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Egypt–Sudan relations

Contact between Egypt and Sudan goes back to trade and conflict during ancient times. In 1820, Egypt conquered Sudan, and continued to occupy the country, later as a condominium under the British, until Sudan declared Independence in 1956. Sudan later joined the Arab League, of which Egypt is a founding member. Relations between successive governments in Egypt and Sudan have warmed and cooled relations at various times. Relations today are cordial, but tensions remain.[1]

Egypt-Sudan relations

Egypt

Sudan

History edit

Pre-Modern relations edit

Contact between Egypt and Sudan goes back to ancient times, when ancient trades routes have roots to 4000 B.C.[2] The ancient Kingdom of Kush in northern Sudan and ancient Egypt engaged in trade, warfare and cultural exchange.[3] During the New Kingdom of Egypt, Egypt conquered further south into Kushite lands. Later, the Kushites would conquer Egypt, founding the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt. Afterwards, Egypt would fall to the Persians, Greeks, and later Romans. During this time, Christianity spread to Egypt and Sudan. Egypt was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in 652 AD, but the caliphate failed to spread into Sudan. A peace treaty was signed between Muslim Egypt and Christian Sudan called the Baqt, lasting centuries. After the Ottomans conquered Egypt, Sudan gradually converted to Islam.[4]

Egyptian occupation edit

Egyptian conquest and Mahdist uprising edit

While Egypt was a province of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt conquered Sudan, led by the Ottoman Governor Muhammad Ali Pasha, founding the city Khartoum. After the Egyptian-Ottoman Wars from 1831 to 1841, Egypt became an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, governed by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty. During this time period, British involvement in Egyptian grew, forming an Anglo-French debt commission that assumed responsibility for managing Egypt's fiscal affairs, that eventually forced Isma'il Pasha to abdicate in favor of his more pro-British son, Tawfiq Pasha.[5][6] The British administrator Charles Gordon was appointed Governor-General of Sudan. A Sudanese religious leader Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi and revolted against Egyptian rule. Egypt, with the support of the British, failed to suppress the uprising, and attempted to evacuate Sudan. Though Gordon was to organize the evacuation of Sudan, he found himself in the siege of Khartoum by Mahdist forces, eventually leading to his death. The Mahdist State continued to exist until 1899, when it was defeated by an Anglo-Egyptian force, establishing Anglo-Egyptian rule until 1956. During this time, the British effectively conquered Egypt after suppressing an anti-British uprising in 1882.

Condominium Agreement of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan edit

The Condominium Agreement of January 19, 1899 provided for a joint administration of the Sudan by the British and Egyptian governments. Yet it was clear from the outset that Egypt's part of this administration was to be purely nominal. The supreme civil and military command of the Sudan was vested in the governor-general, who was nominated by the British government. Thus his appointment by Khedivial decree had few practical implications. It is, therefore, no wonder that during the whole period of the Condominium, all the governor-generals were British, and owed allegiance to the British government.[7]

 
Green: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Light green: Sarra Triangle ceded to Italian Libya in 1934 Dark grey: Egypt and the United Kingdom

While Sudan was officially a condominium between the governments of Egypt and Britain, divided from Egypt along the 22nd parallel, in reality the British Governor General effectively ruled Sudan as a colony.[8][9] After the Egyptian revolution of 1919 and declaration of Egyptian independence in 1922, Egyptian nationalists demanded Egyptian authority over Sudan, citing historical connections with 'Unity in the Nile Valley', but British government involvement remained, especially after the assassination of Governor-General Sir Lee Stack, after which Egypt was forced to retreat all forces from Sudan.[10] Egyptian nationalism during this time believed that Sudan rightfully belonged to Egypt, though Sudanese revolutionaries such as the White Flag League supported an independent Sudan.[11][12][13] While the Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 allowed Egypt to host troops in Sudan, the Sudan remained a de facto British colony. Two imperial powers, Britain and Egypt, sought to control Sudan.[14][15] This rivalry led to the rise of Sudanese elites who tended to split into anti-Egyptian and anti-British factions.[14] The National Umma Party under Sayyid Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi supported Sudanese Independence from Egypt, while the National Unionist Party (NUP) under Ismail al-Azhari favored union with Egypt.[16]

