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Tributary system of China

January 01, 1970

The tributary system of China (simplified Chinese: 中华朝贡体系; traditional Chinese: 中華朝貢體系; pinyin: Zhōnghuá cháogòng tǐxì), or Cefeng system (simplified Chinese: 册封体制; traditional Chinese: 冊封體制; pinyin: Cèfēng tǐzhì) at its height was a network of loose international relations centered around China which facilitated trade and foreign relations by acknowledging China's hegemonic role within a Sinocentric world order. It involved multiple relationships of trade, military force, diplomacy and ritual. The other states had to send a tributary envoy to China on schedule, who would kowtow to the Chinese emperor as a form of tribute, and acknowledge his superiority and precedence. The other countries followed China's formal ritual in order to keep the peace with the more powerful neighbor and be eligible for diplomatic or military help under certain conditions. Political actors within the tributary system were largely autonomous and in almost all cases virtually independent.[1]

China (yellow) and its tributaries (orange), 1820
A mural from the Qianling Mausoleum in Shaanxi, 706. Foreign ambassadors are being received at court. The bald man in the middle is from the West and the man to his right is from Silla.

Scholars differ on the nature of China's relations with its neighbors in traditional times. Many describe a system that embodied a collection of institutions, social and diplomatic conventions, and institutions that dominated China's contacts with the non-Chinese world for two millennia, until the collapse of the system around the end of the 19th century.[2] Other scholars like Odd Arne Westad see a variety of relationships that differed in character, not an overall "tributary system". They suggest a Sinocentric system, in which Chinese culture was central to the self-identification of many elite groups in the surrounding Asian countries.[3] By the late 19th century, China had become part of a European-style community of sovereign states and established diplomatic relations with other countries in the world following international law.[4]

Some scholars have suggested that the tributary system is a model for understanding international relations in East Asia today, while others argue that the concept is misleading both about relations in early modern times and today.[5]

Definition edit

 
Envoys from Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla. Painting produced 7th century AD by Yan Liben (c. 600–673).

The term "tribute system" is a Western invention. There was no equivalent term in the Chinese lexicon to describe what would be considered the "tribute system" today, nor was it envisioned as an institution or system. John King Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yu created the "tribute system" theory in a series of articles in the early 1940s to describe "a set of ideas and practices developed and perpetuated by the rulers of China over many centuries."[6] The concept was developed and became influential after 1968, when Fairbank edited and published a conference volume, The Chinese World Order, with fourteen essays on China's pre-modern relations with Vietnam, Korea, Inner Asia and Tibet, Southeast Asia and the Ryukyus, as well as an Introduction and essays describing Chinese views of the world order. The model presents the tribute system as an extension of the hierarchic and nonegalitarian Confucian social order.[7]

"Tribute", points out Peter C. Perdue, the historian of Qing dynasty foreign relations, is "the inadequate translation for gong, a term with multiple meanings in classical Chinese," since its "root meaning of gift giving from inferiors to superiors applied to all personal relationships...." Fairbank's concept of tribute system "turned a flexible practice with multiple meanings into an overly formalized ritual system" in which gong always had the same meanings and gong ritual was exclusively and predominately a marker of foreign relations, whereas the Qing conducted "many diverse forms of tributary ritual".[8]

 
The Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang. 6th-century painting in National Museum of China. Tributary envoys from right to left: Uar (Hephthalites); Persia; Baekje (Korea); Qiuci; Wo (Japan); Langkasuka (in present-day Malaysia); Dengzhi (鄧至) (Qiang) Ngawa; Zhouguke (周古柯), Hebatan (呵跋檀), Humidan (胡密丹), Baiti (白題, similar to the Hephthalite people), who dwell close to Hephthalite; Mo (Qiemo). Attributed to Xiao Yi.[9]

In practice edit

 
A Ming-era painting of a tribute giraffe, which was thought to be a Qilin by court officials, from Bengal

Legitimacy edit

The "tribute system" is often associated with a "Confucian world order", under which neighboring states complied and participated in the "tribute system" to secure guarantees of peace, investiture, and trading opportunities.[10] One member acknowledged another's position as superior, and the superior would bestow investiture upon them in the form of a crown, official seal, and formal robes, to confirm them as king.[11] The practice of investing non-Chinese neighbors had been practiced since ancient times as a concrete expression of the loose reign policy.[12]

