[19]

Preventing bacterial food poisoning edit

 
Proper storage and refrigeration of food help in the prevention of food poisoning.

The government is primarily responsible for the prevention of food-borne illnesses. This is achieved through the implementation of strict hygiene rules and a public veterinary service that monitors animal products throughout the food chain, from farming to delivery in shops and restaurants. This regulation includes:

  • traceability: the origin of the ingredients (farm of origin, identification of the crop or animal) and where and when it has been processed must be known in the final product; in this way, the origin of the disease can be traced and resolved (and possibly penalized), and the final products can be removed from sale if a problem is detected;
  • enforcement of hygiene procedures such as HACCP and the "cold chain";
  • power of control and of law enforcement of veterinarians.

In August 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved phage therapy which involves spraying meat with viruses that infect bacteria, and thus preventing infection. This has raised concerns because without mandatory labeling, consumers would not know that meat and poultry products have been treated with the spray.[20]

At home, prevention mainly consists of good food safety practices. Many forms of bacterial poisoning can be prevented by cooking food sufficiently, and either eating it quickly or refrigerating it effectively.[2] Many toxins, however, are not destroyed by heat treatment.

Techniques that help prevent food borne illness in the kitchen are hand washing, rinsing produce,[21] preventing cross-contamination, proper storage, and maintaining cooking temperatures. In general, freezing or refrigerating prevents virtually all bacteria from growing, and heating food sufficiently kills parasites, viruses, and most bacteria. Bacteria grow most rapidly at the range of temperatures between 40 and 140 °F (4 and 60 °C), called the "danger zone". Storing food below or above the "danger zone" can effectively limit the production of toxins. For storing leftovers, the food must be put in shallow containers for quick cooling and must be refrigerated within two hours. When food is reheated, it must reach an internal temperature of 165 °F (74 °C) or until hot or steaming to kill bacteria.[22]

Mycotoxins and alimentary mycotoxicoses edit

The term alimentary mycotoxicosis refers to the effect of poisoning by mycotoxins through food consumption. The term mycotoxin is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops. Mycotoxins sometimes have important effects on human and animal health. For example, an outbreak which occurred in the UK during 1960 caused the death of 100,000 turkeys which had consumed aflatoxin-contaminated peanut meal. In the USSR in World War II, 5,000 people died due to alimentary toxic aleukia (ALA).[23] The common foodborne Mycotoxins include:

Viruses edit

Viral infections make up perhaps one third of cases of food poisoning in developed countries. In the US, more than 50% of cases are viral and noroviruses are the most common foodborne illness, causing 57% of outbreaks in 2004. Foodborne viral infection are usually of intermediate (1–3 days) incubation period, causing illnesses which are self-limited in otherwise healthy individuals; they are similar to the bacterial forms described above.[citation needed]

  • Enterovirus
  • Hepatitis A is distinguished from other viral causes by its prolonged (2–6 week) incubation period and its ability to spread beyond the stomach and intestines into the liver. It often results in jaundice, or yellowing of the skin, but rarely leads to chronic liver dysfunction. The virus has been found to cause infection due to the consumption of fresh-cut produce which has fecal contamination.[48][49]
  • Hepatitis E
  • Norovirus
  • Rotavirus
     
    Rotavirus

Parasites edit

Most foodborne parasites are zoonoses.[50]

Natural toxins edit

Several foods can naturally contain toxins, many of which are not produced by bacteria. Plants in particular may be toxic; animals which are naturally poisonous to eat are rare. In evolutionary terms, animals can escape being eaten by fleeing; plants can use only passive defenses such as poisons and distasteful substances, for example capsaicin in chili peppers and pungent sulfur compounds in garlic and onions. Most animal poisons are not synthesised by the animal, but acquired by eating poisonous plants to which the animal is immune, or by bacterial action.[citation needed]

Some plants contain substances which are toxic in large doses, but have therapeutic properties in appropriate dosages.

Other pathogenic agents edit

"Ptomaine poisoning" misconception edit

Ptomaine poisoning was a myth that persisted in the public consciousness, in newspaper headlines, and legal cases as an official diagnosis, decades after it had been scientifically disproven in the 1910s.[58]

In the 19th century, the Italian chemist Francesco Selmi, of Bologna, introduced the generic name ptomaine (from Greek ptōma, "fall, fallen body, corpse") for alkaloids found in decaying animal and vegetable matter, especially (as reflected in their names) putrescine and cadaverine.[59] The 1892 Merck's Bulletin stated, "We name such products of bacterial origin ptomaines; and the special alkaloid produced by the comma bacillus is variously named Cadaverine, Putrescine, etc."[60] While The Lancet stated, "The chemical ferments produced in the system, the... ptomaines which may exercise so disastrous an influence."[61] It is now known that the "disastrous... influence" is due to the direct action of bacteria and only slightly due to the alkaloids. Thus, the use of the phrase "ptomaine poisoning" is now obsolete.[citation needed]

At a Communist political convention in Massillon, Ohio,[62] and aboard a cruise ship in Washington, D.C., tainted potato salad sickened hundreds in separate incidents during a single week in 1932, drawing national attention to the dangers of so-called "ptomaine poisoning" in the pages of the American news weekly, Time.[63] In 1944, another newspaper article reported that over 150 people in Chicago were hospitalized with ptomaine poisoning, apparently from rice pudding served by a restaurant chain.[64]

Mechanism edit

Incubation period edit

The delay between the consumption of contaminated food and the appearance of the first symptoms of illness is called the incubation period. This ranges from hours to days (and rarely months or even years, such as in the case of listeriosis or bovine spongiform encephalopathy), depending on the agent, and on how much was consumed. If symptoms occur within one to six hours after eating the food, it suggests that it is caused by a bacterial toxin or a chemical rather than live bacteria.[citation needed]

The long incubation period of many foodborne illnesses tends to cause those affected to attribute their symptoms to gastroenteritis.[65]

During the incubation period, microbes pass through the stomach into the intestine, attach to the cells lining the intestinal walls, and begin to multiply there. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine, some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream, and some can directly invade the deeper body tissues. The symptoms produced depend on the type of microbe.[66]

Infectious dose edit

The infectious dose is the amount of agent that must be consumed to give rise to symptoms of foodborne illness, and varies according to the agent and the consumer's age and overall health. Pathogens vary in minimum infectious dose; for example, Shigella sonnei has a low estimated minimum dose of < 500 colony-forming units (CFU) while Staphylococcus aureus has a relatively high estimate.[67]