1947 negotiations edit

On January 25, 1947, the British government informed Egypt that it intended to prepare the Sudan for self-government, though Egypt opposed self-government for the Sudan.[17][9] The Egyptian government sought the removal of British troops in Sudan, and because of the historical connection between Egypt and Sudan, Sudan should be granted self-government under a political union with Egypt.[18] Anti-British resentment in Egypt continued to rise, and on 16 October 1951, the Egyptian government abrogated the agreements underpinning the condominium, and declared that Egypt and Sudan were legally united as the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan, with King Farouk as the King of Egypt and the Sudan.[19] However, King Farouk was overthrown during the 1952 Egyptian Revolution by the Free Officers Movement, a group of army officers led by Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, declaring the Egypt a republic in on June 18, 1953. While Naguib, who was half-Sudanese and spent many years of his childhood in Sudan, supported a union between Egypt and Sudan, a treaty was signed in 1953 allowing Sudanese independence after 3 years.[20][21][22] In the 1953 Sudanese parliamentary election, Ismail al-Azhari's NUP received a majority of seats in parliament. Despite winning a majority in the elections, Azhari realized that popular opinion had shifted against an Egyptian-Sudan union.[23] Azhari, who had been the major spokesman for the "unity of the Nile Valley", therefore reversed the NUP's stand and supported Sudanese independence.[24] On December 19, 1955, the Sudanese parliament, under Azhari's leadership, unanimously adopted a declaration of independence that became effective on January 1, 1956, creating the Republic of the Sudan.

 
President of Sudan Gaafar Nimeiry (left), President of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Libya Muammar Gaddafi at the Tripoli Airport

Post-Independence Relations edit

Gamal Abdel Nasser was able to politically outmaneuver Naguib, becoming president of Egypt in 1956. Sudan under Azhari had cordial relations relations with Egypt, until disagreements in 1958 over the border and water resources.[25] Nasser's Egypt later united with Syria, forming the United Arab Republic (U.A.R), while a coup overthrew Azhari's government in that same year. Relations with the UAR and the new government under Prime Minister Abdallah Khalil improved, with both governments signing an agreement over the Nile's water in 1959.[25][26] In 1969, a conspiracy of Sudanese officers overthrew the Sudanese government, led by Colonel Jaafar Nimeiry. Nimeiry adopted a pro-Arab nationalist political position, including signing the Tripoli Charter with the UAR and Libya, declaring the coordination of policies.[27] He also signed treaties with Egyptian president Anwar Sadat, standing by him after Sadat's peace treaty with Israel.[28][29][30][31]

Modern Relations edit

The Nile, Egypt's lifeline, flows through Sudan before reaching Egypt.[14] An estimated 95 per cent of all Egyptians depend on the Nile for fresh water.[14] In 1959 the two countries agreed on a formula for sharing the water, whereby Sudan was authorized to use approximately one quarter of the flow and Egypt about three quarters.[14] The division was predicated on a set annual flow, which varies enormously from year to year.[14] There is usually a surplus above this amount.[14] As a result, use of Nile water by other riparians had not, by 2011, resulted in a crisis with Egypt and Sudan.[14] Nevertheless, none of the other eight riparian states was signature to, nor received any water allocation in, this 1959 bilateral agreement.[14] Since 2000 Sudan had begun expressing an interest in changing the terms of the agreement so that it would be able to use a larger percentage of the flow.[14] Seven of the eight other riparian states—Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda—also pressed for a revised water allocation formula.[14] In 1999 the nine countries formed the Nile Basin Initiative as a forum for discussion about cooperating in the development of the Nile Basin.[14] Since then, no agreement had been reached by 2011, mainly because Egypt and Sudan refused any reduction in their share of water.[14] Egypt was also concerned that the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement would result in another riparian state in South Sudan.[14] Egypt had hoped for a united Sudan because South Sudan will be another state with which it might have to negotiate water rights.[14] In 2010 there was a sharp division between seven of the riparian states, which reached their own agreement, and opposition to that agreement by Egypt and Sudan.[14]

While Egypt and Sudan generally agreed on the Nile water question, they had failed to resolve a longstanding dispute over the location of their border near the Red Sea, an area called the Hala'ib Triangle.[14] Egypt occupied the disputed territory, but the matter remained ripe for future conflict.[14][32] Al-Bashir revived the controversy as recently as 2010 when he stated that Hala’ib was Sudanese and would stay Sudanese.[14]