The rulers of Joseon, in particular, sought to legitimize their rule through reference to Chinese symbolic authority. On the opposite side of the tributary relationship spectrum was Japan, whose leaders could hurt their own legitimacy by identifying with Chinese authority.[13] In these politically tricky situations, sometimes a false king was set up to receive investiture for the purposes of tribute trade.[14]

Autonomy edit

In practice, the tribute system only became formalized during the early years of the Ming dynasty.[15] Actors within the "tribute system" were virtually autonomous and carried out their own agendas despite sending tribute; as was the case with Japan, Korea, Ryukyu, and Vietnam.[16] Chinese influence on tributary states was almost always non-interventionist in nature and tributary states "normally could expect no military assistance from Chinese armies should they be invaded".[17][18]

Tribute edit

The "tribute" entailed a foreign court sending envoys and exotic products to the Chinese emperor. The emperor then gave the envoys gifts in return and permitted them to trade in China. Presenting tribute involved theatrical subordination but usually not political subordination. The political sacrifice of participating actors was simply "symbolic obeisance".[15] Nor were states that sent tribute forced to mimic Chinese institutions, for example in cases such as the Inner Asians, who basically ignored the trappings of Chinese government. Instead they manipulated Chinese tribute practices for their own financial benefit.[19]

The gifts doled out by the Ming emperor and the trade permits granted were of greater value than the tribute itself, so tribute states sent as many tribute missions as they could. In 1372, the Hongwu Emperor restricted tribute missions from Joseon and six other countries to just one every three years. The Ryukyu Kingdom was not included in this list, and sent 57 tribute missions from 1372 to 1398, an average of two tribute missions per year. Since geographical density and proximity was not an issue, regions with multiple kings such as the Sultanate of Sulu benefited immensely from this exchange.[14]

After 1435, the Ming dynasty urged foreign delegations to leave and stopped offering transport assistance for visiting missions. The size of delegations was restricted from hundreds of people to less than a dozen and the frequency of tributary missions was also reduced.[20]

The practice of giving gifts of greater value than the tribute itself was not practiced by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty court with Goryeo. Gifts conferred by the Yuan were worth a fraction of the tribute offered by Goryeo.[21]

Culture edit

Participation in a tributary relationship with a Chinese dynasty could also be predicated on cultural or civilizational motivations rather than material and monetary benefits. The Korean kingdom of Joseon did not treat the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, which invaded Joseon and forced it to become a tributary in 1636, in the same way as the Han-led Ming dynasty. Joseon had continued to support the Ming in their wars against the Qing despite incurring military retaliation from the latter. The Manchus were viewed as barbarians by the Korean court, which, regarding itself as the new "Confucian ideological center" in place of the Ming, continued to use the Ming calendar and era names in defiance of the Qing, despite sending tribute missions.[22]

Meanwhile, Japan avoided direct contact with Qing China and instead manipulated embassies from neighboring Joseon and Ryukyu to make it falsely appear as though they came to pay tribute.[23] Joseon Korea remained a tributary of Qing China until 1895, when the First Sino-Japanese War ended this relationship.

Rituals edit

The Chinese tributary system required a set of rituals from the tributary states whenever they sought relations with China as a way of regulating diplomatic relations.[24] The main rituals generally included:

  • The sending of missions by tributary states to China[24]
  • The tributary envoys' kowtowing before the Chinese emperor as "a symbolic recognition of their inferiority" and "acknowledgment of their status of a vassal state"[24]
  • The presentation of tribute and receipt of the emperor's "vassals' gifts"[24]
  • The investiture of the tributary state's ruler as the legitimate king of his land[24]

After the completion of the rituals, the tributary states engaged in their desired business, such as trade.[24]

History edit

For a more comprehensive list, see List of tributary states of China.
See also: Emperor at home, king abroad
 
Kyrgyz deliver a white horse as a tribute to the Qianlong Emperor of China (1757), soon after the Qing conquest of Xinjiang. Soon, intensive trade started in Kulja and Chuguchak, Kyrgyz horses, sheep and goats being traded for Chinese silk and cotton fabrics.[25]

