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Cultural diplomacy

Cultural diplomacy is a type of public diplomacy and soft power that includes the "exchange of ideas, information, art, language and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in order to foster mutual understanding".[1] The purpose of cultural diplomacy is for the people of a foreign nation to develop an understanding of the nation's ideals and institutions in an effort to build broad support for economic and political objectives.[2] In essence "cultural diplomacy reveals the soul of a nation", which in turn creates influence.[3] Though often overlooked, public diplomacy has played an important role in achieving national security efforts.[4][5][6]

Definition Edit

Culture is a set of values and practices that create meaning for society. This includes both high culture (literature, art, and education, which appeals to elites) and popular culture (appeals to the masses).[7] This is what governments seek to show foreign audiences when engaging in cultural diplomacy. It is a type of soft power, which is the "ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments. It arises from a country's culture, political ideals and policies."[8] This indicates that the value of culture is its ability to attract foreigners to a nation. Cultural diplomacy is also a component of public diplomacy. Public diplomacy is enhanced by a larger society and culture, but simultaneously public diplomacy helps to "amplify and advertise that society and culture to the world at large".[9] It could be argued that the information component of public diplomacy can only be fully effective where there is already a relationship that gives credibility to the information being relayed. This comes from knowledge of the other's culture.[10] Cultural diplomacy has been called the "linchpin of public diplomacy" because cultural activities have the possibility to demonstrate the best of a nation.[3] In this way, cultural diplomacy and public diplomacy are intimately linked.[citation needed]

Richard T. Arndt, a former State Department cultural diplomacy practitioner, said "Cultural relations grow naturally and organically, without government intervention – the transactions of trade and tourism, student flows, communications, book circulation, migration, media access, inter-marriage – millions of daily cross-cultural encounters. If that is correct, cultural diplomacy can only be said to take place when formal diplomats, serving national governments, try to shape and channel this natural flow to advance national interests."[11] It is important to note that, while cultural diplomacy is, as indicated above, a government activity, the private sector has a very real role to play because the government does not create culture, therefore, it can only attempt to make a culture known and define the impact this organic growth will have on national policies. Cultural diplomacy attempts to manage the international environment by utilizing these sources and achievements and making them known abroad.[12] An important aspect of this is listening- cultural diplomacy is meant to be a two-way exchange.[13] This exchange is then intended to foster a mutual understanding and thereby win influence within the target nation. Cultural diplomacy derives its credibility not from being close to government institutions, but from its proximity to cultural authorities.[14] It is seen[by whom?] as a silent weapon in gaining control over another nation with the use of non-violent methods to perpetrate a relationship of mutual understanding and support among the countries involved.[citation needed]

Purpose Edit

Ultimately, the goal of cultural diplomacy is to influence a foreign audience and use that influence, which is built up over the long term, as a sort of good will reserve to win support for policies. It seeks to harness the elements of culture to induce foreigners to:[15]

  • have a positive view of the country's people, culture and policies,
  • induce greater cooperation between the two nations,
  • aid in changing the policies or political environment of the target nation,
  • prevent, manage and mitigate conflict with the target nation.

In turn, cultural diplomacy can help a nation better understand the foreign nation it is engaged with and it fosters mutual understanding. Cultural diplomacy is a way of conducting international relations without expecting anything in return in the way that traditional diplomacy typically expects.[16] Cultural exchange programs work as a medium to relay a favourable impression of the foreign country in order to gain outsiders' understanding and approval in their cultural practices and naturalize their social norms among other cultures.[17]

Generally, cultural diplomacy is more focused on the longer term and less on specific policy matters.[10] The intent is to build up influence over the long term for when it is needed by engaging people directly. This influence has implications ranging from national security to increasing tourism and commercial opportunities.[18] It allows the government to create a "foundation of trust" and a mutual understanding that is neutral and built on people-to-people contact. Another unique and important element of cultural diplomacy is its ability to reach youth, non-elites and other audiences outside of the traditional embassy circuit. In short, cultural diplomacy plants the seeds of ideals, ideas, political arguments, spiritual perceptions and a general view point of the world that may or may not flourish in a foreign nation.[19] Therefore, ideologies spread by cultural diplomacy about the values that American people believe in enables those that seek a better life to look towards the Western world where happiness and freedom are portrayed as desirable and achievable goals.[17]

Link to national security Edit

First and foremost, cultural diplomacy is a demonstration of national power because it demonstrates to foreign audiences every aspect of culture, including wealth, scientific and technological advances, competitiveness in everything from sports and industry to military power, and a nation's overall confidence.[20][21] The perception of power obviously has important implications for a nation's ability to ensure its security. Furthermore, because cultural diplomacy includes political and ideological arguments, and uses the language of persuasion and advocacy, it can be used as an instrument of political warfare and be useful in achieving traditional goals of war.[22] A Chinese activist was quoted as saying "We've seen a lot of Hollywood movies – they feature weddings, funerals and going to court. So now we think it's only natural to go to court a few times in your life."[23] This is an example of a cultural export – Hollywood movies – possibly having a subtle effect on the legal system in China, which could ultimately benefit the United States or any other nation which wishes to see a more democratic China. This is the way in which ideas and perceptions can ultimately affect the ability of a nation to achieve its national security goals.[citation needed]

In terms of policy that supports national security goals, the information revolution has created an increasingly connected world in which public perceptions of values and motivations can create an enabling or disabling environment in the quest for international support of policies.[24] The struggle to affect important international developments is increasingly about winning the information struggle to define the interpretation of states' actions. If an action is not interpreted abroad as the nation meant to it be, then the action itself can become meaningless.[25] Cultural diplomacy can create an environment in which a nation is received as basically good, which in turn can help frame its actions in a positive light.[citation needed]

Participants in cultural diplomacy often have insights into foreign attitudes that official embassy employees do not. This can be used to better understand a foreign nation's intentions and capabilities. It can also be used to counter hostile propaganda and the collection of open-source intelligence.[26]

Overall, cultural diplomacy has the potential to demonstrate national power, create an environment conducive to support, and assist in the collection and interpretation of information. This, in turn, aids in the interpretation of intelligence, enhances a nation's prestige and aids in garnering support for policies abroad. All of these factors affect a nation's security, thus, cultural diplomacy has an effect on, and a role to play, in regards to national security.[citation needed]

Tools and examples Edit

Cultural diplomacy can and does utilize every aspect of a nation's culture. This includes:[27]

  • The arts including films, dance, music, painting, sculpture, etc.
  • Exhibitions which offer the potential to showcase numerous objects of culture
  • Educational programs such as universities and language programs abroad
  • Exchanges - scientific, artistic, educational etc.
  • Literature- the establishment of libraries abroad and translation of popular and national works
  • Broadcasting of news and cultural programs
  • Gifts to a nation, which demonstrates thoughtfulness and respect
  • Religious diplomacy, including inter-religious dialogue
  • Promotion and explanation of ideas and social policies

All of these tools seek to bring understanding of a nation's culture to foreign audiences. They work best when they are proven to be relevant to the target audience, which requires an understanding of the audience. The tools can be utilized by working through NGOs, diasporas and political parties abroad, which may help with the challenge of relevance and understanding.[28] These tools are generally not created by a government, but produced by the culture and then the government facilitates their expression abroad to a foreign audience, with the purpose of gaining influence.[citation needed]

The arts Edit

 
Migrant Mother (1936), Dorothea Lange

In the 1950s the Soviet Union had a reputation that was associated with peace, international class solidarity and progress due to its sponsorship of local revolutionary movements for liberation.[citation needed] The United States was known for its involvement in the Korean War and for preserving the status quo.[citation needed] In an effort to change this perception,[citation needed] the United States Information Agency (USIA) sponsored a photographic exhibition titled The Family of Man. The display originally showed in the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, but then USIA helped the display to be seen in 91 locations in 39 countries. The 503 photographs by 237 professional and amateur photographers were curated and put together by Edward Steichen. The images showed glimpses of everyday human life in its various stages; courtship, birth, parenting, work, self-expression, etc., including images from the Great Depression. The images were multi-cultured and only a few were overtly political serving to show the eclecticism and diversity of American culture, which is America's soft power foundation. The display was extremely popular and attracted large numbers of crowds, in short America "showed the world, the world and got credit for it".[29]

A similar effort was carried out by the United States Department of State in February 2002 entitled Images from Ground Zero. The display included 27 images, detailing the September 11 attacks by Joel Meyerowitz that circulated, with the backing of embassies and consulates, to 60 nations. The display was intended to shape and maintain the public memory of the attack and its aftermath. The display sought to show the human side of the tragedy, and not just the destruction of buildings. The display was also intended to show a story of recovery and resolution through documenting not only the grief and pain, but also the recovery efforts. In many countries where the display was run, it was personalized for the population. For example, relatives of those who died in the Towers were often invited to the event openings.[30] In this way, the US was able to put their own spin on the tragedy and keep the world from forgetting.[citation needed]

Dance Edit

The positioning of the performing arts throughout history shows that dance was a tool for showing power, promoting national pride, and maintaining international relations. During the Cold War, the plot and choreography choices used in dance demonstrated Socialist vs. Capitalist values. Through this, countries were able to share their ideas. In 1955, the United States state department sent the Martha Graham Dance Company to many countries affected by the Cold War.[31] Some of these countries included Burma, India, Pakistan, Japan, the Philippines, and Thailand which were all a concern to the United States because they could be easily lost to Communism as predicted in Eisenhower's Domino Theory.[31] The choreography mixed Asian aesthetics with American values, creating an innovative performance that showed what the United States and a Capitalist society was capable of producing.[31]  Her performances were received with praise and repositioned the image of the United States in the eyes of the international community.

