Classical Chinese lexicon

Almost all lexemes in Classical Chinese are individual characters one spoken syllable in length. This contrasts with modern Chinese dialects where two-syllable words are extremely common. Chinese has acquired many polysyllabic words in order to disambiguate monosyllabic words that sounded different in earlier forms of Chinese but identical in one region or another during later periods. Because Classical Chinese is based on the literary examples of ancient Chinese literature, it has almost none of the two-syllable words present in modern varieties of Chinese.

Classical Chinese has more pronouns compared to the modern vernacular. In particular, whereas Mandarin has one general character to refer to the first-person pronoun, Literary Chinese has several, many of which are used as part of honorific language, and several of which have different grammatical uses (first-person collective, first-person possessive, etc.).^{[citation needed]}

In syntax, Classical Chinese words are not restrictively categorized into parts of speech: nouns used as verbs, adjectives used as nouns, and so on. There is no copula in Classical Chinese; 是 (shì) is a copula in modern Chinese but in old Chinese it was originally a near demonstrative ('this'), the modern Chinese equivalent of which is 這 (zhè).^{[citation needed]}

Beyond grammar and vocabulary differences, Classical Chinese can be distinguished by literary and cultural differences: an effort to maintain parallelism and rhythm, even in prose works, and extensive use of literary and cultural allusions, thereby also contributing to brevity.

Many final particles (Chinese: 歇語字; pinyin: xiēyǔzì; Wade–Giles: hsieh¹-yü³-tzu⁴) and^[1] interrogative particles are found in Literary Chinese.^[2]

Function words

	Usage	Example	Translation
而	1. Used as a conjunction, which is equivalent to "also" 「又」, "and" 「而且」, "but" 「卻」, "if" 「如果」, and "followed by" 「接著」	學而時習之，不亦悅乎。 (From Analects by Confucius and his disciples)	Learn and practice often (what you have learned), is it not a pleasure?
	2. Used as a pronoun, which is equivalent to "your" 「你的」
	3. An alternative for "can" 「能」

何	1. Used as Pronouns, often behind the modal particles 「哉」、「也」
	2. Used as "Why" 「為什麼」, "where" 「哪裡」, "what" 「什麼」
	3. Used as an adverb, or used in the first sentence before the verb, that question can be translated as "how" 「怎麼」

乎	1. Used as a Preposition, which is equivalent to the word 「於」
	2. The modal particle to express doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front
	3. To express a question, when placed at the end of a phrase	人不知而不慍，不亦君子乎。	Others fail to understand you, but you are not angered, is this not the mark of a gentleman?

乃	1. Used as a Preposition, which is equivalent to the word 「於」
	2. The modal particle to express doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front
	3. To express a question, when placed at the end of a phrase

爾	1. As "then", "indeed", "after all", or "namely"	乃懼，復造善脈者診之。(From Chapter 23 of Volume 2 of Pu Songling's 聊齋志異)	Then he got scared, and found someone who was good at pulse-reading to diagnose it.
	2. As a pronoun, "you", "your"

爲	1. Used as a preposition, that the object, which is equivalent to "substitute for", "give", "once upon a time", "opposed", "with", "with regards to"
	2. Used as a preposition, pointed out that the reason for the equivalent of "because"
	3. Used as a preposition, that the passive, which is equivalent to "be"
	4. Used as a verb, which is equivalent to "make", "for", "become"
	5. Used as a preposition, which is equivalent to "at", "When"
	6. Used as a modal particle, often with the pronouns 「何」、「焉」

焉	1. The word used as a tone for the end of the sentence, which is equivalent to 「啊」、「呢」	生而有疾惡焉，順是，故殘賊生而忠信亡焉。	(Human beings) were born with hatred; (because) people followed (it), cruelty and brutality grew (within them), and faithfulness died out (end of sentence).
	2. For the tone of the words express a standstill for the sentence
	3. Used as a pronoun, which is equivalent to "he", "them", "it", "here" and "where"
	4. Used as pronouns, equivalent to 「豈」 (how/what), 「如何」 (what)

以	1. Used as a preposition to indicate reason, equivalent to "in order to"; originally derived from a noun meaning "reason"	故常無欲，以觀其妙。(Tao Te Ching) 何其久也？必有以也！("Mao Qiu", Classic of Poetry)	Therefore, (people) often keep themselves void of desire, in order to see the secret of it (life). Why does he take this long? There must be a reason!
	2. Used as a preposition to indicate means, "with", "using"	殺人以挺與刃，有以異乎？(Mencius)	To kill using a club or blade, is there anything to distinguish them?
	3. Used as a preposition to introduce action, where activity takes place within a certain period and location, equivalent to "at", "from"	文以五月五日生。(Records of the Grand Historian)	Wen (Lord Mengchang) was born on the fifth day of the fifth month.
	4. Used as a conjunction - to indicate juxtaposition, a linked relationship, objective, or causality; similar to 而.	談笑以死 。(Zhang Pu)	They talked with laughter before they died (were executed).