Tributary relations emerged during the Tang dynasty as Chinese rulers started perceiving foreign envoys bearing tribute as a "token of conformity to the Chinese world order".[26]

The Ming founder Hongwu Emperor adopted a maritime prohibition policy and issued tallies to "tribute-bearing" embassies for missions. Missions were subject to limits on the number of persons and items allowed.[27]

Korea edit

The Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang recorded Silla sending women, 4 in total, all rejected,[28] gold, silver among other things as tribute to the Tang dynasty.[29][30]

If Silla indeed served China wholeheartedly by dispatching tributary ships one after another, why did King Beopheung use his own reign title? This is indeed confusing! From then on, Silla maintained this erroneous practice for many more years, even after Emperor Taizong had learned about it and reproved the Silla ambassador. Now, they eventually adopted the Tang reign title. Although a move out of necessity, we may still say that they have been able to correct their mistake[31]

— Kim Bu-sik (1075–1151) writing on the nature of Silla's tributary relationship with China

Goryeo's rulers called themselves "Great King" viewing themselves as the sovereigns of the Goryeo-centered world of Northeast Asia. They maintained their own Imperial style, in their setup of government institutions, administrative divisions and own tributary system.[32]

As the struggle between the Northern Yuan and the Red Turban Rebellion and the Ming remained indecisive, Goryeo retained neutrality despite both sides pleading for their assistance in order to break this stalemate. As the Ming eventually gained the upper hand Goryeo paid an enormous tribute to Ming in February 1385 consisting of five thousand horses, five hundred jin of gold, fifty thousand jin of silver and fifty thousand bolts of cotton fabric order to maintain their neutrality.[33]

Japan edit

Early kings of Japan had formal diplomatic inquiries with the Jin dynasty and its successors and were appointed as "King of Wa". The Emperors of China commonly referred to the ruler of Japan as 倭寇王 wōkouwang (wakuō) meaning "King of Wa", while they themselves styled themselves as ōkimi, meaning "Great King" in relation to the Chinese emperor. Internally 天皇 tennō meaning "heavenly king" also used to put the ruler of Japan on the same level as the one of China.

Between 607 and 838, Japan submitted and sent 19 missions to China under the Sui and Tang dynasties. The nature of these bilateral contacts evolved gradually from political and ceremonial acknowledgment to cultural exchanges; and the process accompanied the growing commercial ties which developed over time.[34] Knowledge was the principal objective of each expedition. For example: Priests studied Chinese Buddhism. Officials studied Chinese government. Doctors studied Chinese medicine. Painters studied Chinese painting. Approximately one third of those who embarked from Japan did not survive to return home.[35]

Japan under the Ashikaga shogunate again became a tributary of China under the Ming dynasty in 1401. As a result, in 1404, Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, who held most of the de facto power in Japan, accepted the title "King of Japan" from the Ming, despite the nominal sovereign of Japan still residing in Kyōto. Yoshimitsu was the first and only Japanese ruler in the early modern period to accept a Chinese title.[36] During the Muromachi period Japan accepted the Ming led worldview. This relationship continued until 1549 (except the 1411-1432 period) when Japan chose to end its recognition of China's regional hegemony and cancel any further tribute missions.[37]

Membership in the tributary system was a prerequisite for any economic exchange with China. In exiting the system, Japan relinquished its trade relationship with China.[38] Under the rule of the Wanli Emperor, Ming China quickly interpreted the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) which failed as a challenge to the Ming centered predominant worldview and order.[39]

Thailand edit

Thailand was an important Chinese tributary state from the Sui dynasty (581–618), until the Taiping Rebellion of the late Qing dynasty during the mid-19th century.[40] The Sukhothai Kingdom, the first unified Thai state, established official tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty during the reign of King Ram Khamhaeng, and Thailand remained a tributary of China until 1853.[41]

Wei Yuan, the 19th century Chinese scholar, considered Thailand to be the strongest and most loyal of China's Southeast Asian tributaries, citing the time when Thailand offered to directly attack Japan to divert the Japanese in their planned invasions of Korea and the Asian mainland, as well as other acts of loyalty to the Ming dynasty.[42] Thailand was welcoming and open to Chinese immigrants, who dominated commerce and trade, and achieved high positions in the government.[43]