Cultural diplomacy through the arts was also used by the Soviet Union due to the high value they placed on culture and the belief it could unite people. The "New Soviet Man" was expected to have an understanding of the arts and be able to contribute to society.[32] In 1959, the Soviet Union decided to send one of its highly regarded ballet companies, the Bolshoi, to tour the United States. Their goal was to demonstrate the artistic and physical abilities of their citizens. The repertoire included Romeo and Juliet, Sawn Lake, Giselle, and The Stone Flower. There were also two mixed bills that included both pre and post-revolutionary content.[32] Swan Lake and its composer, P. I. Tchaikovsky, were considered Russian classics that fit into Marxist ideology and were therefore accepted in the Communist repertoire.[32][33] Other classic ballets were redesigned to demonstrate this ideology. While Americans were extremely excited to see the ballets and praised the ballerinas, the repertoire was not received as well.[34] This was a tool critics used to express the joy of seeing the ballet company while critiquing Soviet politics. The complaint that Communism was an old-fashioned ideology was given life as most of the ballets performed were classical pieces.[34] Dance being produced in the United States, for example Balanchine and Martha Graham, was seen as modern with an individualistic style.     

A later example of dance during the Cold War was the Soviet Union and the United States exchanging ballet companies for a time in order to better cultural relations. In October 1962, the New York City Ballet (NYCB) toured the Soviet Union. In New York City, the Bolshoi was performing Spartacus by Aram Khachaturian.[35] This ballet was meant to excite American audiences and prove that the Soviet Union could produce new, action-packed performances. The Soviet Union's creation was still not considered innovative because the Hollywood film Spartacus by Stanley Kubrick had been released prior to this performance. At the same time, seventeen ballets by George Balanchine, who is considered a very influential figure in American ballet though he was born in Russia, were being performed in the Soviet Union.[36] Once again ballet was used to showcase artistry and power while bettering international affairs. Many factors made this tour a pinnacle in Cold war exchanges. The tour occurred at the same time as the Cuban Missile Crisis. Also, NYCB making an appearance in the Soviet Union was questionable because reviews of Balanchine's ballets had been censored. Instead of feelings of hostility, the company received a warm welcome.[32] Both the United States and the Soviet Union agreed with Balanchine’s decision to emphasize music throughout his choreography.[37] There was still a fundamental disagreement to this as Balanchine often declared that music has no meaning and Soviet society did not have the same ideology.[36] Because each company's ballets were being judged with preconceived notions about society and the arts, opinions clashed and interpretations were different. The United States was mainly known for producing abstract modern pieces which align with Capitalist and individualistic thinking. On the other hand, the Soviet Union was producing narrative ballets which were meant to reeducate citizens and emphasize the importance of society.[34] These exchanges were also seen as a battle between Capitalism and Communism,[34] with each showing off its values and power. These are only a few examples of dance being used to showcase artistry and power while bettering international affairs.     

Exhibitions Edit

 
Soviet Pepsi label

Exhibitions were often used during the Cold War to demonstrate culture and progress by both the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1959, the American National Exhibition was held on Sokolniki Park in Moscow. The exhibition was opened by Vice President Richard Nixon and attended by Walt Disney, Buckminster Fuller, William Randolph Hearst, and senior executives from Pepsi, Kodak and Macy's. It featured American consumer goods, cars, boats, RCA color TVs, food, clothing, etc., and samples of American products such as Pepsi. There was a typical American kitchen set up inside in which spectators could watch a Bird's Eye frozen meal be prepared. An IBM RAMAC computer was programmed to answer 3,500 questions about America in Russian. The most popular question was "what is the meaning of the American Dream?" The Soviets tried to limit the audience by only giving tickets to party members and setting up their own rival exhibition. But ultimately people came, and the souvenir pins that were given out turned up in every corner of the country. The Soviets banned printed material, but the Americans gave it out anyway. The most popular items were the Bible and a Sears catalogue. The guides for the exhibition were American graduate students, including African Americans and women, who spoke Russian. This gave Russians the ability to speak to real Americans and ask difficult questions. The ambassador to Moscow, Llewellyn Thompson, commented that "the exhibition would be 'worth more to us than five new battleships."[38] Exhibitions like this were used to display the best a culture had to offer and basically show off in a way that appeared non threatening and even friendly.[citation needed]

Exchanges Edit

 
New US-UK Fulbright Logo
 
Fulbright Fellow Riccardo Giacconi was a pioneer of X-ray astronomy.

The usefulness of exchanges is based on two assumptions- some form of political intent lies behind the exchange and the result will have some sort of political effect. The idea is that exchanges will create a network of influential people abroad that will tie them to their host country and will appreciate their host country more due to their time spent there.[39] Exchanges generally take place at a young age, giving the host country the opportunity to create an attachment and gain influence at a young impressionable age.[10]

An example of exchanges is the United States' Fulbright Program.[40]

TV, music, film Edit

Popular entertainment is a statement about the society which it is portraying.[41] These cultural displays can carry important messages regarding individualism, consumer choices and other values.[41] For example, Soviet audiences watching American films learned that Americans owned their own cars, did not have to stand in long lines to purchase food, and did not live in communal apartments.[42] These observations were not intended to be political messages when Hollywood created the films, but they none-the-less carried a message.[citation needed]

External audio
  You may hear CBS' Tipica Orchestra conducted by Alfredo Antonini with Juan Arvizu and John Serry Sr. performing the boleros: Viva Sevilla, Mi Sarape, Que Paso?, El Bigote de Tomas and De Donde? in 1942 Here on archive.org
  You may listen to radio broadcasts of performances by the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra from 1956–1960 here on 7aso.org

Cultural programming featuring Latin Jazz music and the Bolero was already recognized by the United States Department of State as an important diplomatic tool during the World War II period. In the early 1940s, Nelson Rockefeller at the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs collaborated with Edmund A. Chester of the CBS radio broadcasting network in order to showcase leading musicians from both North and South America for audiences on both continents. Musical artists such as Alfredo Antonini, Terig Tucci, John Serry Sr., Miguel Sandoval, Juan Arvizu, Elsa Miranda, Eva Garza, Manuolita Arriola[43] and Nestor Mesta Chayres participated in this truly international effort to foster peace throughout the Americas through shared musical performances (See Viva América).[44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53]

In the post World War II era, the United States Army also acknowledged the importance of cultural programming as a valuable diplomatic tool amidst the ruins in Europe. In 1952 the U.S. Seventh Army enlisted the expertise of the young conductor Samuel Adler to establish the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra in Stuttgart, Germany in order to demonstrate the shared cultural heritage of America and Europe.[54][55] Performances of classical music by the orchestra continued throughout Europe until 1962.[56][57] They showcased the talents of several noted conductors and musicians including: James Dixon, John Ferritto, Henry Lewis and Kenneth Schermerhorn.[58][59]

As the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union escalated in the 1950s, the Department of State also supported the performance of classical music as an indispensable diplomatic tool.[60] With this in mind, President Dwight D. Eisenhower established an Emergency Fund for International Affairs in 1954 to stimulate the presentation of America's cultural achievements to international audiences in the realms of dance, theatre and music.[61][62][63] In 1954, the State Department's Cultural Presentations program established a cooperative relationship with the Music Advisory Panel of the American National Theatre and Academy (ANTA) to evaluate potential musical performers who could best represent America at performance venues throughout the world.[64] Members of the advisory panel included such noted American composers and academics as: Virgil Thomson, Howard Hanson at the Eastman School of Music, William Schuman at the Juilliard School, Milton Katims, and the music critic Alfred Frankenstein.[65] In addition, the State Department selected Hanson's Eastman Philharmonia Orchestra to perform during a sweeping international cultural exchange tour in 1961. Concert performances by this elite group of students from the Eastman School of Music were received to critical acclaim by enthusiastic audiences in thirty four cities in sixteen countries throughout Europe, the Middle East and Russia.[66] Similarly, the bass-baritone William Warfield was recruited by the Department of State to perform in six separate European tours during the 1950s which featured productions of the opera Porgy and Bess .[67][68]