In the case of Salmonella a relatively large inoculum of 1 million to 1 billion organisms is necessary to produce symptoms in healthy human volunteers,[68] as Salmonellae are very sensitive to acid. An unusually high stomach pH level (low acidity) greatly reduces the number of bacteria required to cause symptoms by a factor of between 10 and 100.[citation needed]

Gut microbiota unaccustomed to endemic organisms edit

Foodborne illness often occurs as travelers' diarrhea in persons whose gut microbiota is unaccustomed to organisms endemic to the visited region. This effect of microbiologic naïveté is compounded by any food safety lapses in the food's preparation.[citation needed]

Epidemiology edit

Asymptomatic subclinical infection may help spread these diseases, particularly Staphylococcus aureus, Campylobacter, Salmonella, Shigella, Enterobacter, Vibrio cholerae, and Yersinia.[67] For example, as of 1984 it was estimated that in the United States, 200,000 people were asymptomatic carriers of Salmonella.[67]

Infants edit

Globally, infants are a group that is especially vulnerable to foodborne disease. The World Health Organization has issued recommendations for the preparation, use and storage of prepared formulas. Breastfeeding remains the best preventive measure for protection from foodborne infections in infants.[69]

United States edit

A CDC report[70] for the period 2017–2019 found that 41% of outbreaks at restaurants were caused by a sick employee. Contributory factors identified included lack of written policy compliance with FDA recommendations for identifying red-flag symptoms, glove use, and hand washing; lack of paid sick leave at the majority of establishments; and social pressure to come to work even while sick.[71] The remaining outbreaks had a variety of causes, including inadequate cooking, improper temperature, and cross-contamination[citation needed].

In the United States, using FoodNet data from 2000 to 2007, the CDC estimated there were 47.8 million foodborne illnesses per year (16,000 cases for 100,000 inhabitants)[72] with 9.4 million of these caused by 31 known identified pathogens.[73]

  • 127,839 were hospitalized (43 per 100,000 inhabitants per year).[74][75][76]
  • 3,037 people died (1.0 per 100,000 inhabitants per year).[75][76]

United Kingdom edit

According to a 2012 report from the Food Standards Agency, there were around a million cases of foodborne illness per year (1,580 cases for 100,000 inhabitants).[77]

  • 20,000 were hospitalized (32 per 100,000 inhabitants);[77][78]
  • 500 people died (0.80 per 100,000 inhabitants).[77][78]

France edit

This data pertains to reported medical cases of 23 specific pathogens in the 1990s, as opposed to total population estimates of all foodborne illness for the United States.[citation needed]

In France, for 750,000 cases (1,210 per 100,000 inhabitants):[citation needed]

  • 70,000 people consulted in the emergency department of a hospital (113 per 100,000 inhabitants);
  • 113,000 people were hospitalized (182 per 100,000 inhabitants);
  • 460 people died (0.75 per 100,000 inhabitants).

Australia edit

A study by the Australian National University published in 2022 for Food Standards Australia New Zealand estimated there are 4.67 million cases of food poisoning in Australia each year that result in 47,900 hospitalisations, 38 deaths and a cost to the economy of $2.1 billion[81]

A previous study using different methodology and published in November 2014, found in 2010 that there were an estimated 4.1 million cases of foodborne gastroenteritis acquired in Australia on average each year, along with 5,140 cases of non-gastrointestinal illness. }[82]

The main causes were norovirus, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp. and non-typhoidal Salmonella spp., although the causes of approximately 80% of illnesses were unknown. Approximately 25% (90% CrI: 13%–42%) of the 15.9 million episodes of gastroenteritis that occur in Australia were estimated to be transmitted by contaminated food. This equates to an average of approximately one episode of foodborne gastroenteritis every five years per person. Data on the number of hospitalisations and deaths represent the occurrence of serious foodborne illness. Including gastroenteritis, non-gastroenteritis and sequelae, there were an estimated annual 31,920 (90% CrI: 29,500–35,500) hospitalisations due to foodborne illness and 86 (90% CrI: 70–105) deaths due to foodborne illness circa 2010. This study concludes that these rates are similar to recent estimates in the US and Canada.[citation needed]

A main aim of this study was to compare if foodborne illness incidence had increased over time. In this study, similar methods of assessment were applied to data from circa 2000, which showed that the rate of foodborne gastroenteritis had not changed significantly over time. Two key estimates were the total number of gastroenteritis episodes each year, and the proportion considered foodborne. In circa 2010, it was estimated that 25% of all episodes of gastroenteritis were foodborne. By applying this proportion of episodes due to food to the incidence of gastroenteritis circa 2000, there were an estimated 4.3 million (90% CrI: 2.2–7.3 million) episodes of foodborne gastroenteritis circa 2000, although credible intervals overlap with 2010. Taking into account changes in population size, applying these equivalent methods suggests a 17% decrease in the rate of foodborne gastroenteritis between 2000 and 2010, with considerable overlap of the 90% credible intervals.[citation needed]

This study replaces a previous estimate of 5.4 million cases of foodborne illness in Australia every year, causing:[83]

  • 18,000 hospitalizations
  • 120 deaths (0.5 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants)
  • 2.1 million lost days off work
  • 1.2 million doctor consultations
  • 300,000 prescriptions for antibiotics.

Most foodborne disease outbreaks in Australia have been linked to raw or minimally cooked eggs or poultry.[84] The Australian Food Safety Information Council estimates that one third of cases of food poisoning occur in the home.[85]

Comparison between countries edit

Country Annual deaths per 100,000 inhabitants Annual hospitalization per 100,000 inhabitants
USA 1.0 43
UK 0.8 32
France 0.75 182
Australia 0.5 82

Outbreaks edit

The vast majority of reported cases of foodborne illness occur as individual or sporadic cases. The origin of most sporadic cases is undetermined. In the United States, where people eat outside the home frequently, 58% of cases originate from commercial food facilities (2004 FoodNet data). An outbreak is defined as occurring when two or more people experience similar illness after consuming food from a common source.[citation needed]

Often, a combination of events contributes to an outbreak, for example, food might be left at room temperature for many hours, allowing bacteria to multiply which is compounded by inadequate cooking which results in a failure to kill the dangerously elevated bacterial levels.[citation needed]

Outbreaks are usually identified when those affected know each other. Outbreaks can also be identified by public health staff when there are unexpected increases in laboratory results for certain strains of bacteria. Outbreak detection and investigation in the United States is primarily handled by local health jurisdictions and is inconsistent from district to district. It is estimated that 1–2% of outbreaks are detected.[citation needed]