Sadat's successor, Hosni Mubarak visited Sudan in 1985 after a military coup overthrew Nimeiry that year.[33] Nimeiry lived in exile in Egypt until 1999. Relations between the two countries since the 1989 Sudanese coup have had their ups and downs.[14] The relationship reached its nadir in 1995, when elements of the Sudanese government were complicit in a plot by an Egyptian terrorist group, Gama'a Islamiyya, to assassinate Egypt's president, Hosni Mubarak, while he was en route from the Addis Ababa airport to an Organization of African Unity (now African Union) summit in Ethiopia's capital.[14][34] Sudan called these "unjust and unsubstantiated claims" in a UN letter.[35] By the end of 1999, Egyptian anger toward Sudan had subsided, and President al-Bashir visited Egypt, where the two leaders agreed to normalize diplomatic relations.[14] Al-Bashir returned to Cairo in 2002, at which time they expanded cooperation on a variety of practical issues.[14] Mubarak repaid the visit by going to Khartoum the following year.[14] In 2004 al-Bashir again went to Cairo, where the two leaders signed the Four Freedoms Agreement dealing with freedom of ownership, movement, residence, and work between the two countries.[14] There has been cooperation on counterterrorism and development projects drawing water from the Nile, and the two governments agreed to establish a free-trade zone along the Egypt–Sudan border, where they would exchange commodities free of duty.[14] Sudan has particularly appreciated Egyptian verbal and moral support for its policy in Darfur.[14] Egypt also sent troops to the United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur.[14] Egyptian investments in Sudan reached US$2.5 billion by 2008 while Sudanese investments in Egypt totaled almost US$200 million.[14] By 2010 Egyptian–Sudanese relations were better than they had been in many years, although several long-term contentious issues, such as the future status of South Sudan, ownership of the Hala’ib Triangle, and use of Nile water, remained unresolved.[14]

 
Map of the Hala'ib Triangle

Egypt nevertheless began preparing for the possible independence of South Sudan.[14] In an effort to keep track of developments there, Egypt had about 1,500 military personnel assigned to the United Nations Mission in Sudan and had begun supporting a number of development projects in the South.[14] It had a consulate in Juba, and Mubarak traveled there in 2008.[36] Salva Kiir visited Cairo in 2009, when Egypt made clear it would accept the results of the January 2011 referendum on secession.[14] In 2010, Egypt also offered a US$300 million grant for Southern water and electricity projects along the Nile.[14]

Egypt's policy on Sudan was that it was in favour of a united Sudan, and therefore Egypt was not directly involved in the Sudan Peace Process that gave the peoples of South Sudan the right to secede and form an independent state in 2011 after the long Sudanese Civil War.[citation needed]

On 15 April 2023, war broke out between Sudanese Armed Forces and Rapid Support Forces. Egypt had chosen the side of Sudanese military by supplying soldiers and warplanes. Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi had a close tie with the Sudan's military leader Abdel Fattah al-Burhan. In early 2023, Egypt started a political initiative in Cairo to resolve SAF and RSF differences, but the initiative was in the favor of Sudanese military. As the fighting started Gen. Hamdan’s forces captured 27 Egyptians military men. The western officials tried to defuse the crisis, that would intensify the regional conflict.[37][38]