Jazz played a critical role during the Cold War in establishing political ties. Producer Willis Conover explained jazz as an embodiment of an anti-ideology or an alternative way of living by introducing a new style of music with a loose structure and improvisation.[69][70] In November 1955, The New York Times declared Louis Armstrong as America's most effective ambassador. What American diplomats could not do, Armstrong and his jazz music did. This article claimed that musicians, such as Armstrong, created a universal language to communicate.[70]

Jazz originally surfaced in the Soviet Union during the 1920s and 1930s, but quickly faded. After World War II, jazz began to reemerge, but was condemned by Andrei Zhdanov.[69] He considered jazz as corrupt and capitalistic due to the fact that it grew out of the United States during a time of political unrest.[71] During the 1950s to 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement, the decolonization of Africa and Asia, and the cultural and political rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union created the need for cultural exchange.[71] As a result, the United States government sent a jazz band composed of African American musicians abroad to tour places, including the Middle East and Africa, with the goal of the black musicians establishing connections with their African heritage.[70]

Duke Ellington, B.B. King, and Dizzy Gillespie all made trips to Africa that fostered connections with the African diaspora.[70] In 1956, Dizzy Gillespie took on the role as a musical ambassador during his trip to the Middle East. He reported to President Eisenhower that he and his jazz band were effective against Red propaganda.[70] With their interracial group, the jazz band was able to communicate across social and language barriers. During the band's trip to Athens, Greece, a performance transformed an audience of Anti-American students angered by the U.S. stance on Greece's right-wing dictatorship.[70] By the end of the performance, Gillespie said the audience loved the music and threw him up on their shoulders after the performance. Diplomats emphasized the positive effects of musical diplomacy on the public.[70]

From 1955 to 1996, jazz producer Willis Conover hosted a music program called "Music USA," for the Voice of America to assist in the emergence of jazz musicians as U.S. ambassadors.[70] Conover explained: "Jazz is a cross between total discipline and anarchy," for the way the musicians agree on tempo, key, and chord, but is distinguishable by its freedom of expression.[69] As many as thirty million listeners worldwide, including millions in the Soviet Union, listened to the forty-five minutes of pop music and forty-five minutes of jazz with a newscast preceding each. Many critics have stated that Conover's program played a major role in the resurgence of jazz within the Soviet Union after the WWII.[69] Many historians believe that this freedom aspect of jazz was representative of the American culture during this time.[citation needed]

 
The Beatles

The effect The Beatles had in Russia during the Cold War is an example of how music artists and their songs can become political. During this time, rock music channelled liberal "Western" ideas as a progressive and modernized art form.[69] The Beatles symbolized the Western culture in a way that introduced new ideas that many believe assisted in the collapse of communism.[72] As a result, the Beatles served as cultural diplomats through their popularity in the Soviet Union. Their music fostered youth communication and united people with a common spirit of popular culture.[69]

Kolya Vasin, the founder of The Beatles museum and the Temple of Love, Peace and Music in St. Petersburg,[73] commented that The Beatles "were like an integrity test. When anyone said anything against them, we knew just what that person was worth. The authorities, our teachers, even our parents, became idiots to us."[74] Despite the attempts of the Soviet Union's government to prevent the spread of the Beatles' popularity amongst their citizens, the band proved to be as popular in the USSR as it was in Britain. The government went as far as censoring the expression of all Western ideals, including the Beatles' bourgeois eccentricity, limiting the Soviet citizens' access to their music.[75] Leslie Woodland, a documentary film maker, commented regarding what the Russian people were told about the West – "Once people heard the Beatles' wonderful music, it just didn't fit. The authorities' prognosis didn't correspond to what they were listening to. The system was built on fear and lies, and in this way, the Beatles put an end to the fear, and exposed the lies."[74] Pavel Palazchenko, Mikhail Gorbachev's conference interpreter, stated that the Beatles' music was a "source of musical relief. They helped us create a world of our own, a world different from the dull and senseless ideological liturgy that increasingly reminded me of Stalinism...".[69] Like Gorbachev, many Russian youth agreed that the Beatles were a way to overcome the cultural isolation imposed by the Cold War and reinforced by their current political system.[69]

In this way the music of The Beatles struck a political chord in the Soviet Union, even when the songs were not meant to be political. This contact went both ways. In 1968, when the song "Back in the USSR" was released, the album included a quote on the cover from Paul McCartney that read "In releasing this record, made especially and exclusively for the USSR, I am extending a hand of peace and friendship to the Soviet people."[76] During Paul McCartney's first trip to Russia in May 2003, nearly half a million fans greeted him. One Russian critic reported, "The only person in Red Square who wasn't moved was Lenin".[72] This is an example of how products of culture can have an influence on the people they reach outside of their own country. It also shows how a private citizen can unintentionally become a cultural ambassador of sorts.[citation needed]

Place branding Edit

This Image and reputation has become an essential part of a "state's strategic equity". Place branding is "the totality of the thoughts, feelings, associations and expectations that come to mind when a prospect or consumer is exposed to an entity's name, logo, products, services, events, or any design or symbol representing them." Place branding is required to make a country's image acceptable for investment, tourism, political power, etc. As Joseph Nye commented, "in an information age, it is often the side which has the better side of the story that wins," this has resulted in a shift from old style diplomacy to encompass brand building and reputation management. In short, a country can use its culture to create a brand for itself which represents positive values and image.[77]

Museum diplomacy Edit

Museum diplomacy is a subset of cultural diplomacy concerned with museums and the cultural artifacts they exhibit. This can take the form of building/supporting museums, gifting art/antiquities, and travelling exhibitions.[78]

France has led the way in using the return on art and artifacts looted during their colonial past to its home country for diplomatic means.[79]

Complications Edit

Cultural diplomacy presents a number of unique challenges to any government attempting to carry out cultural diplomacy programs. Most ideas that a foreign population observes are not in the government's control. The government does not usually produce the books, music, films, TV programs, consumer products, etc. that reaches an audience. The most the government can do is try to work to create openings so the message can get through to mass audiences abroad.[80] To be cultural relevant in the age of globalization, a government must exercise control over the flows of information and communication technologies, including trade.[81] This is also difficult for governments that operate in a free market society where the government does not control the bulk of information flows. What the government can do is work to protect cultural exports where they flourish, by utilizing trade agreements or gaining access for foreign telecommunication networks.[82]

It is also possible that foreign government officials may oppose or resist certain cultural exports while the people cheer them on. This can make support for official policies difficult to obtain.[83] Cultural activities may be both a blessing and a curse to a nation. This may be the case if certain elements of a culture are offensive to the foreign audience. Certain cultural activities can also undermine national policy objectives. An example of this was the very public American dissent to the Iraq War while official government policy still supported it.[22] Simultaneously the prevalence of the protest may have attracted some foreigners to the openness of America.[83] The success of cultural diplomacy is also difficult to measure.[citation needed]

Institutions Edit

See also Edit

References Edit

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  8. ^ Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (Cambridge: Perseus Books, 2004), 18.
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Further reading Edit