Society and culture edit

United Kingdom edit

In postwar Aberdeen (1964) a large-scale (>400 cases) outbreak of typhoid occurred, caused by contaminated corned beef which had been imported from Argentina.[86] The corned beef was placed in cans and because the cooling plant had failed, cold river water from the Plate estuary was used to cool the cans. One of the cans had a defect and the meat inside was contaminated. This meat was then sliced using a meat slicer in a shop in Aberdeen, and a lack of cleaning the machinery led to spreading the contamination to other meats cut in the slicer. These meats were then eaten by the people of Aberdeen who then became ill.[citation needed]

Serious outbreaks of foodborne illness since the 1970s prompted key changes in UK food safety law. These included the death of 19 patients in the Stanley Royd Hospital outbreak[87] and the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, mad cow disease) outbreak identified in the 1980s. The death of 21 people in the 1996 Wishaw outbreak of E. coli O157[88][89] was a precursor to the establishment of the Food Standards Agency which, according to Tony Blair in the 1998 white paper A Force for Change Cm 3830, "would be powerful, open and dedicated to the interests of consumers".[90]

In May 2015, for the second year running, England's Food Standards Agency devoted its annual Food Safety Week to "The Chicken Challenge". The focus was on the handling of raw chicken in the home and in catering facilities in a drive to reduce the high levels of food poisoning from the campylobacter bacterium. Anne Hardy argues that widespread public education of food hygiene can be useful, particularly through media (TV cookery programmes) and advertisement. She points to the examples set by Scandinavian societies.[91]

United States edit

In 2001, the Center for Science in the Public Interest petitioned the United States Department of Agriculture to require meat packers to remove spinal cords before processing cattle carcasses for human consumption, a measure designed to lessen the risk of infection by variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. The petition was supported by the American Public Health Association, the Consumer Federation of America, the Government Accountability Project, the National Consumers League, and Safe Tables Our Priority.[92]

None of the US Department of Health and Human Services targets[93] regarding incidence of foodborne infections were reached in 2007.[94]

A report issued in June 2018 by NBC's Minneapolis station using research by both the CDC and the Minnesota Department of Health concluded that foodborne illness is on the rise in the U.S.[95]

India edit

In India, Entamoeba is the most common cause of food illness, followed by Campylobacter bacteria, Salmonella bacteria, E. coli bacteria, and norovirus.[96] According to statistics, food poisoning was the second most common cause of infectious disease outbreak in India in 2017. The numbers of outbreaks have increased from 50 in 2008 to 242 in 2017. [96]

Organizations edit

The World Health Organization Department of Food Safety and Zoonoses (FOS) provides scientific advice for organizations and the public on issues concerning the safety of food. Its mission is to lower the burden of foodborne disease, thereby strengthening the health security and sustainable development of Member States. Foodborne and waterborne diarrhoeal diseases kill an estimated 2.2 million people annually, most of whom are children. WHO works closely with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) to address food safety issues along the entire food production chain—from production to consumption—using new methods of risk analysis. These methods provide efficient, science-based tools to improve food safety, thereby benefiting both public health and economic development.[citation needed]

International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN) edit

The International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN) is a joint program of the WHO and FAO. INFOSAN has been connecting national authorities from around the globe since 2004, with the goal of preventing the international spread of contaminated food and foodborne disease and strengthening food safety systems globally. This is done by:[citation needed]

  1. Promoting the rapid exchange of information during food safety events;
  2. Sharing information on important food safety issues of global interest;
  3. Promoting partnership and collaboration between countries; and
  4. Helping countries strengthen their capacity to manage food safety risks.

Membership to INFOSAN is voluntary, but is restricted to representatives from national and regional government authorities and requires an official letter of designation. INFOSAN seeks to reflect the multidisciplinary nature of food safety and promote intersectoral collaboration by requesting the designation of Focal Points in each of the respective national authorities with a stake in food safety, and a single Emergency Contact Point in the national authority with the responsibility for coordinating national food safety emergencies; countries choosing to be members of INFOSAN are committed to sharing information between their respective food safety authorities and other INFOSAN members. The operational definition of a food safety authority includes those authorities involved in: food policy; risk assessment; food control and management; food inspection services; foodborne disease surveillance and response; laboratory services for monitoring and surveillance of foods and foodborne diseases; and food safety information, education and communication across the farm-to-table continuum.[citation needed]

Prioritisation of foodborne pathogens edit

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and The World Health Organization have published a global ranking of foodborne parasites using a multicriteria ranking tool concluding that Taenia solium was the most relevant, followed by Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis, and Toxoplasma gondii.[97] The same method was used regionally to rank the most important foodborne parasites in Europe ranking Echinococcus multilocularis of highest relevance, followed by Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spiralis.[98]

Regulatory steps edit

Food may be contaminated during all stages of food production and retailing. In order to prevent viral contamination, regulatory authorities in Europe have enacted several measures:[citation needed]

  • European Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 of November 15, 2005
  • European Committee for Standardization (CEN): Standard method for the detection of norovirus and hepatitis A virus in food products (shellfish, fruits and vegetables, surfaces and bottled water)
  • CODEX Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH): Guideline for the application of general principles of food hygiene for the control of viruses in food[99]

See also edit

References edit

  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

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Further reading edit

Periodicals edit

Books edit

  • Hocking AD, Pitt JI, Samson RA, Thrane U (2005). Advances in Food Mycology. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-28385-2. ISBN 978-0-387-28391-3 (electronic).
  • Hobbs BC (1993). Food Poisoning and Food Hygiene. Vol. 7. Edward Arnold. pp. 167–70. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a073825. ISBN 978-0-340-53740-4. PMID 14821218. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  • Riemann HP, Cliver DO (2006). FoodBorne Infections and Intoxications. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-588365-8.
  • Smith JL (2005). Fratamico PM, Bhunia AK, Smith JL (eds.). Foodborne Pathogens: Microbiology And Molecular Biology. Horizon Scientific Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-00-4.