References edit

  1. ^ DC, Arab Center Washington. "Egyptian-Sudanese Relations on the Mend, but Tensions Remain". Arab Center Washington DC. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  2. ^ Amin, Mutwakil A. (1970). "Ancient Trade and trade Routes Between Egypt and the Sudan, 4000 to 700 B.C." Sudan Notes and Records. 51: 23–30. ISSN 0375-2984. JSTOR 42677984.
  3. ^ Alberge, Dalya. "Tomb reveals Ancient Egypt's humiliating secret". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  4. ^ "Sudan - The spread of Islam | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  5. ^ Administrator (2019-05-10). "Britain in Egypt". www.whipplelib.hps.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  6. ^ Knight, Ian (1989–1990). Queen Victoria's enemies. Richard Scollins. London: Osprey. ISBN 0-85045-901-X. OCLC 19271600.
  7. ^ Awad, Mohamed (1947). "Egypt, Great Britain, and the Sudan: An Egyptian View". Middle East Journal. 1 (3): 281–291. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 4321889.
  8. ^ El-Barawy, Rashed (1951). "Egypt and the Sudan". India Quarterly. 7 (4): 351–363. JSTOR 45068164. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  9. ^ a b Ginat, Rami (2007). "Egypt's Efforts to Unite the Nile Valley: Diplomacy and Propaganda, 1945-47". Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (2): 193–222. doi:10.1080/00263200601114067. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 4284537. S2CID 144313694.
  10. ^ "Sir Lee Stack Assassinated". www.britishempire.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  11. ^ Vezzadini, Elena (2018-02-26). "The 1924 Revolution in Sudan". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.11. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  12. ^ El-Amin, Mohammed Nuri (1986). "Britain, The 1924 Sudanese Uprising, and the Impact of Egypt on the Sudan". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 19 (2): 235–260. doi:10.2307/219427. ISSN 0361-7882. JSTOR 219427.
  13. ^ Powell, Eve Marie Troutt (1995). Colonized Colonizers: Egyptian Nationalists and the Issue of the Sudan, 1875 to 1919 (Thesis).
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Shinn, David H. (2015). "Egypt" (PDF). In Berry, LaVerle (ed.). Sudan: a country study (5th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 277–278. ISBN 978-0-8444-0750-0.   This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Though published in 2015, this work covers events in the whole of Sudan (including present-day South Sudan) until the 2011 secession of South Sudan.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  15. ^ Khan, Hafeezur Rehman (1959). "The Sudanese Egyptian Relations". Pakistan Horizon. 12 (1): 53–57. ISSN 0030-980X. JSTOR 41392256.
  16. ^ Mo, Kristine (2014). Contested Constitutions Constitutional development in Sudan 1953-2005 (PDF) (MA). University of Bergen.
  17. ^ "14. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1922-1956)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
  18. ^ Khan, Hafeezur Rehman (1959). "The Sudanese-Egyptian Relations—II (Continued)". Pakistan Horizon. 12 (2): 136–148. ISSN 0030-980X. JSTOR 41392271.
  19. ^ "14. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1922-1956)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
  20. ^ "Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian Agreement) (Hansard, 12 February 1953)". api.parliament.uk. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  21. ^ "The Sudan (Hansard, 12 February 1953)". api.parliament.uk. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
  22. ^ "Message to Sudan from Egypt's first president, Mohamed Naguib - Heritage". Ahram Online. Retrieved 2022-12-06.
  23. ^ "Independent Sudan". countrystudies.us. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  24. ^ Taha, Fadwa A. A. (2008). "The Sudanese Factor in the 1952-53 Anglo-Egyptian Negotiations". Middle Eastern Studies. 44 (4): 603–631. doi:10.1080/00263200802120665. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 40262598. S2CID 144487768.
  25. ^ a b Ismael, Tareq Y. (1969). "The United Arab Republic and the Sudan". Middle East Journal. 23 (1): 14–28. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 4324392.
  26. ^ Abdalla, I. H. (1971). "The 1959 Nile Waters Agreement in Sudanese-Egyptian Relations". Middle Eastern Studies. 7 (3): 329–341. doi:10.1080/00263207108700185. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 4282387.
  27. ^ Kienle, Eberhard (1995). "Arab Unity Schemes Revisited: Interest, Identity, and Policy in Syria and Egypt". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 27 (1): 53–71. doi:10.1017/S0020743800061584. ISSN 0020-7438. JSTOR 176187. S2CID 154588444.
  28. ^ Sylvester, Anthony (1977). Sudan under Nimeiri. London: Bodley Head. ISBN 0-370-11318-7. OCLC 3396179.
  29. ^ Lesch, Ann Mosely (1987). "A View from Khartoum". Foreign Affairs. 65 (4): 807–826. doi:10.2307/20043095. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20043095.
  30. ^ "Egypt and Sudan Sign Pact". The New York Times. 1977-01-16. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-12-07.
  31. ^ Times, Christopher S. Wren;Special to The New York (1977-10-25). "Egypt and the Sudan Hold Joint Session Of Two Parliaments". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-12-07.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Mohyeldeen, Sherif (11 June 2020). "The Egypt-Sudan Border: A Story of Unfulfilled Promise". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  33. ^ "Around the World – Mubarak Goes to Sudan; First Visit Since Coup". The New York Times. 1985-06-18. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  34. ^ Ibrahim, Youssef M. (1995-07-05). "Egyptian Group Says It Tried to Kill Mubarak". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  35. ^ Sudan (1996-01-11). "Letter dated 11 January 1996 from the Permanent Representative of the Sudan to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  36. ^ "Egypt's Mubarak in south Sudan for unity talks". Al Arabiya English. 2008-11-10. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  37. ^ "As War Rages in Sudan, Countries Angle for Advantage". New York Times. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  38. ^ "2023 Yearender: Cairo - The peace broker".

Further reading edit

Ginat, Rami (2017). Egypt and the Struggle for Power in Sudan: From World War II to Nasserism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107197930.

Mills, David E. (2014). Dividing the Nile: Egypt's Economic Nationalists in the Sudan 1918–56. The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 9789774166389.

Warburg, Gabriel R. (2013). Egypt and the Sudan: Studies in History and Politics (2nd ed.). Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 9780714632476.