其	1. Third person possessive pronoun	未有仁而遺其親者也。(Mencius)	There has never been a humane person who abandoned his parents.
	2. Modal particle expressing doubt or possibility	其無後乎？(Mencius)	Surely he must not have any descendants?
	3. Modal particle expressing a softened imperative: an exhortation or wish (rather than a command)	其無廢先君之功！(Zuo Zhuan)	Please do not destroy the previous sovereign's achievements!

且	"And", "Furthermore"
若	"If", "Assuming that"	夕惕若厲。	Being careful everyday as if there were dangers.
所	"That which"
也	Used at the end of the sentence to provide a positive, emphasizing or doubtful tone. If used within the sentence, indicates a pause to delay the mood.	其西有大山，天下至高者也。	In the west of it there is a large mountain, (which is) the tallest under heaven.
因	"Rely on"; "build on", "inherit"	為高必因丘陵。(Mencius) 周因於殷禮。(Analects)	To build high, one necessarily relies on hills and mounts. Zhou inherits the rituals of Yin.
于	Used as a preposition for place, reason; expression of action behaviour and the introduction of premises, time, motion, target, location, relationship between people, introduction to the object of comparison or analogy.
與	"and", "with", "to", "for", "give"
則	Used as a conjunction - translated as "just", "still, but...", "however", "in that case"
者	Particle which refers to people, objects, times, locations, etc. When placed after the subject, indicates a slight pause, or expresses determination.
之	1. Third person object pronoun	民不畏死，奈何以死懼之？(Tao Te Ching)	The people do not fear death; how can one frighten them with it?
	2. Near demonstrative pronoun, 'this'	之子于歸，宜其室家。("Tao Yao", Classic of Poetry)	This lady goes to her marriage, befitting for her chamber and house.
	3. Possessive marker ('s) for personal pronouns. Use similar or equivalent to modern 的.	孫子曰：兵者，國之大事，死生之地，存亡之道，不可不察也。 (The Art of War by Sun Tzu)	Sun Zi says: Of war, life-and-death's field, survival-and-extinction's way, should not be unexamined.
	4. Nominalization marker. Inserted between subject and predicate to convert a clause into a noun phrase. Can be thought of as an extension of (2) above.	喜怒哀樂之動乎中，必見乎外。	The welling of happiness, anger, grief, or pleasure in one's heart is always outwardly expressed.
	5. Transitive verb, "to go"	吾欲之南海，如何？	I wish to go to the southern seas; what do you think?
曰	Speech indicator, similar to "says" or "said".	翁笑曰：「平昔不相往還，何由遺魂吾家？」	The old man laughed and said, "In normal days we don't have much of a relation, why would you want to call back the dead's soul in my house?"
亦	Also; too.
故	Therefore, Cause, Reason, Happening, Instance	何以故？	Why is this? (lit. "What caused this?")
將	Adverb indicating future action ('will'); indicating uncertainty ('if')	將入門。	When they were about to enter the gate.
矣	Particle indicating completion	否則我終泯而子亦不起矣。(Truyền kỳ mạn lục)	Otherwise, I will ultimately disappear, and you will also not rise again.
蓋	Sentence-initial particle that indicates uncertainty	蓋莫之爲而爲者天。(Truyền kỳ mạn lục)	It seems that one who does not do anything, but does it is heavenly.
猶	To be like; still	想彼念卿亦猶卿念彼。(Truyền kỳ mạn lục)	Missing her, I remember you, also just like when I missed you, I remember her.

Note that for the descriptions provided above, English equivalents are provided in double quotation marks (""), while equivalents in vernacular Chinese are provided in hooked brackets (「」).

Content words

As with function words, there are many differences between the content words of Classical Chinese and those of Baihua. Below are synonyms used in the two registers. Some Classical Chinese words can have more than one meaning.

However, Classical Chinese words still exist among many chengyu, or Chinese idioms.

The Classical Chinese words and examples will be written in traditional characters, and the modern vernacular will be written in both simplified and traditional characters.