External links edit

  • , WHO, Fact sheet N°124, revised January 2002
  • Foodborne illness information pages December 30, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, NSW Food Authority
  • , WHO, Fact sheet N°237, revised January 2002
  • US PulseNet
  • Food poisoning from NHS Direct Online
  • hosted at the University of Guelph, Canada.
  • Food Standard Agency website

foodborne, illness, disease, most, commonly, referred, food, poisoning, salmonellosis, also, foodborne, disease, food, poisoning, illness, resulting, from, contamination, food, pathogenic, bacteria, viruses, parasites, well, prions, agents, disease, toxins, su. For the disease most commonly referred to as food poisoning see Salmonellosis Foodborne illness also foodborne disease and food poisoning 1 is any illness resulting from the contamination of food by pathogenic bacteria viruses or parasites 2 as well as prions the agents of mad cow disease and toxins such as aflatoxins in peanuts poisonous mushrooms and various species of beans that have not been boiled for at least 10 minutes Symptoms vary depending on the cause They often include vomiting fever and aches and may include diarrhea Bouts of vomiting can be repeated with an extended delay in between This is because even if infected food was eliminated from the stomach in the first bout microbes like bacteria if applicable can pass through the stomach into the intestine and begin to multiply Some types of microbes stay in the intestine For contaminants requiring an incubation period symptoms may not manifest for hours to days depending on the cause and on the quantity of consumption Longer incubation periods tend to cause those affected to not associate the symptoms with the item consumed so they may misattribute the symptoms to gastroenteritis for example Contents 1 Causes 1 1 Bacteria 1 1 1 Enterotoxins 1 1 2 Emerging foodborne pathogens 1 1 3 Preventing bacterial food poisoning 1 2 Mycotoxins and alimentary mycotoxicoses 1 3 Viruses 1 4 Parasites 1 5 Natural toxins 1 6 Other pathogenic agents 1 7 Ptomaine poisoning misconception 2 Mechanism 2 1 Incubation period 2 2 Infectious dose 2 3 Gut microbiota unaccustomed to endemic organisms 3 Epidemiology 3 1 Infants 3 2 United States 3 3 United Kingdom 3 4 France 3 5 Australia 3 6 Comparison between countries 3 7 Outbreaks 4 Society and culture 4 1 United Kingdom 4 2 United States 4 3 India 4 4 Organizations 4 5 International Food Safety Authorities Network INFOSAN 4 6 Prioritisation of foodborne pathogens 4 7 Regulatory steps 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 7 1 Periodicals 7 2 Books 8 External linksCauses editSee also Pathogen nbsp Poorly stored food in a refrigeratorFoodborne illness usually arises from improper handling preparation or food storage Good hygiene practices before during and after food preparation can reduce the chances of contracting an illness There is a consensus in the public health community that regular hand washing is one of the most effective defenses against the spread of foodborne illness The action of monitoring food to ensure that it will not cause foodborne illness is known as food safety Foodborne disease can also be caused by a large variety of toxins that affect the environment 3 Furthermore foodborne illness can be caused by a number of chemicals such as pesticides medicines and natural toxic substances such as vomitoxin poisonous mushrooms or reef fish 4 Bacteria edit Bacteria are a common cause of foodborne illness In 2000 the United Kingdom reported the individual bacteria involved as the following Campylobacter jejuni 77 3 Salmonella 20 9 Escherichia coli O157 H7 1 4 and all others less than 0 56 5 In the past bacterial infections were thought to be more prevalent because few places had the capability to test for norovirus and no active surveillance was being done for this particular agent Toxins from bacterial infections are delayed because the bacteria need time to multiply As a result symptoms associated with intoxication are usually not seen until 12 72 hours or more after eating contaminated food However in some cases such as Staphylococcal food poisoning the onset of illness can be as soon as 30 minutes after ingesting contaminated food 6 nbsp SalmonellaA 2022 study concluded that washing uncooked chicken could increase the risk of pathogen transfer and that specific washing conditions can decrease the risk of transfer 7 8 Most common bacterial foodborne pathogens are Campylobacter jejuni which can lead to secondary Guillain Barre syndrome and periodontitis 9 Clostridium perfringens the cafeteria germ 10 11 Salmonella spp its S typhimurium infection is caused by consumption of eggs or poultry that are not adequately cooked or by other interactive human animal pathogens 12 13 14 Escherichia coli O157 H7 enterohemorrhagic EHEC which can cause hemolytic uremic syndromeOther common bacterial foodborne pathogens are 15 Bacillus cereus Escherichia coli other virulence properties such as enteroinvasive EIEC enteropathogenic EPEC enterotoxigenic ETEC enteroaggregative EAEC or EAgEC Listeria monocytogenes Shigella spp Staphylococcus aureus Streptococcus Vibrio cholerae including O1 and non O1 Vibrio parahaemolyticus Vibrio vulnificus Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosisLess common bacterial agents citation needed Brucella spp Corynebacterium ulcerans Coxiella burnetii or Q fever Plesiomonas shigelloidesEnterotoxins edit See also Botulism In addition to disease caused by direct bacterial infection some foodborne illnesses are caused by enterotoxins exotoxins targeting the intestines Enterotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed Symptom onset varies with the toxin but may be rapid in onset as in the case of enterotoxins of Staphylococcus aureus in which symptoms appear in one to six hours 16 This causes intense vomiting including or not including diarrhea resulting in staphylococcal enteritis and staphylococcal enterotoxins most commonly staphylococcal enterotoxin A but also including staphylococcal enterotoxin B are the most commonly reported enterotoxins although cases of poisoning are likely underestimated 17 It occurs mainly in cooked and processed foods due to competition with other biota in raw foods and humans are the main cause of contamination as a substantial percentage of humans are persistent carriers of S aureus 17 The CDC has estimated about 240 000 cases per year in the United States 18 Clostridium botulinum Clostridium perfringens Bacillus cereusThe rare but potentially deadly disease botulism occurs when the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum grows in improperly canned low acid foods and produces botulin a powerful paralytic toxin citation needed Pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis certain species of Pseudomonas and Vibrio and some other bacteria produce the lethal tetrodotoxin which is present in the tissues of some living animal species rather than being a product of decomposition citation needed Emerging foodborne pathogens edit Aeromonas hydrophila Aeromonas caviae Aeromonas sobriaScandinavian outbreaks of Yersinia enterocolitica have recently increased to an annual basis connected to the non canonical contamination of pre washed salad 19 Preventing bacterial food poisoning edit nbsp Proper storage and refrigeration of food help in the prevention of food poisoning The government is primarily responsible for the prevention of food borne illnesses This is achieved through the implementation of strict hygiene rules and a public veterinary service that monitors animal products throughout the food chain from farming to delivery in shops and restaurants This regulation includes traceability the origin of the ingredients farm of origin identification of the crop