Vietnam edit

Vietnam was ruled by China for 1050 years. When Vietnam gained independence in 939, it became a tributary of China until 1885 when it became a protectorate of France with the Treaty of Huế (1884). The Lê dynasty (1428–1527) and Nguyễn dynasty (1802–1945) adopted the imperial Chinese system, with rulers declaring themselves emperors on the Confucian model and attempting to create a Vietnamese imperial tributary system while still remaining a tributary state of China.[44]

Even though Vietnam was the only sinicized country in Southeast Asia, the Ming dynasty treated it with less respect than Korea or the Ryukyu Kingdom.[45] The Hongwu Emperor was firmly opposed to military expeditions in Southeast Asia and only rebuked Vietnam's conquest of Champa, which had sent tribute missions to China seeking help. After the death of Emperor Hongwu, the Chinese intervened after a Vietnamese general, Le Qui Ly, usurped the Vietnamese throne.[46]

The Malacca sultanate sent envoys to China to inform them that while returning to Malacca in 1469 from a trip to China, their ship had been driven by a storm to the coast of Vietnam and the Vietnamese killed, enslaved and castrated the survivors. The Malaccans reported that Vietnam was in control of Champa and that the Vietnamese sought to conquer Malacca, but the Malaccans did not fight back because of a lack of permission from the Chinese to engage in war. Malacca avoided reciprocating hostilities until they received a letter from the Ming dynasty, in which the Ming emperor scolded them, ordering the Malaccans to raise soldiers and retaliate if the Vietnamese attacked.[47]

According to a 2018 study in the Journal of Conflict Resolution covering Vietnam-China relations from 1365 to 1841, "the Vietnamese court explicitly recognized its unequal status in its relations with China through a number of institutions and norms." Due to their participation in the tributary system, Vietnamese rulers behaved as though China was not a threat and paid very little military attention to it. Rather, Vietnamese leaders were clearly more concerned with quelling chronic domestic instability and managing relations with kingdoms to their south and west."[48]

Ryukyu Kingdom edit

From the late 14th to early 16th centuries, the Ryukyu Kingdom served an important position in the Ming's tributary order, as they became a key intermediary for the Ming's trade with Northeast and Southeast Asia through goods funnelled into Ming-Ryukyu tribute missions. Ryukyu's intermediary role was also facilitated by Chinese diaspora communities who settled in Ryukyu and served positions in the Ryukyu court.[49]

Maritime Southeast Asia edit

The Sultanate of Malacca and the Sultanate of Brunei sent tribute to the Ming dynasty, with their first rulers personally traveling to China with the Imperial fleets.[50][51]

In the Philippine islands, trade with China is believed to have begun during the Tang dynasty, and expanded during the Song dynasty;[52] by the second millennium AD, some polities were part of the tributary system of China,[53]: 177–178  between them the Sultanate of Sulu.[54]