Gershoni, Israel; Erlikh, Ḥagai (2000). The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths. Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 9781555876722.

egypt, sudan, relations, contact, between, egypt, sudan, goes, back, trade, conflict, during, ancient, times, 1820, egypt, conquered, sudan, continued, occupy, country, later, condominium, under, british, until, sudan, declared, independence, 1956, sudan, late. Contact between Egypt and Sudan goes back to trade and conflict during ancient times In 1820 Egypt conquered Sudan and continued to occupy the country later as a condominium under the British until Sudan declared Independence in 1956 Sudan later joined the Arab League of which Egypt is a founding member Relations between successive governments in Egypt and Sudan have warmed and cooled relations at various times Relations today are cordial but tensions remain 1 Egypt Sudan relationsEgypt Sudan Contents 1 History 1 1 Pre Modern relations 1 2 Egyptian occupation 1 2 1 Egyptian conquest and Mahdist uprising 1 2 2 Condominium Agreement of Anglo Egyptian Sudan 1 2 3 1947 negotiations 1 3 Post Independence Relations 1 4 Modern Relations 2 References 3 Further readingHistory editPre Modern relations edit Contact between Egypt and Sudan goes back to ancient times when ancient trades routes have roots to 4000 B C 2 The ancient Kingdom of Kush in northern Sudan and ancient Egypt engaged in trade warfare and cultural exchange 3 During the New Kingdom of Egypt Egypt conquered further south into Kushite lands Later the Kushites would conquer Egypt founding the Twenty fifth Dynasty of Egypt Afterwards Egypt would fall to the Persians Greeks and later Romans During this time Christianity spread to Egypt and Sudan Egypt was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in 652 AD but the caliphate failed to spread into Sudan A peace treaty was signed between Muslim Egypt and Christian Sudan called the Baqt lasting centuries After the Ottomans conquered Egypt Sudan gradually converted to Islam 4 Egyptian occupation edit Egyptian conquest and Mahdist uprising edit While Egypt was a province of the Ottoman Empire Egypt conquered Sudan led by the Ottoman Governor Muhammad Ali Pasha founding the city Khartoum After the Egyptian Ottoman Wars from 1831 to 1841 Egypt became an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire governed by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty During this time period British involvement in Egyptian grew forming an Anglo French debt commission that assumed responsibility for managing Egypt s fiscal affairs that eventually forced Isma il Pasha to abdicate in favor of his more pro British son Tawfiq Pasha 5 6 The British administrator Charles Gordon was appointed Governor General of Sudan A Sudanese religious leader Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi and revolted against Egyptian rule Egypt with the support of the British failed to suppress the uprising and attempted to evacuate Sudan Though Gordon was to organize the evacuation of Sudan he found himself in the siege of Khartoum by Mahdist forces eventually leading to his death The Mahdist State continued to exist until 1899 when it was defeated by an Anglo Egyptian force establishing Anglo Egyptian rule until 1956 During this time the British effectively conquered Egypt after suppressing an anti British uprising in 1882 Condominium Agreement of Anglo Egyptian Sudan edit The Condominium Agreement of January 19 1899 provided for a joint administration of the Sudan by the British and Egyptian governments Yet it was clear from the outset that Egypt s part of this administration was to be purely nominal The supreme civil and military command of the Sudan was vested in the governor general who was nominated by the British government Thus his appointment by Khedivial decree had few practical implications It is therefore no wonder that during the whole period of the Condominium all the governor generals were British and owed allegiance to the British government 7 nbsp Green Anglo Egyptian Sudan Light green Sarra Triangle ceded to Italian Libya in 1934 Dark grey Egypt and the United KingdomWhile Sudan was officially a condominium between the governments of Egypt and Britain divided from Egypt along the 22nd parallel in reality the British Governor General effectively ruled Sudan as a colony 8 9 After the Egyptian revolution of 1919 and declaration of Egyptian independence in 1922 Egyptian nationalists demanded Egyptian authority over Sudan citing historical connections with Unity in the Nile Valley but British government involvement remained especially after the assassination of Governor General Sir Lee Stack after which Egypt was forced to retreat all forces from Sudan 10 Egyptian nationalism during this time believed that Sudan rightfully belonged to Egypt though Sudanese revolutionaries such as the White Flag League supported an independent Sudan 11 12 13 While the Anglo Egyptian treaty of 1936 allowed Egypt to host troops in