or animal and where and when it has been processed must be known in the final product in this way the origin of the disease can be traced and resolved and possibly penalized and the final products can be removed from sale if a problem is detected enforcement of hygiene procedures such as HACCP and the cold chain power of control and of law enforcement of veterinarians In August 2006 the United States Food and Drug Administration approved phage therapy which involves spraying meat with viruses that infect bacteria and thus preventing infection This has raised concerns because without mandatory labeling consumers would not know that meat and poultry products have been treated with the spray 20 At home prevention mainly consists of good food safety practices Many forms of bacterial poisoning can be prevented by cooking food sufficiently and either eating it quickly or refrigerating it effectively 2 Many toxins however are not destroyed by heat treatment Techniques that help prevent food borne illness in the kitchen are hand washing rinsing produce 21 preventing cross contamination proper storage and maintaining cooking temperatures In general freezing or refrigerating prevents virtually all bacteria from growing and heating food sufficiently kills parasites viruses and most bacteria Bacteria grow most rapidly at the range of temperatures between 40 and 140 F 4 and 60 C called the danger zone Storing food below or above the danger zone can effectively limit the production of toxins For storing leftovers the food must be put in shallow containers for quick cooling and must be refrigerated within two hours When food is reheated it must reach an internal temperature of 165 F 74 C or until hot or steaming to kill bacteria 22 Mycotoxins and alimentary mycotoxicoses edit The term alimentary mycotoxicosis refers to the effect of poisoning by mycotoxins through food consumption The term mycotoxin is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops Mycotoxins sometimes have important effects on human and animal health For example an outbreak which occurred in the UK during 1960 caused the death of 100 000 turkeys which had consumed aflatoxin contaminated peanut meal In the USSR in World War II 5 000 people died due to alimentary toxic aleukia ALA 23 The common foodborne Mycotoxins include Aflatoxins originating from Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus They are frequently found in tree nuts peanuts maize sorghum and other oilseeds including corn and cottonseeds The pronounced forms of aflatoxins are those of B1 B2 G1 and G2 amongst which Aflatoxin B1 predominantly targets the liver which will result in necrosis cirrhosis and carcinoma 24 25 In the US the acceptable level of total aflatoxins in foods is less than 20 mg kg except for Aflatoxin M1 in milk which should be less than 0 5 mg kg 26 The official document can be found at FDA s website 27 28 Altertoxins are those of alternariol AOH alternariol methyl ether AME altenuene ALT altertoxin 1 ATX 1 tenuazonic acid TeA and radicinin RAD originating from Alternaria spp Some of the toxins can be present in sorghum ragi wheat and tomatoes 29 30 31 Some research has shown that the toxins can be easily cross contaminated between grain commodities suggesting that manufacturing and storage of grain commodities is a critical practice 32 Citrinin Citreoviridin Cyclopiazonic acid Cytochalasins Ergot alkaloids ergopeptine alkaloids ergotamine Fumonisins Crop corn can be easily contaminated by the fungi Fusarium moniliforme and its fumonisin B1 will cause leukoencephalomalacia LEM in horses pulmonary edema syndrome PES in pigs liver cancer in rats and esophageal cancer in humans 33 34 For human and animal health both the FDA and the EC have regulated the content levels of toxins in food and animal feed 35 36 Fusaric acid Fusarochromanone Kojic acid Lolitrem alkaloids Moniliformin 3 Nitropropionic acid Nivalenol Ochratoxins In Australia The Limit of Reporting LOR level for ochratoxin A OTA analyses in 20th Australian Total Diet Survey was 1 µg kg 37 whereas the EC restricts the content of OTA to 5 µg kg in cereal commodities 3 µg kg in processed products and 10 µg kg in dried vine fruits 38 Oosporeine Patulin Currently this toxin has been advisably regulated on fruit products The EC and the FDA have limited it to under 50 µg kg for fruit juice and fruit nectar while limits of 25 µg kg for solid contained fruit products and 10 µg kg for baby foods were specified by the EC 38 39 Phomopsins Sporidesmin A Sterigmatocystin Tremorgenic mycotoxins Five of them have been reported to be associated with molds found in fermented meats These are fumitremorgen B paxilline penitrem A verrucosidin and verruculogen 40 Trichothecenes sourced from Cephalosporium Fusarium Myrothecium Stachybotrys and Trichoderma The toxins are usually found in molded maize wheat corn peanuts and rice or animal feed of hay and straw 41 42 Four trichothecenes T 2 toxin HT 2 toxin diacetoxyscirpenol DAS and deoxynivalenol DON have been most commonly encountered by humans and animals The consequences of oral intake of or dermal exposure to the toxins will result in alimentary toxic aleukia neutropenia aplastic anemia thrombocytopenia and or skin irritation 43 44 45 In 1993 the FDA issued a document for the content limits of DON in food and animal feed at an advisory level 46 In 2003 US published a patent that is very promising for farmers to produce a trichothecene resistant crop 47 Zearalenone ZearalenolsViruses edit Viral infections make up perhaps one third of cases of food poisoning in developed countries In the US more than 50 of cases are viral and noroviruses are the most common foodborne illness causing 57 of outbreaks in 2004 Foodborne viral infection are usually of intermediate 1 3 days incubation period causing illnesses which are self limited in otherwise healthy individuals they are similar to the bacterial forms described above citation needed Enterovirus Hepatitis A is distinguished from other viral causes by its prolonged 2 6 week incubation period and its ability to spread beyond the stomach and intestines into the liver It often results in jaundice or yellowing of the skin but rarely leads to chronic liver dysfunction The virus has been found to cause infection due to the consumption of fresh cut produce which has fecal contamination 48 49 Hepatitis E Norovirus Rotavirus nbsp RotavirusParasites edit Most foodborne parasites are zoonoses 50 Platyhelminthes citation needed Diphyllobothrium sp Nanophyetus sp Taenia saginata Taenia solium Fasciola hepatica See also Tapeworm and Flatworm Nematode 51 Anisakis sp Ascaris lumbricoides Eustrongylides sp Toxocara Trichinella spiralis Trichuris trichiura Protozoa citation needed Acanthamoeba and other free living amoebae Cryptosporidiosis Cyclospora cayetanensis Entamoeba histolytica Giardia lamblia nbsp Giardia lamblia Sarcocystis hominis Sarcocystis suihominis ToxoplasmaNatural toxins edit Several foods can naturally contain toxins many of which are not produced by bacteria Plants in particular may be toxic animals which are naturally poisonous to eat are rare In evolutionary terms animals can escape being eaten by fleeing plants can use only passive defenses such as poisons and distasteful substances for example capsaicin in chili peppers and pungent sulfur compounds in garlic and onions Most animal poisons are not synthesised by the animal but acquired by eating poisonous plants to which the animal is immune or by bacterial action citation needed Alkaloids Ciguatera poisoning Grayanotoxin honey intoxication Hormones from the thyroid glands of slaughtered animals especially triiodothyronine in cases of hamburger thyrotoxicosis or alimentary thyrotoxicosis 52 53 54 55 56 57 Mushroom toxins Phytohaemagglutinin red