  • Ang, Ien, Yudhishthir Raj Isar, and Phillip Mar. "Cultural diplomacy: beyond the national interest?" International Journal of Cultural Policy 21.4 (2015): 365-381. online
  • Arndt, R. The first resort of kings. American cultural diplomacy in the twentieth century (Potomac Books, 2006). excerpt
  • Barghoorn, Frederick C. The Soviet cultural offensive : the role of cultural diplomacy in Soviet foreign policy (1976) online
  • Becard, Danielly Silva Ramos, and Paulo Menechelli. "Chinese Cultural Diplomacy: instruments in China’s strategy for international insertion in the 21st Century." Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional 62 (2019) online.
  • Brown, John. "Arts diplomacy: The neglected aspect of cultural diplomacy." in Routledge handbook of public diplomacy (Routledge, 2020) pp. 79–81.
  • Carta, Caterina, and Richard Higgott. "Cultural Diplomacy in Europe." in Between the Domestic and the International (2020) org/10.1007/978-3-030-21544-6 online
  • Clarke, David, and Paweł Duber. "Polish cultural diplomacy and historical memory: the case of the Museum of the Second World War in Gdańsk." International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 33.1 (2020): 49-66 online.
  • Davidson, Lee, and Leticia Pérez-Castellanos, eds. Cosmopolitan Ambassadors: International exhibitions, cultural diplomacy and the polycentral museum (Vernon Press, 2019) online.
  • DeCarli, Ashley M. Topics Performing arts, International relations, Multiculturalism in art (Naval Postgraduate School, 2010) online
  • Gienow-Hecht, Jessica C. E. Transmission impossible : American journalism as cultural diplomacy in postwar Germany, 1945-1955 (1999) online
  • Goff, Patricia M. "Cultural diplomacy." in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy (Routledge, 2020) pp. 30–37.
  • Hebert, David; McCollum, Jonathan (2022). Ethnomusicology and Cultural Diplomacy. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books (Rowman & Littlefield). ISBN 9781793642912
  • Isar, Y. R. "Cultural diplomacy: an overplayed hand?" Public diplomacy magazine, 3, Winter 2010. online
  • Lane, Philippe. French scientific and cultural diplomacy (2013) online
  • Lee, Seow Ting. "Film as cultural diplomacy: South Korea’s nation branding through Parasite (2019)." in Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 18.2 (2022): 93-104. online
  • Liu, Xin. China's Cultural Diplomacy: A Great Leap Outward? (Routledge, 2019) online.
  • Mitchell, J. M. International cultural relations (Allen and Unwin, 1986).
  • Ninkovich, Frank A. U.S. information policy and cultural diplomacy (1996) online
  • Paschalidis, G., "Exporting national culture: histories of cultural institutes abroad" International journal of cultural policy, (2009) 15 (3), 275–289.
  • Pells, Richard. Not like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated and Transformed American Culture since World War II (1997) online
  • Prevots, Naima. Dance for export : cultural diplomacy and the Cold War (2001) online
  • Sadlier, Darlene J. Americans all : good neighbor cultural diplomacy in World War II (2012) online, in Latin America
  • Scott-Smith, Giles, and Hans Krabbendam, eds. The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe, 1945-60 (Routledge 2004)
  • Singh, Rana PB, and Pravin S. Rana. "Cultural Diplomacy in India: Dispersal, Heritage Representation, Contestation, and Development." Transcultural Diplomacy and International Law in Heritage Conservation (Springer, Singapore, 2021) pp. 231–256.
  • Trommler, Frank, and Elliott Shore, eds. The German-American Encounter: Conflict and Cooperation Between Two Cultures, 1800–2000 (2001).
  • Tuch, Hans J. Communicating with the World: US Public Diplomacy Overseas (Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Georgetown University, 1990).
  • Wagnleiter, Reinhold. Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the U.S. in Austria after the Second World War ( U of North Carolina Press, 1995).
  • Wieck, Randolph R. Ignorance Abroad: American Educational and Cultural Foreign Policy and the Office of the Assistant Secretary of State (Praeger, 1992).

Historiography and memory Edit

  • Clarke, D., "Theorising the role of cultural products in cultural diplomacy from a cultural studies perspective" International journal of cultural policy (2014). doi:10.1080/10286632.2014.958481.
  • Gienow-Hecht, Jessica C.E., and Mark C. Donfried, eds. Searching for a cultural diplomacy (Berghahn Books, 2010).
  • Tomlinson, John. Cultural Imperialsm: A Critical Introduction (Pinter, 1991).