Sudan the Sudan remained a de facto British colony Two imperial powers Britain and Egypt sought to control Sudan 14 15 This rivalry led to the rise of Sudanese elites who tended to split into anti Egyptian and anti British factions 14 The National Umma Party under Sayyid Abd al Rahman al Mahdi supported Sudanese Independence from Egypt while the National Unionist Party NUP under Ismail al Azhari favored union with Egypt 16 1947 negotiations edit On January 25 1947 the British government informed Egypt that it intended to prepare the Sudan for self government though Egypt opposed self government for the Sudan 17 9 The Egyptian government sought the removal of British troops in Sudan and because of the historical connection between Egypt and Sudan Sudan should be granted self government under a political union with Egypt 18 Anti British resentment in Egypt continued to rise and on 16 October 1951 the Egyptian government abrogated the agreements underpinning the condominium and declared that Egypt and Sudan were legally united as the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan with King Farouk as the King of Egypt and the Sudan 19 However King Farouk was overthrown during the 1952 Egyptian Revolution by the Free Officers Movement a group of army officers led by Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser declaring the Egypt a republic in on June 18 1953 While Naguib who was half Sudanese and spent many years of his childhood in Sudan supported a union between Egypt and Sudan a treaty was signed in 1953 allowing Sudanese independence after 3 years 20 21 22 In the 1953 Sudanese parliamentary election Ismail al Azhari s NUP received a majority of seats in parliament Despite winning a majority in the elections Azhari realized that popular opinion had shifted against an Egyptian Sudan union 23 Azhari who had been the major spokesman for the unity of the Nile Valley therefore reversed the NUP s stand and supported Sudanese independence 24 On December 19 1955 the Sudanese parliament under Azhari s leadership unanimously adopted a declaration of independence that became effective on January 1 1956 creating the Republic of the Sudan nbsp President of Sudan Gaafar Nimeiry left President of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser President of Libya Muammar Gaddafi at the Tripoli Airport Post Independence Relations edit Gamal Abdel Nasser was able to politically outmaneuver Naguib becoming president of Egypt in 1956 Sudan under Azhari had cordial relations relations with Egypt until disagreements in 1958 over the border and water resources 25 Nasser s Egypt later united with Syria forming the United Arab Republic U A R while a coup overthrew Azhari s government in that same year Relations with the UAR and the new government under Prime Minister Abdallah Khalil improved with both governments signing an agreement over the Nile s water in 1959 25 26 In 1969 a conspiracy of Sudanese officers overthrew the Sudanese government led by Colonel Jaafar Nimeiry Nimeiry adopted a pro Arab nationalist political position including signing the Tripoli Charter with the UAR and Libya declaring the coordination of policies 27 He also signed treaties with Egyptian president Anwar Sadat standing by him after Sadat s peace treaty with Israel 28 29 30 31 Modern Relations edit The Nile Egypt s lifeline flows through Sudan before reaching Egypt 14 An estimated 95 per cent of all Egyptians depend on the Nile for fresh water 14 In 1959 the two countries agreed on a formula for sharing the water whereby Sudan was authorized to use approximately one quarter of the flow and Egypt about three quarters 14 The division was predicated on a set annual flow which varies enormously from year to year 14 There is usually a surplus above this amount 14 As a result use of Nile water by other riparians had not by 2011 resulted in a crisis with Egypt and Sudan 14 Nevertheless none of the other eight riparian states was signature to nor received any water allocation in this 1959 bilateral agreement 14 Since 2000 Sudan had begun expressing an interest in changing the terms of the agreement so that it would be able to use a larger percentage of the flow 14 Seven of the eight other riparian states Burundi the Democratic Republic of the Congo Ethiopia Kenya Rwanda Tanzania and Uganda also pressed for a revised water allocation formula 14 In 1999 the nine countries formed the Nile Basin Initiative as a forum for discussion about cooperating in the development of the Nile Basin 14 Since then no agreement had been reached by 2011 mainly because Egypt and Sudan refused any reduction in their share of water 14 Egypt was also concerned that the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the government of Sudan and the Sudan People s Liberation Movement would result in another riparian state in South Sudan 14 Egypt had hoped for a united Sudan because South Sudan will be another state with which it might have to negotiate water rights 14 In 2010 there was a sharp