Classical Chinese word	Part of speech	Baihua word (simplified)	Baihua word (traditional)	Meaning	Classical Chinese example	Baihua translation (simplified)	Baihua translation (traditional)	English meaning
日	noun	太阳^[3]	太陽	sun	雲開見日^[4]	拔开云雾，见到太阳。^[4]	拔開雲霧，見到太陽。	The clouds opened and the sun shone through.^[4]
目	noun	眼睛^[3]	眼睛	eye	每毙一人掩其目^[5]	因此每射杀一个人，都会闭上眼睛不忍直视。^[5]	因此每射殺一個人，都會閉上眼睛不忍直視。	Whenever he killed a man, he covered his eyes.^[5]
虎	noun	老虎	老虎	tiger	不入虎穴焉得虎子^[6]	不敢进入虎穴，就不能捉到老虎的崽子。^[citation needed]	不敢進入虎穴，就不能捉到老虎的崽子。	One may only catch the tiger cub by entering the tiger's den.^[6]
犬	noun	狗	狗	dog	一犬吠形，百犬吠聲^[7]	一只狗看到影子叫起来，很多狗也跟着乱叫。^[citation needed]	一隻狗看到影子叫起來，很多狗也跟著亂叫。	One barking dog sets all the street abark.^[7]

See also

• Chinese adjectives
• Chinese particles
• Chinese verbs
• Classical Chinese grammar

Sources

Citations

1. J. J. Brandt (1936). Introduction to literary Chinese (2 ed.). H. Vetch. p. 169. Retrieved 10 February 2012. PART III GRAMMATICAL SECTION THE FINAL PARTICLES (歇語字 hsieh1-yü3-tzu4) The Wenli-style abounds with so called final particles. These particles
2. J. J. Brandt (1936). Introduction to literary Chinese (2 ed.). H. Vetch. p. 184. Retrieved 10 February 2012. PART III GRAMMATICAL SECTION THE INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES The Wen-li style particularly abounds with the interrogative particles.
3. Theobald, Ulrich. "Classical Chinese (wenyan 文言) (www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 2020-12-18.
4. "Mandarin Chinese-English Dictionary & Thesaurus - YellowBridge". www.yellowbridge.com. Retrieved 2020-12-18.
5. "工尹商阳与陈弃疾追吴师，及之。陈弃疾谓工尹商阳曰："王事也，子手弓而可。"手弓。"子射诸。"射之，毙一人，韔弓。又及，谓之，又毙二人。每毙一人，掩其目。止其御曰："朝不坐，燕不与，杀三人，亦足以反命矣。"孔子曰："杀人之中，又有礼焉。"诸侯伐秦，曹桓公卒于会。诸侯请含，使之袭。襄公朝于荆，康王卒。荆人曰："必请袭。"鲁人曰："非礼也。"荆人强之。巫先拂柩。荆人悔之。-《礼记》原文注释及翻译". liji.5000yan.com. Retrieved 2020-12-18.
6. "Mandarin Chinese-English Dictionary & Thesaurus - YellowBridge". www.yellowbridge.com. Retrieved 2021-01-30.
7. "Mandarin Chinese-English Dictionary & Thesaurus - YellowBridge". www.yellowbridge.com. Retrieved 2021-01-30.

Works cited

• 《新高中文言手册》 （1998年 北京华书）
• 《新华字典》 （第10版

Further reading

• Baller, Frederick William (1912). Lessons in elementary Wen-li. China Inland Mission. ISBN 9780524097083.
• Brandt, J. (1929). Wenli particles. The North China Union Language School.
• Brandt, J. (1936). Introduction to Literary Chinese. New York: Frederick Ungar. Retrieved 2015-08-23.
• Creel, Herrlee Glessner, ed. (1938). Literary Chinese by the Inductive Method, Volume 1. University of Chicago Press.
• Creel, Herrlee Glessner, ed. (1939). Literary Chinese by the Inductive Method, Volume 2. University of Chicago Press.
• Creel, Herrlee Glessner, ed. (1952). Literary Chinese by the Inductive Method, Volume 3. University of Chicago Press.
• Dawson, Raymond Stanley (1984). A New Introduction to Classical Chinese (2nd ed.). Clarendon. ISBN 0-19-815460-7.
• Gabelentz, Georg von der (1881). Chinesische Grammatik: Mit Ausschluss des niederen Stiles und der heutigen Umgangssprache (in German). Leipzig: T.O. Weigel. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
• Julien, Stanislas (1869). Syntaxe nouvelle de la langue chinoise fondée sur la position des mots: suivie de deux traités sur les particules et les principaux termes de grammaire, d'une table des idiotismes, de fables, de légendes et d'apologues traduits mot à mot, premier volume (in French). Paris: Librairie de Maisonneuve. Retrieved 2015-08-23.
• Julien, Stanislas (1870). Syntaxe nouvelle de la langue chinoise fondée sur la position des mots: suivie de deux traités sur les particules et les principaux termes de grammaire, d'une table des idiotismes, de fables, de légendes et d'apologues traduits mot à mot, second volume (in French). Paris: Librairie de Maisonneuve. Retrieved 2015-08-23.
• Rémusat, Abel (1822). Éléments de la grammaire chinoise, ou, principes généraux du kou-wen ou style antique: et du kouan-hoa, c'est-à-dire, de la langue commune généralement usitée dans l'Empire chinois (in French). Paris: Imprimerie Royale. Retrieved 2011-05-15.

External links

 

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