kidney bean poisoning destroyed by boiling Pyrrolizidine alkaloids Shellfish toxin including paralytic shellfish poisoning diarrhetic shellfish poisoning neurotoxic shellfish poisoning amnesic shellfish poisoning and ciguatera fish poisoning Scombrotoxin Tetrodotoxin fugu fish poisoning Some plants contain substances which are toxic in large doses but have therapeutic properties in appropriate dosages Foxglove contains cardiac glycosides Poisonous hemlock conium has medicinal uses citation needed Other pathogenic agents edit Prions resulting in Creutzfeldt Jakob disease CJD and its variant vCJD Ptomaine poisoning misconception edit Ptomaine poisoning was a myth that persisted in the public consciousness in newspaper headlines and legal cases as an official diagnosis decades after it had been scientifically disproven in the 1910s 58 In the 19th century the Italian chemist Francesco Selmi of Bologna introduced the generic name ptomaine from Greek ptōma fall fallen body corpse for alkaloids found in decaying animal and vegetable matter especially as reflected in their names putrescine and cadaverine 59 The 1892 Merck s Bulletin stated We name such products of bacterial origin ptomaines and the special alkaloid produced by the comma bacillus is variously named Cadaverine Putrescine etc 60 While The Lancet stated The chemical ferments produced in the system the ptomaines which may exercise so disastrous an influence 61 It is now known that the disastrous influence is due to the direct action of bacteria and only slightly due to the alkaloids Thus the use of the phrase ptomaine poisoning is now obsolete citation needed At a Communist political convention in Massillon Ohio 62 and aboard a cruise ship in Washington D C tainted potato salad sickened hundreds in separate incidents during a single week in 1932 drawing national attention to the dangers of so called ptomaine poisoning in the pages of the American news weekly Time 63 In 1944 another newspaper article reported that over 150 people in Chicago were hospitalized with ptomaine poisoning apparently from rice pudding served by a restaurant chain 64 Mechanism editIncubation period edit The delay between the consumption of contaminated food and the appearance of the first symptoms of illness is called the incubation period This ranges from hours to days and rarely months or even years such as in the case of listeriosis or bovine spongiform encephalopathy depending on the agent and on how much was consumed If symptoms occur within one to six hours after eating the food it suggests that it is caused by a bacterial toxin or a chemical rather than live bacteria citation needed The long incubation period of many foodborne illnesses tends to cause those affected to attribute their symptoms to gastroenteritis 65 During the incubation period microbes pass through the stomach into the intestine attach to the cells lining the intestinal walls and begin to multiply there Some types of microbes stay in the intestine some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream and some can directly invade the deeper body tissues The symptoms produced depend on the type of microbe 66 Infectious dose edit The infectious dose is the amount of agent that must be consumed to give rise to symptoms of foodborne illness and varies according to the agent and the consumer s age and overall health Pathogens vary in minimum infectious dose for example Shigella sonnei has a low estimated minimum dose of lt 500 colony forming units CFU while Staphylococcus aureus has a relatively high estimate 67 In the case of Salmonella a relatively large inoculum of 1 million to 1 billion organisms is necessary to produce symptoms in healthy human volunteers 68 as Salmonellae are very sensitive to acid An unusually high stomach pH level low acidity greatly reduces the number of bacteria required to cause symptoms by a factor of between 10 and 100 citation needed Gut microbiota unaccustomed to endemic organisms edit Foodborne illness often occurs as travelers diarrhea in persons whose gut microbiota is unaccustomed to organisms endemic to the visited region This effect of microbiologic naivete is compounded by any food safety lapses in the food s preparation citation needed Epidemiology editAsymptomatic subclinical infection may help spread these diseases particularly Staphylococcus aureus Campylobacter Salmonella Shigella Enterobacter Vibrio cholerae and Yersinia 67 For example as of 1984 it was estimated that in the United States 200 000 people were asymptomatic carriers of Salmonella 67 Infants edit Main article Infant food safety Globally infants are a group that is especially vulnerable to foodborne disease The World Health Organization has issued recommendations for the preparation use and storage of prepared formulas Breastfeeding remains the best preventive measure for protection from foodborne infections in infants 69 United States edit A CDC report 70 for the period 2017 2019 found that 41 of outbreaks at restaurants were caused by a sick employee Contributory factors identified included lack of written policy compliance with FDA recommendations for identifying red flag symptoms glove use and hand washing lack of paid sick leave at the majority of establishments and social pressure to come to work even while sick 71 The remaining outbreaks had a variety of causes including inadequate cooking improper temperature and cross contamination citation needed In the United States using FoodNet data from 2000 to 2007 the CDC estimated there were 47 8 million foodborne illnesses per year 16 000 cases for 100 000 inhabitants 72 with 9 4 million of these caused by 31 known identified pathogens 73 127 839 were hospitalized 43 per 100 000 inhabitants per year 74 75 76 3 037 people died 1 0 per 100 000 inhabitants per year 75 76 Causes of foodborne illness in US 73 Cause Annual cases Rate per 100 000 inhabitants 1 Norovirus 5 461 731 cases X2 Salmonella 1 027 561 cases X3 Clostridium perfringens 965 958 cases X4 Campylobacter 845 024 cases X Causes of death by foodborne illness in US 73 Cause Annual deaths Rate per 100 000 inhabitants 1 Salmonella 378 cases 0 1262 Toxoplasma 327 cases 0 1093 Listeria 255 cases 0 0854 Norovirus 149 cases 0 050 United Kingdom edit According to a 2012 report from the Food Standards Agency there were around a million cases of foodborne illness per year 1 580 cases for 100 000 inhabitants 77 20 000 were hospitalized 32 per 100 000 inhabitants 77 78 500 people died 0 80 per 100 000 inhabitants 77 78 France edit This data pertains to reported medical cases of 23 specific pathogens in the 1990s as opposed to total population estimates of all foodborne illness for the United States citation needed In France for 750 000 cases 1 210 per 100 000 inhabitants citation needed 70 000 people consulted in the emergency department of a hospital 113 per 100 000 inhabitants 113 000 people were hospitalized 182 per 100 000 inhabitants 460 people died 0 75 per 100 000 inhabitants Causes of foodborne illness in France 79 80 Cause Annual hospitalizations Rate per 100 000 inhabitants 1 Salmonella 8 000 cases 132 Campylobacter 3 000 cases 4 83 Parasitesincl Toxoplasma 500 cases 400 cases 0 80 654 Listeria 300 cases 0 55 Hepatitis A 60 cases 0 1 Causes of death by foodborne illness in France Cause Annual Rate per 100 000 inhabitants 1 Salmonella 300 cases 0 52 Listeria 80 cases 0 133 Parasites 37 cases 0 06 95 due to toxoplasma 4 Campylobacter 15 cases 0 025 Hepatitis A 2 cases 0 003 Australia edit A study by the Australian National University published in 2022 for Food Standards Australia New Zealand estimated there are 4 67 million cases of food poisoning in Australia each year that result in 47 900 hospitalisations 38 deaths and a cost to the economy of 2 1 billion 81 A previous