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External links Edit

  •   Media related to Cultural diplomacy at Wikimedia Commons

cultural, diplomacy, type, public, diplomacy, soft, power, that, includes, exchange, ideas, information, language, other, aspects, culture, among, nations, their, peoples, order, foster, mutual, understanding, purpose, cultural, diplomacy, people, foreign, nat. Cultural diplomacy is a type of public diplomacy and soft power that includes the exchange of ideas information art language and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in order to foster mutual understanding 1 The purpose of cultural diplomacy is for the people of a foreign nation to develop an understanding of the nation s ideals and institutions in an effort to build broad support for economic and political objectives 2 In essence cultural diplomacy reveals the soul of a nation which in turn creates influence 3 Though often overlooked public diplomacy has played an important role in achieving national security efforts 4 5 6 Contents 1 Definition 2 Purpose 3 Link to national security 4 Tools and examples 4 1 The arts 4 2 Dance 4 3 Exhibitions 4 4 Exchanges 4 5 TV music film 4 6 Place branding 4 7 Museum diplomacy 5 Complications 6 Institutions 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 9 1 Historiography and memory 10 External linksDefinition EditCulture is a set of values and practices that create meaning for society This includes both high culture literature art and education which appeals to elites and popular culture appeals to the masses 7 This is what governments seek to show foreign audiences when engaging in cultural diplomacy It is a type of soft power which is the ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments It arises from a country s culture political ideals and policies 8 This indicates that the value of culture is its ability to attract foreigners to a nation Cultural diplomacy is also a component of public diplomacy Public diplomacy is enhanced by a larger society and culture but simultaneously public diplomacy helps to amplify and advertise that society and culture to the world at large 9 It could be argued that the information component of public diplomacy can only be fully effective where there is already a relationship that gives credibility to the information being relayed This comes from knowledge of the other s culture 10 Cultural diplomacy has been called the linchpin of public diplomacy because cultural activities have the possibility to demonstrate the best of a nation 3 In this way cultural diplomacy and public diplomacy are intimately linked citation needed Richard T Arndt a former State Department cultural diplomacy practitioner said Cultural relations grow naturally and organically without government intervention the transactions of trade and tourism student flows communications book circulation migration media access inter marriage millions of daily cross cultural encounters If that is correct cultural diplomacy can only be said to take place when formal diplomats serving national governments try to shape and channel this natural flow to advance national interests 11 It is important to note that while cultural diplomacy is as indicated above a government activity the private sector has a very real role to play because the government does not create culture therefore it can only attempt to make a culture known and define the impact this organic growth will have on national policies Cultural diplomacy attempts to manage the international environment by utilizing these sources and achievements and making them known abroad 12 An important aspect of this is listening cultural diplomacy is meant to be a two way exchange 13 This exchange is then intended to foster a mutual understanding and thereby win influence within the target nation Cultural diplomacy derives its credibility not from being close to government institutions but from its proximity to cultural authorities 14 It is seen by whom as a silent weapon in gaining control over another nation with the use of non violent methods to perpetrate a relationship of mutual understanding and support among the countries involved citation needed Purpose EditUltimately the goal of cultural diplomacy is to influence a foreign audience and use that influence which is built up over the long term as a sort of good will reserve to win support for policies It seeks to harness the elements of culture to induce foreigners to 15 have a positive view of the country s people culture and policies induce greater cooperation between the two nations aid in changing the policies or political environment of the target nation prevent manage and mitigate conflict with the target nation In turn cultural diplomacy can help a nation better understand the foreign nation it is engaged with and it fosters mutual understanding Cultural diplomacy is a way of conducting international relations without expecting anything in return in the way that traditional diplomacy typically expects 16 Cultural exchange programs work as a medium to relay a favourable impression of the foreign country in order to gain outsiders understanding and approval in their cultural practices and naturalize their social norms among other cultures 17 Generally cultural diplomacy is more focused on the longer term and less on specific policy matters 10 The intent is to build up influence over the long term for when it is needed by engaging people directly This influence has implications ranging from national security to increasing tourism and commercial opportunities 18 It allows the government to create a foundation of trust and a mutual understanding that is neutral and built on people to people contact Another unique and important element of cultural diplomacy is its ability to reach youth non elites and other audiences outside of the traditional embassy circuit In short cultural diplomacy plants the seeds of ideals ideas political arguments spiritual perceptions and a general view point of the world that may or may not flourish in a foreign nation 19 Therefore ideologies spread by cultural diplomacy about the values that American people believe in enables those that seek a better life to look towards the Western world where happiness and freedom are portrayed as desirable and achievable goals 17 Link to national security EditFirst and foremost cultural diplomacy is a demonstration of national power because it demonstrates to foreign audiences every aspect of culture including wealth scientific and technological advances competitiveness in everything from sports and industry to military power and a nation s overall confidence 20 21 The perception of power obviously has important implications for a nation s ability to ensure its security Furthermore because cultural diplomacy includes political and ideological arguments and uses the language of persuasion and advocacy it can be used as an instrument of political warfare and be useful in achieving traditional goals of war 22 A Chinese activist was quoted as saying We ve seen a lot of Hollywood movies they feature weddings funerals and going to court So now we think it s only natural to go to court a few times in your life 23 This is an example of a cultural export Hollywood movies possibly having a subtle effect on the legal system in China which could ultimately benefit the United States or any other nation which wishes to see a more democratic China This is the way in which ideas and perceptions can ultimately affect the ability of a nation to achieve its national security goals citation needed In terms of policy that supports national security goals the information revolution has created an increasingly connected world in which public perceptions of values and motivations can create an enabling or disabling environment in the quest for international support of policies 24 The struggle to affect important international developments is increasingly about winning the information struggle to define the interpretation of states actions If an action is not interpreted abroad as the nation meant to it be then the action itself can become meaningless 25 Cultural diplomacy can create an environment in which a nation is received as basically good which in turn can help frame its actions in a positive light citation needed Participants in cultural diplomacy often have insights into foreign attitudes that official embassy employees do not This can be used to better understand a foreign nation s intentions and capabilities It can also be used to counter hostile propaganda and the collection of open source intelligence 26 Overall cultural diplomacy has the potential to demonstrate national power create an environment conducive to support and assist in the collection and interpretation of information This in turn aids in the interpretation of intelligence enhances a nation s prestige and aids in garnering support for policies abroad All of these factors affect a nation s security thus cultural diplomacy has an effect on and a role to play in regards to national security citation needed Tools and examples EditCultural diplomacy can and does utilize every aspect of a nation s culture This includes 27 The arts including films dance music painting sculpture etc Exhibitions which offer the potential to showcase numerous objects of culture Educational programs such as universities and language programs abroad Exchanges scientific artistic educational etc Literature the establishment of libraries abroad and translation of popular and national works Broadcasting of news and cultural programs Gifts to a nation which demonstrates thoughtfulness and respect Religious diplomacy including inter religious dialogue Promotion and explanation of ideas and social policiesAll of these tools seek to bring understanding of a nation s culture to foreign audiences They work best when they are proven to be relevant to the target audience which requires an understanding of the audience The tools can be utilized by working through NGOs diasporas and political parties abroad which may help with the challenge of relevance and understanding 28 These tools are generally not created by a government but produced by the culture and then the government facilitates their expression abroad to a foreign audience with the purpose of gaining influence citation needed The arts Edit nbsp Migrant Mother 1936 Dorothea LangeIn the 1950s the Soviet Union had a reputation that was associated with peace international class solidarity and progress due to its sponsorship of local revolutionary movements for liberation citation needed The United States was known for its involvement in the Korean War and for preserving the status quo citation needed In an effort to change this perception citation needed the United States Information Agency USIA sponsored a photographic exhibition titled The Family of Man The display originally showed in the Museum of Modern Art in New York City but then USIA helped the display to be seen in 91 locations in 39 countries The 503 photographs by 237 professional and amateur photographers were curated and put together by Edward Steichen The images showed glimpses of everyday human life in its various stages courtship birth parenting work self expression etc including images from the Great Depression The images were multi cultured and only a few were overtly political serving to show the eclecticism and diversity of American culture which is America s soft power foundation The display was extremely popular and attracted large numbers of crowds in short America showed the world the world and got credit for it 29 A similar effort was carried out by the United States Department of State in February 2002 entitled Images from Ground Zero The display included 27 images detailing the September 11 attacks by Joel Meyerowitz that circulated with the backing of embassies and consulates to 60 nations The display was intended to shape and maintain the public memory of the attack and its aftermath The display sought to show the human side of the tragedy and not just the destruction of buildings The display was also intended to show a story of recovery and resolution through documenting not only the grief and pain but also the recovery efforts In many countries where the display was run it was personalized for the population For example relatives of those who died in the Towers were often invited to the event openings 30 In this way the US was able to put their own spin on the tragedy and keep the world from forgetting