division between seven of the riparian states which reached their own agreement and opposition to that agreement by Egypt and Sudan 14 While Egypt and Sudan generally agreed on the Nile water question they had failed to resolve a longstanding dispute over the location of their border near the Red Sea an area called the Hala ib Triangle 14 Egypt occupied the disputed territory but the matter remained ripe for future conflict 14 32 Al Bashir revived the controversy as recently as 2010 when he stated that Hala ib was Sudanese and would stay Sudanese 14 Sadat s successor Hosni Mubarak visited Sudan in 1985 after a military coup overthrew Nimeiry that year 33 Nimeiry lived in exile in Egypt until 1999 Relations between the two countries since the 1989 Sudanese coup have had their ups and downs 14 The relationship reached its nadir in 1995 when elements of the Sudanese government were complicit in a plot by an Egyptian terrorist group Gama a Islamiyya to assassinate Egypt s president Hosni Mubarak while he was en route from the Addis Ababa airport to an Organization of African Unity now African Union summit in Ethiopia s capital 14 34 Sudan called these unjust and unsubstantiated claims in a UN letter 35 By the end of 1999 Egyptian anger toward Sudan had subsided and President al Bashir visited Egypt where the two leaders agreed to normalize diplomatic relations 14 Al Bashir returned to Cairo in 2002 at which time they expanded cooperation on a variety of practical issues 14 Mubarak repaid the visit by going to Khartoum the following year 14 In 2004 al Bashir again went to Cairo where the two leaders signed the Four Freedoms Agreement dealing with freedom of ownership movement residence and work between the two countries 14 There has been cooperation on counterterrorism and development projects drawing water from the Nile and the two governments agreed to establish a free trade zone along the Egypt Sudan border where they would exchange commodities free of duty 14 Sudan has particularly appreciated Egyptian verbal and moral support for its policy in Darfur 14 Egypt also sent troops to the United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur 14 Egyptian investments in Sudan reached US 2 5 billion by 2008 while Sudanese investments in Egypt totaled almost US 200 million 14 By 2010 Egyptian Sudanese relations were better than they had been in many years although several long term contentious issues such as the future status of South Sudan ownership of the Hala ib Triangle and use of Nile water remained unresolved 14 nbsp Map of the Hala ib TriangleEgypt nevertheless began preparing for the possible independence of South Sudan 14 In an effort to keep track of developments there Egypt had about 1 500 military personnel assigned to the United Nations Mission in Sudan and had begun supporting a number of development projects in the South 14 It had a consulate in Juba and Mubarak traveled there in 2008 36 Salva Kiir visited Cairo in 2009 when Egypt made clear it would accept the results of the January 2011 referendum on secession 14 In 2010 Egypt also offered a US 300 million grant for Southern water and electricity projects along the Nile 14 Egypt s policy on Sudan was that it was in favour of a united Sudan and therefore Egypt was not directly involved in the Sudan Peace Process that gave the peoples of South Sudan the right to secede and form an independent state in 2011 after the long Sudanese Civil War citation needed On 15 April 2023 war broke out between Sudanese Armed Forces and Rapid Support Forces Egypt had chosen the side of Sudanese military by supplying soldiers and warplanes Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el Sisi had a close tie with the Sudan s military leader Abdel Fattah al Burhan In early 2023 Egypt started a political initiative in Cairo to resolve SAF and RSF differences but the initiative was in the favor of Sudanese military As the fighting started Gen Hamdan s forces captured 27 Egyptians military men The western officials tried to defuse the crisis that would intensify the regional conflict 37 38 References edit DC Arab Center Washington Egyptian Sudanese Relations on the Mend but Tensions Remain Arab Center Washington DC Retrieved 2022 12 05 Amin Mutwakil A 1970 Ancient Trade and trade Routes Between Egypt and the Sudan 4000 to 700 B C Sudan Notes and Records 51 23 30 ISSN 0375 2984 JSTOR 42677984 Alberge Dalya Tomb reveals Ancient Egypt s humiliating secret The Times ISSN 0140 0460 Retrieved 2022 12 05 Sudan The spread of Islam Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2022 12 05 Administrator 2019 05 10 Britain in Egypt www whipplelib hps cam ac uk Retrieved 2022 12 05 Knight Ian 1989 1990 Queen Victoria s enemies Richard Scollins London Osprey ISBN 0 85045 901 X OCLC 19271600 Awad Mohamed 1947 Egypt Great Britain and the Sudan An Egyptian View Middle East Journal 1 3 281 291 ISSN 0026 3141 JSTOR 4321889 El Barawy Rashed 1951 Egypt and the Sudan India Quarterly 7 4 351 363 JSTOR 45068164 Retrieved 