study using different methodology and published in November 2014 found in 2010 that there were an estimated 4 1 million cases of foodborne gastroenteritis acquired in Australia on average each year along with 5 140 cases of non gastrointestinal illness 82 The main causes were norovirus pathogenic Escherichia coli Campylobacter spp and non typhoidal Salmonella spp although the causes of approximately 80 of illnesses were unknown Approximately 25 90 CrI 13 42 of the 15 9 million episodes of gastroenteritis that occur in Australia were estimated to be transmitted by contaminated food This equates to an average of approximately one episode of foodborne gastroenteritis every five years per person Data on the number of hospitalisations and deaths represent the occurrence of serious foodborne illness Including gastroenteritis non gastroenteritis and sequelae there were an estimated annual 31 920 90 CrI 29 500 35 500 hospitalisations due to foodborne illness and 86 90 CrI 70 105 deaths due to foodborne illness circa 2010 This study concludes that these rates are similar to recent estimates in the US and Canada citation needed A main aim of this study was to compare if foodborne illness incidence had increased over time In this study similar methods of assessment were applied to data from circa 2000 which showed that the rate of foodborne gastroenteritis had not changed significantly over time Two key estimates were the total number of gastroenteritis episodes each year and the proportion considered foodborne In circa 2010 it was estimated that 25 of all episodes of gastroenteritis were foodborne By applying this proportion of episodes due to food to the incidence of gastroenteritis circa 2000 there were an estimated 4 3 million 90 CrI 2 2 7 3 million episodes of foodborne gastroenteritis circa 2000 although credible intervals overlap with 2010 Taking into account changes in population size applying these equivalent methods suggests a 17 decrease in the rate of foodborne gastroenteritis between 2000 and 2010 with considerable overlap of the 90 credible intervals citation needed This study replaces a previous estimate of 5 4 million cases of foodborne illness in Australia every year causing 83 18 000 hospitalizations 120 deaths 0 5 deaths per 100 000 inhabitants 2 1 million lost days off work 1 2 million doctor consultations 300 000 prescriptions for antibiotics Most foodborne disease outbreaks in Australia have been linked to raw or minimally cooked eggs or poultry 84 The Australian Food Safety Information Council estimates that one third of cases of food poisoning occur in the home 85 Comparison between countries edit Country Annual deaths per 100 000 inhabitants Annual hospitalization per 100 000 inhabitantsUSA 1 0 43UK 0 8 32France 0 75 182Australia 0 5 82Outbreaks edit Main article Deadliest foodborne illness incidents The vast majority of reported cases of foodborne illness occur as individual or sporadic cases The origin of most sporadic cases is undetermined In the United States where people eat outside the home frequently 58 of cases originate from commercial food facilities 2004 FoodNet data An outbreak is defined as occurring when two or more people experience similar illness after consuming food from a common source citation needed Often a combination of events contributes to an outbreak for example food might be left at room temperature for many hours allowing bacteria to multiply which is compounded by inadequate cooking which results in a failure to kill the dangerously elevated bacterial levels citation needed Outbreaks are usually identified when those affected know each other Outbreaks can also be identified by public health staff when there are unexpected increases in laboratory results for certain strains of bacteria Outbreak detection and investigation in the United States is primarily handled by local health jurisdictions and is inconsistent from district to district It is estimated that 1 2 of outbreaks are detected citation needed Society and culture editUnited Kingdom edit In postwar Aberdeen 1964 a large scale gt 400 cases outbreak of typhoid occurred caused by contaminated corned beef which had been imported from Argentina 86 The corned beef was placed in cans and because the cooling plant had failed cold river water from the Plate estuary was used to cool the cans One of the cans had a defect and the meat inside was contaminated This meat was then sliced using a meat slicer in a shop in Aberdeen and a lack of cleaning the machinery led to spreading the contamination to other meats cut in the slicer These meats were then eaten by the people of Aberdeen who then became ill citation needed Serious outbreaks of foodborne illness since the 1970s prompted key changes in UK food safety law These included the death of 19 patients in the Stanley Royd Hospital outbreak 87 and the bovine spongiform encephalopathy BSE mad cow disease outbreak identified in the 1980s The death of 21 people in the 1996 Wishaw outbreak of E coli O157 88 89 was a precursor to the establishment of the Food Standards Agency which according to Tony Blair in the 1998 white paper A Force for Change Cm 3830 would be powerful open and dedicated to the interests of consumers 90 In May 2015 for the second year running England s Food Standards Agency devoted its annual Food Safety Week to The Chicken Challenge The focus was on the handling of raw chicken in the home and in catering facilities in a drive to reduce the high levels of food poisoning from the campylobacter bacterium Anne Hardy argues that widespread public education of food hygiene can be useful particularly through media TV cookery programmes and advertisement She points to the examples set by Scandinavian societies 91 United States edit Main article Food safety in the United States In 2001 the Center for Science in the Public Interest petitioned the United States Department of Agriculture to require meat packers to remove spinal cords before processing cattle carcasses for human consumption a measure designed to lessen the risk of infection by variant Creutzfeldt Jakob disease The petition was supported by the American Public Health Association the Consumer Federation of America the Government Accountability Project the National Consumers League and Safe Tables Our Priority 92 None of the US Department of Health and Human Services targets 93 regarding incidence of foodborne infections were reached in 2007 94 A report issued in June 2018 by NBC s Minneapolis station using research by both the CDC and the Minnesota Department of Health concluded that foodborne illness is on the rise in the U S 95 India edit In India Entamoeba is the most common cause of food illness followed by Campylobacter bacteria Salmonella bacteria E coli bacteria and norovirus 96 According to statistics food poisoning was the second most common cause of infectious disease outbreak in India in 2017 The numbers of outbreaks have increased from 50 in 2008 to 242 in 2017 96 Organizations edit The World Health Organization Department of Food Safety and Zoonoses FOS provides scientific advice for organizations and the public on issues concerning the safety of food Its mission is to lower the burden of foodborne disease thereby strengthening the health security and sustainable development of Member States Foodborne and waterborne diarrhoeal diseases kill an estimated 2 2 million people annually most of whom are children WHO works closely with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FAO to address food safety issues along the entire food production chain from production to consumption using new methods of risk analysis These methods provide efficient science based tools to improve food safety thereby benefiting both public health and economic development citation