See also edit

References edit

Citations edit

  1. ^ ChuLiu 1994, p. 177.
  2. ^ Zhang, Yongjin, "The Tribute System", Oxford Bibliographies, retrieved September 27, 2023
  3. ^ Westad (2012), p. 10.
  4. ^ Rowe, William (2010). China's Last Empire - The Great Qing. Harvard University Press. p. 211. ISBN 9780674054554. Retrieved September 27, 2023.
  5. ^ Perdue (2015), p. 1002.
  6. ^ Lee 2017, pp. 28–29.
  7. ^ Perdue (2015), p. 1005.
  8. ^ Perdue (2009), p. 85.
  9. ^ Zhou 2009, p. 154.
  10. ^ Lee 2017, p. 9.
  11. ^ Lee 2017, p. 13.
  12. ^ Lee 2017, p. 33.
  13. ^ Lee 2017, p. 3.
  14. ^ a b Smits 2019, p. 65.
  15. ^ a b Lee 2017, p. 12.
  16. ^ Lee 2017, p. 15-16.
  17. ^ Smits 2019, p. 35.
  18. ^ de Klundert 2013, p. 176.
  19. ^ Lee 2017, p. 17.
  20. ^ Siu 2023, p. 7-12.
  21. ^ Robinson 2009, p. 48.
  22. ^ Lee 2017, p. 23.
  23. ^ Lee 2017, p. 24.
  24. ^ a b c d e f Khong, Y. F. (2013). "The American Tributary System". The Chinese Journal of International Politics. 6 (1): 1–47. doi:10.1093/cjip/pot002. ISSN 1750-8916.
  25. ^ Millward, James A. (2007), Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang, Columbia University Press, pp. 45–47, ISBN 978-0231139243
  26. ^ Lee 2017, p. 18.
  27. ^ 2014, p. 19.
  28. ^ Bielenstein 2005, p. 142.
  29. ^ "199". Old Book of Tang. 新罗国...武德四年，遣使朝贡...贞观五年，遣使献女乐二人，皆鬒发美色...开元十六年，遣使来献方物，又上表请令人就中国学问经教，上许之...大历二年，宪英卒，国人立其子干运为王，仍遣其大臣金隐居奉表入朝，贡方物，请加册命...八年，遣使来朝，并献金、银、牛黄、鱼牙纳朝霞䌷等。九年至十二年，比岁遣使来朝，或一岁再至...元和四年，遣使金陆珍等来朝贡。五年，王子金宪章来朝贡...十五年十一月，遣使朝贡...长庆二年十二月，遣使金柱弼朝贡。
  30. ^ "199". New Book of Tang. 新罗国...贞观五年，献女乐二...玄宗开元中，数入朝，献果下马、朝霞䌷、鱼牙䌷、海豹皮。又献二女。
  31. ^ Wang 2013, p. 96.
  32. ^ Breuker, Remco E. (2010), Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea, 918-1170: History, Ideology and Identity in the Koryŏ Dynasty, BRILL, ISBN 9789004183254
  33. ^ Robinson, David M. “Rethinking the Late Koryŏ in an International Context.” Korean Studies, vol. 41, 2017, pp. 75–98. JSTOR, JSTOR 44508440. Accessed 11 Dec. 2022.
  34. ^ Fogel, Joshua A. (2009). Articulating the Sinosphere: Sino-Japanese Relations in Space and Time, pp. 102-107.
  35. ^ Hoffman, Michael. "Cultures Combined in the Mists of Time: Origins of the China-Japan relationship," Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. February 3, 2006; reprinting article in Japan Times, January 29, 2006.
  36. ^ Lee 2017, p. 19.
  37. ^ Howe, Christopher. The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia. p. 337
  38. ^ Joshua Fogel, Articulating the Sinosphere: Sino-Japanese Relations in Space and Time (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009) p. 27; Goodrich, Luther Carrington et al. (1976). [https://books.google.com/books?id=JWpF-dObxW8C&pg=PA1316 Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368–1644,, p. 1316, at Google Books; note: the economic benefit of the Sinocentric tribute system was profitable trade. The tally trade (kangō bōeki or kanhe maoyi in Chinese) was a system devised and monitored by the Chinese – see Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric et al. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia, p. 471.
  39. ^ Swope, Kenneth. (PDF). Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies: 761. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-03. Retrieved 2013-09-07. At this point in 1593, the war entered a stalemate during which intrigues and negotiations failed to produce a settlement. As the suzerain of Joseon Korea, Ming China exercised tight control over the Koreans during the war. At the same time, Ming China negotiated bilaterally with Japan while often ignoring the wishes of the Korean government.
  40. ^ Gambe, Annabelle R. (2000). Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 99. ISBN 9783825843861. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
  41. ^ Chinvanno, Anuson (1992-06-18). Thailand's Policies towards China, 1949–54. Springer. p. 24. ISBN 9781349124305. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
  42. ^ Leonard, Jane Kate (1984). Wei Yuan and China's Rediscovery of the Maritime World. Harvard Univ Asia Center. pp. 137–138. ISBN 9780674948556. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
  43. ^ Gambe, Annabelle R. (2000). Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 100–101. ISBN 9783825843861. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
  44. ^ Alexander Woodside (1971). Vietnam and the Chinese model: a comparative study of Vietnamese and Chinese government in the first half of the nineteenth century (reprint, illustrated ed.). Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 234. ISBN 0-674-93721-X. Retrieved June 20, 2011.
  45. ^ Dreyer, Edward L. (1982). Early Ming China : A political history, 1355-1435. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1105-0.
  46. ^ Edward L. Dreyer (1982). Early Ming China: a political history, 1355-1435. Stanford University Press. p. 117. ISBN 0-8047-1105-4. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
  47. ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Straits Branch, Reinhold Rost (1887). Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China: reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society from Dalrymple's "Oriental Repertory," and the "Asiatic Researches" and "Journal" of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 1. Trübner & Co. p. 252. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
  48. ^ David C. Kang, et al. "War, Rebellion, and Intervention under Hierarchy: Vietnam–China Relations, 1365 to 1841." Journal of Conflict Resolution 63.4 (2019): 896-922. online
  49. ^ Geoff Wade (July 2007). "Ryukyu in the Ming Reign Annals 1380s-1580s". Asia Research Institute. Working Paper Series No. 93: 13–31.
  50. ^ Anthony Reid (2010). Imperial Alchemy: Nationalism and Political Identity in Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0521872379.
  51. ^ Marie-Sybille de Vienne (2015). Brunei: From the Age of Commerce to the 21st Century. NUS Press. pp. 41–44. ISBN 978-9971698188.
  52. ^ Glover, Ian; Bellwood, Peter, eds. (2004). Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. London, England: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-415-29777-6.
  53. ^ Scott, William Henry (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 978-971-550-135-4. from the original on February 3, 2024. Retrieved October 18, 2015.
  54. ^ Shambaugh, David L. et al. (2008). International Relations of Asia, p. 54 n15., p. 54, at Google Books citing the 1818 Collected Statutes of the Qing Dynasty (DaQing hui-tien)