2022 12 05 a b Ginat Rami 2007 Egypt s Efforts to Unite the Nile Valley Diplomacy and Propaganda 1945 47 Middle Eastern Studies 43 2 193 222 doi 10 1080 00263200601114067 ISSN 0026 3206 JSTOR 4284537 S2CID 144313694 Sir Lee Stack Assassinated www britishempire co uk Retrieved 2022 12 05 Vezzadini Elena 2018 02 26 The 1924 Revolution in Sudan Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780190277734 013 11 ISBN 978 0 19 027773 4 Retrieved 2022 12 05 El Amin Mohammed Nuri 1986 Britain The 1924 Sudanese Uprising and the Impact of Egypt on the Sudan The International Journal of African Historical Studies 19 2 235 260 doi 10 2307 219427 ISSN 0361 7882 JSTOR 219427 Powell Eve Marie Troutt 1995 Colonized Colonizers Egyptian Nationalists and the Issue of the Sudan 1875 to 1919 Thesis a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Shinn David H 2015 Egypt PDF In Berry LaVerle ed Sudan a country study 5th ed Washington D C Federal Research Division Library of Congress pp 277 278 ISBN 978 0 8444 0750 0 nbsp This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Though published in 2015 this work covers events in the whole of Sudan including present day South Sudan until the 2011 secession of South Sudan a href Template Cite encyclopedia html title Template Cite encyclopedia cite encyclopedia a CS1 maint postscript link Khan Hafeezur Rehman 1959 The Sudanese Egyptian Relations Pakistan Horizon 12 1 53 57 ISSN 0030 980X JSTOR 41392256 Mo Kristine 2014 Contested Constitutions Constitutional development in Sudan 1953 2005 PDF MA University of Bergen 14 Anglo Egyptian Sudan 1922 1956 uca edu Retrieved 2022 12 06 Khan Hafeezur Rehman 1959 The Sudanese Egyptian Relations II Continued Pakistan Horizon 12 2 136 148 ISSN 0030 980X JSTOR 41392271 14 Anglo Egyptian Sudan 1922 1956 uca edu Retrieved 2022 12 06 Sudan Anglo Egyptian Agreement Hansard 12 February 1953 api parliament uk Retrieved 2023 02 10 The Sudan Hansard 12 February 1953 api parliament uk Retrieved 2022 12 06 Message to Sudan from Egypt s first president Mohamed Naguib Heritage Ahram Online Retrieved 2022 12 06 Independent Sudan countrystudies us Retrieved 2023 02 10 Taha Fadwa A A 2008 The Sudanese Factor in the 1952 53 Anglo Egyptian Negotiations Middle Eastern Studies 44 4 603 631 doi 10 1080 00263200802120665 ISSN 0026 3206 JSTOR 40262598 S2CID 144487768 a b Ismael Tareq Y 1969 The United Arab Republic and the Sudan Middle East Journal 23 1 14 28 ISSN 0026 3141 JSTOR 4324392 Abdalla I H 1971 The 1959 Nile Waters Agreement in Sudanese Egyptian Relations Middle Eastern Studies 7 3 329 341 doi 10 1080 00263207108700185 ISSN 0026 3206 JSTOR 4282387 Kienle Eberhard 1995 Arab Unity Schemes Revisited Interest Identity and Policy in Syria and Egypt International Journal of Middle East Studies 27 1 53 71 doi 10 1017 S0020743800061584 ISSN 0020 7438 JSTOR 176187 S2CID 154588444 Sylvester Anthony 1977 Sudan under Nimeiri London Bodley Head ISBN 0 370 11318 7 OCLC 3396179 Lesch Ann Mosely 1987 A View from Khartoum Foreign Affairs 65 4 807 826 doi 10 2307 20043095 ISSN 0015 7120 JSTOR 20043095 Egypt and Sudan Sign Pact The New York Times 1977 01 16 ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2022 12 07 Times Christopher S Wren Special to The New York 1977 10 25 Egypt and the Sudan Hold Joint Session Of Two Parliaments The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2022 12 07 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Mohyeldeen Sherif 11 June 2020 The Egypt Sudan Border A Story of Unfulfilled Promise Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Around the World Mubarak Goes to Sudan First Visit Since Coup The New York Times 1985 06 18 ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2023 02 10 Ibrahim Youssef M 1995 07 05 Egyptian Group Says It Tried to Kill Mubarak The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2023 02 10 Sudan 1996 01 11 Letter dated 11 January 1996 from the Permanent Representative of the Sudan to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Egypt s Mubarak in south Sudan for unity talks Al Arabiya English 2008 11 10 Retrieved 2023 02 10 As War Rages in Sudan Countries Angle for Advantage New York Times Retrieved 22 April 2020 2023 Yearender Cairo The peace broker Further reading editGinat Rami 2017 Egypt and the Struggle for Power in Sudan From World War II to Nasserism Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781107197930 Mills David E 2014 Dividing the Nile Egypt s Economic Nationalists in the Sudan 1918 56 The American University in Cairo Press ISBN 9789774166389 Warburg Gabriel R 2013 Egypt and the Sudan Studies in History and Politics 2nd ed Routledge Taylor amp Francis Group ISBN 9780714632476 Gershoni Israel Erlikh Ḥagai 2000 The Nile Histories Cultures Myths Lynne Rienner Publishers ISBN 9781555876722 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Egypt Sudan relations amp oldid 1210787262, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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