needed International Food Safety Authorities Network INFOSAN edit The International Food Safety Authorities Network INFOSAN is a joint program of the WHO and FAO INFOSAN has been connecting national authorities from around the globe since 2004 with the goal of preventing the international spread of contaminated food and foodborne disease and strengthening food safety systems globally This is done by citation needed Promoting the rapid exchange of information during food safety events Sharing information on important food safety issues of global interest Promoting partnership and collaboration between countries and Helping countries strengthen their capacity to manage food safety risks Membership to INFOSAN is voluntary but is restricted to representatives from national and regional government authorities and requires an official letter of designation INFOSAN seeks to reflect the multidisciplinary nature of food safety and promote intersectoral collaboration by requesting the designation of Focal Points in each of the respective national authorities with a stake in food safety and a single Emergency Contact Point in the national authority with the responsibility for coordinating national food safety emergencies countries choosing to be members of INFOSAN are committed to sharing information between their respective food safety authorities and other INFOSAN members The operational definition of a food safety authority includes those authorities involved in food policy risk assessment food control and management food inspection services foodborne disease surveillance and response laboratory services for monitoring and surveillance of foods and foodborne diseases and food safety information education and communication across the farm to table continuum citation needed Prioritisation of foodborne pathogens edit The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and The World Health Organization have published a global ranking of foodborne parasites using a multicriteria ranking tool concluding that Taenia solium was the most relevant followed by Echinococcus granulosus Echinococcus multilocularis and Toxoplasma gondii 97 The same method was used regionally to rank the most important foodborne parasites in Europe ranking Echinococcus multilocularis of highest relevance followed by Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spiralis 98 Regulatory steps edit Food may be contaminated during all stages of food production and retailing In order to prevent viral contamination regulatory authorities in Europe have enacted several measures citation needed European Commission Regulation EC No 2073 2005 of November 15 2005 European Committee for Standardization CEN Standard method for the detection of norovirus and hepatitis A virus in food products shellfish fruits and vegetables surfaces and bottled water CODEX Committee on Food Hygiene CCFH Guideline for the application of general principles of food hygiene for the control of viruses in food 99 See also editAmerican Public Health Association v Butz Food allergy Food microbiology Food quality Food safety Food spoilage Food testing strips Gastroenteritis List of foodborne illness outbreaks by country List of food contamination incidents Mycotoxicology 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Retrieved February 22 2015 According to the C D C an estimated 87 million Americans are sickened each year by contaminated food 371 000 are hospitalized with food related illness and 5 700 die from food related disease a b Sabrina Tavernise July 26 2013 F D A Says Importers Must Audit Food Safety The New York Times Retrieved July 27 2013 One in every six Americans becomes ill from eating contaminated food each year Dr Margaret A Hamburg F D A commissioner estimated About 130 000 are hospitalized and 3 000 die a b Stephanie Strom January 4 2013 F D A Offers Sweeping Rules to Fight Food Contamination The New York Times Retrieved January 5 2013 One in six Americans becomes ill from eating contaminated food each year the government estimates of those roughly 130 000 are hospitalized and 3 000 die a b c Annual Report of the Chief Scientist 2012 13 PDF Food Standards Agency England 2013 a b Liebling A Maruna S McAra L 2017 The Oxford Handbook of Criminology Oxford University Press p 290 ISBN 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and Pennington T Hugh 2005 Food Poisoning Policy and Politics Corned Beef and Typhoid in Britain in the 1960s Boydell Press ISBN 1 84383 138 4 page needed Brian Deer February 24 1985 Food poison deaths probe may reveal NHS flaws The Sunday Times BBC News Health Sheriff criticises E coli butcher Cowden JM Ahmed S Donaghy M Riley A June 2001 Epidemiological investigation of the central Scotland outbreak of Escherichia coli O157 infection November to December 1996 Epidemiology and Infection 126 3 335 341 doi 10 1017 S0950268801005520 PMC 2869700 PMID 11467789 The Food Standards Agency A Force for Change gov uk Food Standards Agency United Kingdom January 14 1998 Retrieved August 14 2016 Hardy A January 13 2016 Food Poisoning An On going Saga History and Policy Retrieved July 4 2016 Meat Produced by Advanced Meat Bone Separation Machinery and Meat Recovery AMR Systems Federal Register U S National Archive and Records Administration January 12 2004 Retrieved July 3 2016 Healthy People 2010 Home Page Centers for Disease Control Prevention CDC April 2008 Preliminary FoodNet data on the incidence of infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food 10 states 2007 MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 57 14 366 370 PMID 18401330 Severson G June 15 2018 Why are we seeing so many food recalls KARE 11 Retrieved June 19 2018 a b Symptoms of food poisoning The Times of India ISSN 0971 8257 Retrieved May 29 2023 Multicriteria based ranking for risk management of foodborne parasites Microbiological Risk Assessment Series No 23 FAO WHO 2014 ISBN 978 92 5 108199 0 Bouwknegt M Devleesschauwer B Graham H Robertson LJ van der Giessen JW March 2018 Prioritisation of food borne parasites in Europe 2016 Euro Surveillance 23 9 doi 10 2807 1560 7917 ES 2018 23 9 17 00161 PMC 5840924 PMID 29510783 Codex Committee on Food Hygiene CCFH European Commission Retrieved April 7 2015Further reading editPeriodicals edit International Journal of Food Microbiology ISSN 0168 1605 Elsevier Foodborne Pathogens and Disease ISSN 1535 3141 Mary Ann Liebert Inc Mycopathologia ISSN 1573 0832 electronic ISSN 0301 486X paper SpringerBooks edit Hocking AD Pitt JI Samson RA Thrane U 2005 Advances in Food Mycology Springer ISBN 978 0 387 28385 2 ISBN 978 0 387 28391 3 electronic Hobbs BC 1993 Food Poisoning and Food Hygiene Vol 7 Edward Arnold pp 167 70 doi 10 1093 oxfordjournals bmb a073825 ISBN 978 0 340 53740 4 PMID 14821218 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a journal ignored help Riemann HP Cliver DO 2006 FoodBorne Infections and Intoxications Academic Press ISBN 978 0 12 588365 8 Smith JL 2005 Fratamico PM Bhunia AK Smith JL eds Foodborne Pathogens Microbiology And Molecular Biology Horizon Scientific Press ISBN 978 1 904455 00 4 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Foodborne illness Foodborne diseases emerging WHO Fact sheet N 124 revised January 2002 Foodborne illness information pages Archived December 30 2019 at the Wayback Machine NSW Food Authority Food safety and foodborne illness WHO Fact sheet N 237 revised January 2002 UK Health protection Agency US PulseNet Food poisoning from NHS Direct Online Food Safety Network hosted at the University of Guelph Canada Food Standard Agency website Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Foodborne illness amp oldid 1194395557, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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