Sources edit

  • Bielenstein, Hans (2005), Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World, 589-1276, Brill, ISBN 978-90-474-0761-4
  • Chu, Samuel C.; Liu, K.C., eds. (1994), Li Hung-Chang and China's Early Modernization, Routledge, ISBN 1563242427
  • de Klundert, Theo van (2013), Capitalism and Democracy: A Fragile Alliance, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited
  • Lee, Ji-Young (2017), China's Hegemony: Four Hundred Years of East Asian Domination, Columbia University Press
  • Fairbank, John King, ed. (1968). The Chinese World Order; Traditional China's Foreign Relations. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  • Perdue, Peter C. (2009). "China and Other Colonial Empires". Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 16: 85–103. doi:10.1163/187656109793645706.
  • ——— (2015). "The Tenacious Tributary System". Journal of Contemporary China. 24 (96): 1002–1014. doi:10.1080/10670564.2015.1030949. S2CID 142685195.
  • Smits, Gregory (1999), Visions of Ryukyu: identity and ideology in early-modern thought and politics, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-8248-2037-1, retrieved June 20, 2011
  • Robinson, David M. (2009). Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols. Harvard University Press. p. 49. ISBN 9780674036086. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  • Siu, Yiu (2023), "The Cessation of Zheng He's Voyages and the Beginning of Private Sailings: Fiscal Competition between Emperors and Bureaucrats", Journal of Chinese History, 8: 95–114, doi:10.1017/jch.2022.45, S2CID 258586977
  • Westad, Odd Arne (2012). Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 9780465019335.