citation needed Dance Edit The positioning of the performing arts throughout history shows that dance was a tool for showing power promoting national pride and maintaining international relations During the Cold War the plot and choreography choices used in dance demonstrated Socialist vs Capitalist values Through this countries were able to share their ideas In 1955 the United States state department sent the Martha Graham Dance Company to many countries affected by the Cold War 31 Some of these countries included Burma India Pakistan Japan the Philippines and Thailand which were all a concern to the United States because they could be easily lost to Communism as predicted in Eisenhower s Domino Theory 31 The choreography mixed Asian aesthetics with American values creating an innovative performance that showed what the United States and a Capitalist society was capable of producing 31 Her performances were received with praise and repositioned the image of the United States in the eyes of the international community Cultural diplomacy through the arts was also used by the Soviet Union due to the high value they placed on culture and the belief it could unite people The New Soviet Man was expected to have an understanding of the arts and be able to contribute to society 32 In 1959 the Soviet Union decided to send one of its highly regarded ballet companies the Bolshoi to tour the United States Their goal was to demonstrate the artistic and physical abilities of their citizens The repertoire included Romeo and Juliet Sawn Lake Giselle and The Stone Flower There were also two mixed bills that included both pre and post revolutionary content 32 Swan Lake and its composer P I Tchaikovsky were considered Russian classics that fit into Marxist ideology and were therefore accepted in the Communist repertoire 32 33 Other classic ballets were redesigned to demonstrate this ideology While Americans were extremely excited to see the ballets and praised the ballerinas the repertoire was not received as well 34 This was a tool critics used to express the joy of seeing the ballet company while critiquing Soviet politics The complaint that Communism was an old fashioned ideology was given life as most of the ballets performed were classical pieces 34 Dance being produced in the United States for example Balanchine and Martha Graham was seen as modern with an individualistic style A later example of dance during the Cold War was the Soviet Union and the United States exchanging ballet companies for a time in order to better cultural relations In October 1962 the New York City Ballet NYCB toured the Soviet Union In New York City the Bolshoi was performing Spartacus by Aram Khachaturian 35 This ballet was meant to excite American audiences and prove that the Soviet Union could produce new action packed performances The Soviet Union s creation was still not considered innovative because the Hollywood film Spartacus by Stanley Kubrick had been released prior to this performance At the same time seventeen ballets by George Balanchine who is considered a very influential figure in American ballet though he was born in Russia were being performed in the Soviet Union 36 Once again ballet was used to showcase artistry and power while bettering international affairs Many factors made this tour a pinnacle in Cold war exchanges The tour occurred at the same time as the Cuban Missile Crisis Also NYCB making an appearance in the Soviet Union was questionable because reviews of Balanchine s ballets had been censored Instead of feelings of hostility the company received a warm welcome 32 Both the United States and the Soviet Union agreed with Balanchine s decision to emphasize music throughout his choreography 37 There was still a fundamental disagreement to this as Balanchine often declared that music has no meaning and Soviet society did not have the same ideology 36 Because each company s ballets were being judged with preconceived notions about society and the arts opinions clashed and interpretations were different The United States was mainly known for producing abstract modern pieces which align with Capitalist and individualistic thinking On the other hand the Soviet Union was producing narrative ballets which were meant to reeducate citizens and emphasize the importance of society 34 These exchanges were also seen as a battle between Capitalism and Communism 34 with each showing off its values and power These are only a few examples of dance being used to showcase artistry and power while bettering international affairs Exhibitions Edit nbsp Soviet Pepsi labelExhibitions were often used during the Cold War to demonstrate culture and progress by both the United States and the Soviet Union In 1959 the American National Exhibition was held on Sokolniki Park in Moscow The exhibition was opened by Vice President Richard Nixon and attended by Walt Disney Buckminster Fuller William Randolph Hearst and senior executives from Pepsi Kodak and Macy s It featured American consumer goods cars boats RCA color TVs food clothing etc and samples of American products such as Pepsi There was a typical American kitchen set up inside in which spectators could watch a Bird s Eye frozen meal be prepared An IBM RAMAC computer was programmed to answer 3 500 questions about America in Russian The most popular question was what is the meaning of the American Dream The Soviets tried to limit the audience by only giving tickets to party members and setting up their own rival exhibition But ultimately people came and the souvenir pins that were given out turned up in every corner of the country The Soviets banned printed material but the Americans gave it out anyway The most popular items were the Bible and a Sears catalogue The guides for the exhibition were American graduate students including African Americans and women who spoke Russian This gave Russians the ability to speak to real Americans and ask difficult questions The ambassador to Moscow Llewellyn Thompson commented that the exhibition would be worth more to us than five new battleships 38 Exhibitions like this were used to display the best a culture had to offer and basically show off in a way that appeared non threatening and even friendly citation needed Exchanges Edit nbsp New US UK Fulbright Logo nbsp Fulbright Fellow Riccardo Giacconi was a pioneer of X ray astronomy The usefulness of exchanges is based on two assumptions some form of political intent lies behind the exchange and the result will have some sort of political effect The idea is that exchanges will create a network of influential people abroad that will tie them to their host country and will appreciate their host country more due to their time spent there 39 Exchanges generally take place at a young age giving the host country the opportunity to create an attachment and gain influence at a young impressionable age 10 An example of exchanges is the United States Fulbright Program 40 TV music film Edit Popular entertainment is a statement about the society which it is portraying 41 These cultural displays can carry important messages regarding individualism consumer choices and other values 41 For example Soviet audiences watching American films learned that Americans owned their own cars did not have to stand in long lines to purchase food and did not live in communal apartments 42 These observations were not intended to be political messages when Hollywood created the films but they none the less carried a message citation needed External audio nbsp You may hear CBS Tipica Orchestra conducted by Alfredo Antonini with Juan Arvizu and John Serry Sr performing the boleros Viva Sevilla Mi Sarape Que Paso El Bigote de Tomas and De Donde in 1942 Here on archive org nbsp You may listen to radio broadcasts of performances by the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra from 1956 1960 here on 7aso orgCultural programming featuring Latin Jazz music and the Bolero was already recognized by the United States Department of State as an important diplomatic tool during the World War II period In the early 1940s Nelson Rockefeller at the Office of the Coordinator of Inter American Affairs collaborated with Edmund A Chester of the CBS radio broadcasting network in order to showcase leading musicians from both North and South America for audiences on both continents Musical artists such as Alfredo Antonini Terig Tucci John Serry Sr Miguel Sandoval Juan Arvizu Elsa Miranda Eva Garza Manuolita Arriola 43 and Nestor Mesta Chayres participated in this truly international effort to foster peace throughout the Americas through shared musical performances See Viva America 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 In the post World War II era the United States Army also acknowledged the importance of cultural programming as a valuable diplomatic tool amidst the ruins in Europe In 1952 the U S Seventh Army enlisted the expertise of the young conductor Samuel Adler to establish the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra in Stuttgart Germany in order to demonstrate the shared cultural heritage of America and Europe 54 55 Performances of classical music by the orchestra continued throughout Europe until 1962 56 57 They showcased the talents of several noted conductors and musicians including James Dixon John Ferritto Henry Lewis and Kenneth Schermerhorn 58 59 As the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union escalated in the 1950s the Department of State also supported the performance of classical music as an indispensable diplomatic tool 60 With this in mind President Dwight D Eisenhower established an Emergency Fund for International Affairs in 1954 to stimulate the presentation of America s cultural achievements to international audiences in the realms of dance theatre and music 61 62 63 In 1954 the State Department s Cultural Presentations program established a cooperative relationship with the Music Advisory Panel of the American National Theatre and Academy ANTA to evaluate potential musical performers who could best represent America at performance venues throughout the world 64 Members of the advisory panel included such noted American composers and academics as Virgil Thomson Howard Hanson at the Eastman School of Music William Schuman at the Juilliard School Milton Katims and the music critic Alfred Frankenstein 65 In addition the State Department selected Hanson s Eastman Philharmonia Orchestra to perform during a sweeping international cultural exchange tour in 1961 Concert performances by this elite group of students from the Eastman School of Music were received to critical acclaim by enthusiastic audiences in thirty four cities in sixteen countries throughout Europe the Middle East and Russia 66 Similarly the bass baritone William Warfield was recruited by the Department of State to perform in six separate European tours during the 1950s which featured productions of the opera Porgy and Bess 67 68 Jazz played a critical role during the Cold War in establishing political ties Producer Willis Conover explained jazz as an embodiment of an anti ideology or an alternative way of living by introducing a new style of music with a loose structure and improvisation 69 70 In November 1955 The New York Times declared Louis Armstrong as America s most effective ambassador What American diplomats could not do Armstrong and his jazz music did This article claimed that musicians such as Armstrong created a universal language to communicate 70 Jazz originally surfaced in the Soviet Union during the 1920s and 1930s but quickly faded After World War II jazz began to reemerge but was condemned by Andrei Zhdanov 69 He considered jazz as corrupt and capitalistic due to the fact that it grew out of the United States during a time of political unrest 71 During the 1950s to 1960s the Civil Rights Movement the decolonization of Africa and Asia and the cultural and political rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union created the need for cultural exchange 71 As a result the United States government sent a jazz band composed of African American musicians abroad to tour places including the Middle East and Africa with the goal of the black musicians establishing connections with their African heritage 70 Duke Ellington B B King and Dizzy Gillespie all made trips to Africa that fostered connections with the African diaspora 70 In 1956 Dizzy Gillespie took on the role as a musical ambassador during his trip to the Middle East He reported to President