Further reading edit

Library resources about
Tributary system of China
  • Cohen, Warren I. . East Asia at the Center : Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. ISBN 0231101082.
  • Fairbank, John K.; Teng, S.Y. (1941). "On the Ch'ing Tributary System". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 6 (2): 135–246. doi:10.2307/2718006. JSTOR 2718006.
  • Kang, David C., et al. "War, Rebellion, and Intervention under Hierarchy: Vietnam–China Relations, 1365 to 1841." Journal of Conflict Resolution 63.4 (2019): 896–922. online
  • Kang, David C. "International Order in Historical East Asia: Tribute and Hierarchy Beyond Sinocentrism and Eurocentrism." International Organization (2019): 1-29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818319000274
  • Song, Nianshen (Summer 2012). "'Tributary' from a Multilateral and Multilayered Perspective". Chinese Journal of International Politics. 5 (2): 155–182. doi:10.1093/cjip/pos005. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
  • Smits, Gregory (2019), Maritime Ryukyu, 1050-1650, University of Hawaii Press
  • Swope, Kenneth M. "Deceit, Disguise, and Dependence: China, Japan, and the Future of the Tributary System, 1592–1596." International History Review 24.4 (2002): 757–782.
  • Wang, Zhenping (2013), Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War, University of Hawaii Press
  • Wills, John E. Past and Present in China's Foreign Policy: From "Tribute System" to "Peaceful Rise". Portland, ME: MerwinAsia, 2010. ISBN 9781878282873.
  • Womack, Brantly. "Asymmetry and China's tributary system." Chinese Journal of International Politics 5.1 (2012): 37–54. online
  • Zhang, Yongjin, and Barry Buzan. "The tributary system as international society in theory and practice." Chinese Journal of International Politics 5.1 (2012): 3-36.
  • Zhou, Xiuqin (2009), Zhaoling: The Mausoleum of Emperor Tang Taizong, Sino-Platonic Papers