Eisenhower that he and his jazz band were effective against Red propaganda 70 With their interracial group the jazz band was able to communicate across social and language barriers During the band s trip to Athens Greece a performance transformed an audience of Anti American students angered by the U S stance on Greece s right wing dictatorship 70 By the end of the performance Gillespie said the audience loved the music and threw him up on their shoulders after the performance Diplomats emphasized the positive effects of musical diplomacy on the public 70 From 1955 to 1996 jazz producer Willis Conover hosted a music program called Music USA for the Voice of America to assist in the emergence of jazz musicians as U S ambassadors 70 Conover explained Jazz is a cross between total discipline and anarchy for the way the musicians agree on tempo key and chord but is distinguishable by its freedom of expression 69 As many as thirty million listeners worldwide including millions in the Soviet Union listened to the forty five minutes of pop music and forty five minutes of jazz with a newscast preceding each Many critics have stated that Conover s program played a major role in the resurgence of jazz within the Soviet Union after the WWII 69 Many historians believe that this freedom aspect of jazz was representative of the American culture during this time citation needed nbsp The BeatlesThe effect The Beatles had in Russia during the Cold War is an example of how music artists and their songs can become political During this time rock music channelled liberal Western ideas as a progressive and modernized art form 69 The Beatles symbolized the Western culture in a way that introduced new ideas that many believe assisted in the collapse of communism 72 As a result the Beatles served as cultural diplomats through their popularity in the Soviet Union Their music fostered youth communication and united people with a common spirit of popular culture 69 Kolya Vasin the founder of The Beatles museum and the Temple of Love Peace and Music in St Petersburg 73 commented that The Beatles were like an integrity test When anyone said anything against them we knew just what that person was worth The authorities our teachers even our parents became idiots to us 74 Despite the attempts of the Soviet Union s government to prevent the spread of the Beatles popularity amongst their citizens the band proved to be as popular in the USSR as it was in Britain The government went as far as censoring the expression of all Western ideals including the Beatles bourgeois eccentricity limiting the Soviet citizens access to their music 75 Leslie Woodland a documentary film maker commented regarding what the Russian people were told about the West Once people heard the Beatles wonderful music it just didn t fit The authorities prognosis didn t correspond to what they were listening to The system was built on fear and lies and in this way the Beatles put an end to the fear and exposed the lies 74 Pavel Palazchenko Mikhail Gorbachev s conference interpreter stated that the Beatles music was a source of musical relief They helped us create a world of our own a world different from the dull and senseless ideological liturgy that increasingly reminded me of Stalinism 69 Like Gorbachev many Russian youth agreed that the Beatles were a way to overcome the cultural isolation imposed by the Cold War and reinforced by their current political system 69 In this way the music of The Beatles struck a political chord in the Soviet Union even when the songs were not meant to be political This contact went both ways In 1968 when the song Back in the USSR was released the album included a quote on the cover from Paul McCartney that read In releasing this record made especially and exclusively for the USSR I am extending a hand of peace and friendship to the Soviet people 76 During Paul McCartney s first trip to Russia in May 2003 nearly half a million fans greeted him One Russian critic reported The only person in Red Square who wasn t moved was Lenin 72 This is an example of how products of culture can have an influence on the people they reach outside of their own country It also shows how a private citizen can unintentionally become a cultural ambassador of sorts citation needed Place branding Edit This Image and reputation has become an essential part of a state s strategic equity Place branding is the totality of the thoughts feelings associations and expectations that come to mind when a prospect or consumer is exposed to an entity s name logo products services events or any design or symbol representing them Place branding is required to make a country s image acceptable for investment tourism political power etc As Joseph Nye commented in an information age it is often the side which has the better side of the story that wins this has resulted in a shift from old style diplomacy to encompass brand building and reputation management In short a country can use its culture to create a brand for itself which represents positive values and image 77 Museum diplomacy Edit Museum diplomacy is a subset of cultural diplomacy concerned with museums and the cultural artifacts they exhibit This can take the form of building supporting museums gifting art antiquities and travelling exhibitions 78 France has led the way in using the return on art and artifacts looted during their colonial past to its home country for diplomatic means 79 Complications EditCultural diplomacy presents a number of unique challenges to any government attempting to carry out cultural diplomacy programs Most ideas that a foreign population observes are not in the government s control The government does not usually produce the books music films TV programs consumer products etc that reaches an audience The most the government can do is try to work to create openings so the message can get through to mass audiences abroad 80 To be cultural relevant in the age of globalization a government must exercise control over the flows of information and communication technologies including trade 81 This is also difficult for governments that operate in a free market society where the government does not control the bulk of information flows What the government can do is work to protect cultural exports where they flourish by utilizing trade agreements or gaining access for foreign telecommunication networks 82 It is also possible that foreign government officials may oppose or resist certain cultural exports while the people cheer them on This can make support for official policies difficult to obtain 83 Cultural activities may be both a blessing and a curse to a nation This may be the case if certain elements of a culture are offensive to the foreign audience Certain cultural activities can also undermine national policy objectives An example of this was the very public American dissent to the Iraq War while official government policy still supported it 22 Simultaneously the prevalence of the protest may have attracted some foreigners to the openness of America 83 The success of cultural diplomacy is also difficult to measure citation needed Institutions Edit nbsp Brazilian Cultural Center Brazil nbsp Confucius Institute People s Republic of China nbsp Caro and Cuervo Institute Colombia nbsp Czech Centres Czech Republic nbsp Danish Cultural Institute Denmark 1940 nbsp European Union National Institutes for Culture European Union nbsp Alliance Francaise France nbsp Institut Francais France nbsp Finnish Cultural and Academic Institutes Finland nbsp Goethe Institut Germany nbsp Center for the Greek Language Greece nbsp Hellenic Foundation for Culture Greece nbsp Balassi Institute Hungary 1927 nbsp Indian Council for Cultural Relations India nbsp Culture Ireland Ireland nbsp Istituto Italiano di Cultura Italy nbsp Dante Alighieri Society Italy nbsp EMMA for Peace Italy nbsp Jewish Agency for Israel Israel nbsp Japan Foundation Japan nbsp Korean Friendship Association North Korea nbsp Sentro Rizal Philippines nbsp Adam Mickiewicz Institute Poland nbsp Polish Institute Poland nbsp Instituto Camoes Portugal nbsp Romanian Cultural Institute Romania nbsp Russkiy Mir Foundation Russia nbsp Korean Cultural Center South Korea nbsp Korean Foundation South Korea nbsp Instituto Cervantes Spain nbsp Swedish Institute Sweden nbsp Ukrainian Institute Ukraine nbsp British Council United Kingdom 1934 nbsp Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs United States nbsp United States Information Agency United States 1953 99 nbsp Yunus Emre Institute TurkeySee also EditCulinary diplomacy Cultural intelligence Twin towns and sister cities Public diplomacy Facebook diplomacy Twitter diplomacy Open government E government Science diplomacyReferences Edit Cultural Diplomacy Political Influence and Integrated Strategy in Strategic Influence Public Diplomacy Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare ed Michael J Waller Washington DC Institute of World Politics Press 2009 74 Mary N Maack Books and Libraries as Instruments of Cultural Diplomacy in Francophone Africa during the Cold War Libraries amp Culture 36 no 1 Winter 2001 59 a b United States Department of State Advisory Committee on Cultural Diplomacy Diplomacy Report of the Advisory Committee on Cultural Diplomacy 3 Public Diplomacy as a National Security Tool Foreign Policy Research Institute www fpri org Retrieved 7 July 2023 Green Shannon N Brown Katherine A Wang Jian Jay 17 January 2017 Public Diplomacy and National Security in 2017 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Wallin Matthew 2012 The National Security Need for Public Diplomacy a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Joseph S Nye Soft Power The Means to Success in World Politics Cambridge Perseus Books 2004 22 Joseph S Nye Soft Power The Means to Success in World Politics Cambridge Perseus Books 2004 18 Carnes Lord Losing Hearts and Minds Public Diplomacy and Strategic Influence in the Age of Terror Westport CT Praeger Security International 2006 15 a b c Carnes Lord Losing Hearts and Minds Public Diplomacy and Strategic Influence in the Age of Terror Westport CT Praeger Security International 2006 30 Cultural Diplomacy Political Influence and Integrated Strategy in Strategic Influence Public Diplomacy Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare ed Michael J Waller Washington DC Institute of World Politics Press 2009 74 75 Nicholas J Cull Public Diplomacy Taxonomies and Histories Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616 March 2008 33 United States Department of State Advisory Committee on Cultural Diplomacy Diplomacy Report of the Advisory Committee on Cultural Diplomacy 7 Nicholas J Cull Public Diplomacy Taxonomies and Histories Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616 March 2008 36 Cultural Diplomacy Political Influence and Integrated Strategy in Strategic Influence Public Diplomacy Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare ed Michael J Waller Washington DC Institute of World Politics Press 2009 77 Cultural Diplomacy Political Influence and Integrated Strategy in Strategic Influence Public Diplomacy Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare ed Michael J Waller Washington DC Institute of World Politics Press 2009 89 a b Foreign Affairs Foreign Affairs Retrieved 15 December 2015 Mark Leonard Diplomacy by Other Means Foreign Policy 132 September October 2002 51 United States Department of State Advisory Committee on Cultural Diplomacy Diplomacy Report of the Advisory Committee on Cultural Diplomacy 3 4 9 Cultural Diplomacy Political Influence and Integrated Strategy in Strategic Influence Public Diplomacy Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare ed Michael J Waller Washington DC Institute of World Politics Press 2009 76 Sergei Gavrov Lev Vostryakov Cultural diplomacy as a tool for constructing and broadcasting an attractive brand of the Russian state Moscow Russia Moscow State University of Culture and Arts 2018 2 26 33 a b Cultural Diplomacy Political Influence and Integrated Strategy in Strategic Influence Public Diplomacy Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare ed Michael J Waller Washington DC Institute of World Politics Press 2009 93 Joseph S Nye Soft Power The Means to Success in World Politics Cambridge Perseus Books 2004 23 Mark Leonard Diplomacy by Other Means Foreign Policy 132 September October 2002 49 Jamie Frederic Metzl Popular Diplomacy Daedalus 128 no 2 Spring 1999 178 Cultural Diplomacy Political Influence and Integrated Strategy in Strategic Influence Public Diplomacy Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare ed Michael J Waller Washington DC Institute of World Politics Press 2009 78 79 Cultural Diplomacy Political Influence and Integrated Strategy in Strategic Influence Public Diplomacy Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare ed Michael J Waller Washington DC Institute of World Politics Press 2009 82 87 Mark Leonard Diplomacy by Other Means Foreign Policy 132 September October 2002 51 52 Nicholas J Cull Public Diplomacy Taxonomies and Histories Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616 March 2008 39 40 Liam Kennedy Remembering September 11 Photography as Cultural Diplomacy International Affairs 79 no 2 March 2003 315 323 a b c Geduld Victoria Phillips 2010 Dancing Diplomacy Martha Graham and the Strange Commodity of the Cold War Cultural Exchange in Asia 1955 and 1975 Dance Chronicle 33 1 via Taylor Francis Online a b c d McDaniel Cadra Peterson 2015 American Soviet Cultural Diplomacy The Bolshoi Ballet s American Premiere Lanham Maryland Lexington Books Wiley Roland John 1985 Tchaikovsky s Ballets Swan Lake Sleeping Beauty Nutcracker Oxford Oxfordshire Oxford Monographs on Music Clarendon Press a b c d Searcy Anne 2020 Ballet in the Cold War A Soviet American Exchange New York Oxford Academic Ezrahi Christina 2012 Swans of the Kremlin Ballet and Power in Soviet Russia Pittsburgh Pitt Series in Russian and East European Studies University of Pittsburgh Press a b Siegel Marcia B George Balanchine 1904 1983 The Hudson Review 36 3 via JSTOR Kodat Catherine Gunther 2015 Don t Act Just Dance The Metapolitics of Cold War Culture New Brunswick New Jersey Rutgers University Press Nicholas John Cull The Cold War and the United States Information Agency American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy 1945 1989 Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2008 162 167 Giles Scott Smith Mapping the Undefinable Some Thoughts on the Relevance of Exchange Programs within International Relations Theory Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 16 March 2008 174 Notable Fulbrighters Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs United States Department of State Archived from the original on 16 October 2016 Retrieved 25 March 2018 a b Borgerson Janet Schroeder Jonathan E Miller Daniel 2017 Designed for hi fi living the vinyl LP in mid century America Cambridge Massachusetts MIT Press ISBN 9780262036238 OCLC 958205262 Carnes Lord Losing Hearts and Minds Public Diplomacy and Strategic Influence in the Age of Terror Westport CT Praeger Security International 2006 52 Photograph of Manolita Arriola and Nestor Chayres for Viva America 1946 CBS on Getty Images Settel Irving 1967 1960 A Pictorial History of Radio New York Grosset amp Dunlap p 146 LCCN 67 23789 OCLC 1475068 Copyright 2018 J David Goldin radiogoldindex com Archived from the original on 6 February 2012 Retrieved 12 June 2017 The New York Times January 8 1941 pg 8 The New York Times January 1 1942 pg 27 The New York Times May 10 1942 pg Sm10 The New York Times February 28 1943 pg X9 The New York Times January 18 1942 pg 27 Media Sound amp Culture in Latin America amp the Caribbean Editors Bronfman Alejandra amp Wood Andrew Grant University of Pittsburgh Press Pittsburgh PA USA 2012 Pg 49 ISBN 978 0 8229 6187 1 Books Google Com See Pg 49 Artist Biography Eva Garza Frontera Project frontera library ucla edu Vargas Deborah R 21 May 2018 Dissonant Divas in Chicana Music The Limits of la Onda U of Minnesota Press ISBN 9780816673162 via Google Books The Juilliard Journal Faculty Portraits of Samuel Adler at the Juilliard School of Music New York October 2013 on Juilliard edu A Conductor s Guide to Choral Orchestral Works Part 1 Jonathan D Green Scarecrow Press Oxford 1994 Chapter II Survey of Works p 14 ISBN 978 0 8108 4720 0 Samuel Adler on https books google com The Directory of the Armed Forces Radio Service Series Harry MacKenzie Greeenwood Press CT 1999 p 198 ISBN 0 313 30812 8 Seventh Army Symphony on Armed Forces Radio in 1961 performing works by Vivaldi and Dvorak on https books google com New Music New Allies Amy C Beal University of California Press Berkeley 2006 P 49 ISBN 978 0 520 24755 0 Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra 1952 1962 performing works by Roy Harris Morton Gould and Leroy Anderson on https books google com A Dictionary for the Modern Composer Emily Freeman Brown Scarecrow Press Oxford 2015 p 311 ISBN 9780810884014 Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra founded by Samuel Adler in 1952 on https books google com Canaria John 1998 Uncle Sam s Orchestra Memories of the Seventh Army Symphony University of Rochester Press ISBN 9781580460194 Fosler Lussier Danielle 2015 Classical Music and the Mediation of Prestige Music in America s Cold War Diplomacy Oakland CA University of California Press p 23 ISBN 978 0 520 28413 5 Prevots Naima 1998 Eisenhower s Fund Dance for Export Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War CT Wesleyan University Press p 11 ISBN 9780819573360 Pach Chester J ed 2017 Propaganda and Public Diplomacy A Companion to Dwight D Eisenhower MA Wiley Blackwell pp 370 375 ISBN 9780470655214 Krenn Michael L 2017 The Golden Age of Cultural Diplomacy 1953 1961 The History of United States Cultural Diplomacy 1770 to the Present Day London Bloomsbury Academic pp 96 98 ISBN 978 1 4725 0860 7 Fosler Lussier Danielle 2015 Introduction Instruments of Diplomacy Music in America s Cold War Diplomacy Oakland CA University of California Press p 10 ISBN 978 0 520 28413 5 Fosler Lussier Danielle 2015 Introduction Instruments of Diplomacy Music in America s Cold War Diplomacy Oakland CA University of California Press pp 1 23 ISBN 978 0 520 28413 5 Howard Hanson in Theory and Practice Allen Laurence Cohen Praeger Publishers CT 2004 p 13 ISBN 0 313 32135 3 Howard Hanson and the Eastman Philharmonia on books google com William Warfield Biography at the Rochester Music Hall of Fame on rochestermusic org William Warfield biography at the Eastman School of Music on esm rochester edu a b c d e f g h Richmond Yale Cultural Exchange and the Cold War Raising the Iron Curtain University Park PA Penn State University Press 2004 205 209 a b c d e f g h Von Eschen Penny M Satchmo Blows Up the World Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War Harvard University Press 2004 10 13 34 225 a b Fosler Lussier Danielle Jazz Diplomacy Promoting America in Cold War Era by Lisa E Davenport review American Music 31 no 1 Spring 2013 117 118 a b John Alter You say you want a revolution Newsweek September 22 2003 37 Dmitri Rogov Beatles books amp records discography Something Books Kolya Vasin Archived from the original on 2 August 2018 Retrieved 24 April 2013 a b Ed Vulliamy For young Soviets the Beatles were a first mutinous rip in the iron curtain The Guardian Bratersky Alexander Back in the USSR the Beatles shaped a generation in Soviet Russia Russia beyond the headlines November 8 2012 Alexander Bratersky special to Russia Now 8 November 2012 Back in the USSR the Beatles shaped a generation in Soviet Russia Telegraph co uk Archived from the original on 12 November 2012 Peter Van Ham Place Branding The State of the Art The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616 March 2008 127 133 doi 10 1177 0002716207312274 Grincheva Natalia 6 July 2020 Museum Diplomacy in the Digital Age First ed Routledge ISBN 9780815369998 Manuel Charmaine Artefacts paving France s return to Africa www lowyinstitute org The Interpreter Retrieved 9 December 2020 Mark Leonard Diplomacy by Other Means Foreign Policy 132 September October 2002 50 Louis Belanger Redefining Cultural Diplomacy Cultural Security and Foreign Policy in Canada Political Psychology 20 no 4 December 1999 677 8 doi 10 1111 0162 895X 00164 Louis Belanger Redefining Cultural Diplomacy Cultural Security and Foreign Policy in Canada Political Psychology 20 no 4 December 1999 678 doi 10 1111 0162 895X 00164 a b Joseph S Nye Soft Power The Means to Success in World Politics Cambridge Perseus Books 2004 56 Further reading EditAng Ien Yudhishthir Raj Isar and Phillip Mar Cultural diplomacy beyond the national interest International Journal of Cultural Policy 21 4 2015 365 381 online Arndt R The first resort of kings American cultural diplomacy in the twentieth century Potomac Books 2006 excerpt Barghoorn Frederick C The Soviet cultural offensive the role of cultural diplomacy in Soviet foreign policy 1976 online Becard Danielly Silva Ramos and Paulo Menechelli Chinese Cultural Diplomacy instruments in China s strategy for international insertion in the 21st Century Revista Brasileira de Politica Internacional 62 2019 online Brown John Arts diplomacy The neglected aspect of cultural diplomacy in Routledge handbook of public diplomacy Routledge 2020 pp 79 81 Carta Caterina and Richard Higgott Cultural Diplomacy in Europe in Between the Domestic and the International 2020 org 10 1007 978 3 030 21544 6 online Clarke David and Pawel Duber Polish cultural diplomacy and historical memory the case of the Museum of the Second World War in Gdansk International Journal of Politics Culture and Society 33 1 2020 49 66 online Davidson Lee and Leticia Perez Castellanos eds Cosmopolitan Ambassadors International exhibitions cultural diplomacy and the polycentral museum Vernon Press 2019 online DeCarli Ashley M Topics Performing arts International relations Multiculturalism in art Naval Postgraduate School 2010 online Gienow Hecht Jessica C E Transmission impossible American journalism as cultural diplomacy in postwar Germany 1945 1955 1999 online Goff Patricia M Cultural diplomacy in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy Routledge 2020 pp 30 37 Hebert David McCollum Jonathan 2022 Ethnomusicology and Cultural Diplomacy Lanham MD Lexington Books Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 9781793642912 Isar Y R Cultural diplomacy an overplayed hand Public diplomacy magazine 3 Winter 2010 online Lane Philippe French scientific and cultural diplomacy 2013 online Lee Seow Ting Film as cultural diplomacy South Korea s nation branding through Parasite 2019 in Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 18 2 2022 93 104 online Liu Xin China s Cultural Diplomacy A Great Leap Outward Routledge 2019 online Mitchell J M International cultural relations Allen and Unwin 1986 Ninkovich Frank A U S information policy and cultural diplomacy 1996 online Paschalidis G Exporting national culture histories of cultural institutes abroad International journal of cultural policy 2009 15 3 275 289 Pells Richard Not like Us How Europeans Have Loved Hated and Transformed American Culture since World War II 1997 online Prevots Naima Dance for export cultural diplomacy and the Cold War 2001 online Sadlier Darlene J Americans all good neighbor cultural diplomacy in World War II 2012 online in Latin America Scott Smith Giles and Hans Krabbendam eds The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe 1945 60 Routledge 2004 Singh Rana PB and Pravin S Rana Cultural Diplomacy in India Dispersal Heritage Representation Contestation and Development Transcultural Diplomacy and International Law in Heritage Conservation Springer Singapore 2021 pp 231 256 Trommler Frank and Elliott Shore eds The German American Encounter Conflict and Cooperation Between Two Cultures 1800 2000 2001 Tuch Hans J Communicating with the World US Public Diplomacy Overseas Institute for the Study of Diplomacy Georgetown University 1990 Wagnleiter Reinhold Coca Colonization and the Cold War The Cultural Mission of the U S in Austria after the Second World War U of North Carolina Press 1995 Wieck Randolph R Ignorance Abroad American Educational and Cultural Foreign Policy and the Office of the Assistant Secretary of State Praeger 1992 Historiography and memory Edit Clarke D Theorising the role of cultural products in cultural diplomacy from a cultural studies perspective International journal of cultural policy 2014 doi 10 1080 10286632 2014 958481 Gienow Hecht Jessica C E and Mark C Donfried eds Searching for a cultural diplomacy Berghahn Books 2010 Tomlinson John Cultural Imperialsm A Critical Introduction Pinter 1991 External links Edit nbsp Media related to Cultural diplomacy at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Cultural diplomacy amp oldid 1178681604, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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