January 01, 1970
tributary, system, china, tributary, system, china, simplified, chinese, 中华朝贡体系, traditional, chinese, 中華朝貢體系, pinyin, zhōnghuá, cháogòng, tǐxì, cefeng, system, simplified, chinese, 册封体制, traditional, chinese, 冊封體制, pinyin, cèfēng, tǐzhì, height, network, loos. The tributary system of China simplified Chinese 中华朝贡体系 traditional Chinese 中華朝貢體系 pinyin Zhōnghua chaogong tǐxi or Cefeng system simplified Chinese 册封体制 traditional Chinese 冊封體制 pinyin Cefeng tǐzhi at its height was a network of loose international relations centered around China which facilitated trade and foreign relations by acknowledging China s hegemonic role within a Sinocentric world order It involved multiple relationships of trade military force diplomacy and ritual The other states had to send a tributary envoy to China on schedule who would kowtow to the Chinese emperor as a form of tribute and acknowledge his superiority and precedence The other countries followed China s formal ritual in order to keep the peace with the more powerful neighbor and be eligible for diplomatic or military help under certain conditions Political actors within the tributary system were largely autonomous and in almost all cases virtually independent 1 China yellow and its tributaries orange 1820 A mural from the Qianling Mausoleum in Shaanxi 706 Foreign ambassadors are being received at court The bald man in the middle is from the West and the man to his right is from Silla Scholars differ on the nature of China s relations with its neighbors in traditional times Many describe a system that embodied a collection of institutions social and diplomatic conventions and institutions that dominated China s contacts with the non Chinese world for two millennia until the collapse of the system around the end of the 19th century 2 Other scholars like Odd Arne Westad see a variety of relationships that differed in character not an overall tributary system They suggest a Sinocentric system in which Chinese culture was central to the self identification of many elite groups in the surrounding Asian countries 3 By the late 19th century China had become part of a European style community of sovereign states and established diplomatic relations with other countries in the world following international law 4 Some scholars have suggested that the tributary system is a model for understanding international relations in East Asia today while others argue that the concept is misleading both about relations in early modern times and today 5 Contents 1 Definition 2 In practice 2 1 Legitimacy 2 2 Autonomy 2 3 Tribute 2 4 Culture 2 5 Rituals 3 History 3 1 Korea 3 2 Japan 3 3 Thailand 3 4 Vietnam 3 5 Ryukyu Kingdom 3 6 Maritime Southeast Asia 4 See also 5 References 5 1 Citations 5 2 Sources 6 Further readingDefinition edit nbsp Envoys from Baekje Goguryeo and Silla Painting produced 7th century AD by Yan Liben c 600 673 The term tribute system is a Western invention There was no equivalent term in the Chinese lexicon to describe what would be considered the tribute system today nor was it envisioned as an institution or system John King Fairbank and Teng Ssu yu created the tribute system theory in a series of articles in the early 1940s to describe a set of ideas and practices developed and perpetuated by the rulers of China over many centuries 6 The concept was developed and became influential after 1968 when Fairbank edited and published a conference volume The Chinese World Order with fourteen essays on China s pre modern relations with Vietnam Korea Inner Asia and Tibet Southeast Asia and the Ryukyus as well as an Introduction and essays describing Chinese views of the world order The model presents the tribute system as an extension of the hierarchic and nonegalitarian Confucian social order 7 Tribute points out Peter C Perdue the historian of Qing dynasty foreign relations is the inadequate translation for gong a term with multiple meanings in classical Chinese since its root meaning of gift giving from inferiors to superiors applied to all personal relationships Fairbank s concept of tribute system turned a flexible practice with multiple meanings into an overly formalized ritual system in which gong always had the same meanings and gong ritual was exclusively and predominately a marker of foreign relations whereas the Qing conducted many diverse forms of tributary ritual 8 nbsp The Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang 6th century painting in National Museum of China Tributary envoys from right to left Uar Hephthalites Persia Baekje Korea Qiuci Wo Japan Langkasuka in present day Malaysia Dengzhi 鄧至 Qiang Ngawa Zhouguke 周古柯 Hebatan 呵跋檀 Humidan 胡密丹 Baiti 白題 similar to the Hephthalite people who dwell close to Hephthalite Mo Qiemo Attributed to Xiao Yi 9 In practice edit nbsp A Ming era painting of a tribute giraffe which was thought to be a Qilin by court officials from Bengal Legitimacy edit The tribute system is often associated with a Confucian world order under which neighboring states complied and participated in the tribute system to secure guarantees of peace investiture and trading opportunities 10 One member acknowledged another s position as superior and the superior would bestow investiture upon them in the form of a crown official seal and formal robes to confirm them as king 11 The practice of investing non Chinese neighbors had been practiced since ancient times as a concrete expression of the loose reign policy 12 The rulers of Joseon in particular sought to legitimize their rule through reference to Chinese symbolic authority On the opposite side of the tributary relationship spectrum was Japan whose leaders could hurt their own legitimacy by identifying with Chinese authority 13 In these politically tricky situations sometimes a false king was set up to receive investiture for the purposes of tribute trade 14 Autonomy edit In practice the tribute system only became formalized during the early years of the Ming dynasty 15 Actors within the tribute system were virtually autonomous and carried out their own agendas despite sending tribute as was the case with Japan Korea Ryukyu and Vietnam 16 Chinese influence on tributary states was almost always non interventionist in nature and tributary states normally could expect no military assistance from Chinese armies should they be invaded 17 18 Tribute edit The tribute entailed a foreign court sending envoys and exotic products to the Chinese emperor The emperor then gave the envoys gifts in return and permitted them to trade in China Presenting tribute involved theatrical subordination but usually not political subordination The political sacrifice of participating actors was simply symbolic obeisance 15 Nor were states that sent tribute forced to mimic Chinese institutions for example in cases such as the Inner Asians who basically ignored the trappings of Chinese government Instead they manipulated Chinese tribute practices for their own financial benefit 19 The gifts doled out by the Ming emperor and the trade permits granted were of greater value than the tribute itself so tribute states sent as many tribute missions as they could In 1372 the Hongwu Emperor restricted tribute missions from Joseon and six other countries to just one every three years The Ryukyu Kingdom was not included in this list and sent 57 tribute missions from 1372 to 1398 an average of two tribute missions per year Since geographical density and proximity was not an issue regions with multiple kings such as the Sultanate of Sulu benefited immensely from this exchange 14 After 1435 the Ming dynasty urged foreign delegations to leave and stopped offering transport assistance for visiting missions The size of delegations was restricted from hundreds of people to less than a dozen and the frequency of tributary missions was also reduced 20 The practice of giving gifts of greater value than the tribute itself was not practiced by the Mongol led Yuan dynasty court with Goryeo Gifts conferred by the Yuan were worth a fraction of the tribute offered by Goryeo 21 Culture edit Participation in a tributary relationship with a Chinese dynasty could also be predicated on cultural or civilizational motivations rather than material and monetary benefits The Korean kingdom of Joseon did not treat the Manchu led Qing dynasty which invaded Joseon and forced it to become a tributary in 1636 in the same way as the Han led Ming dynasty Joseon had continued to support the Ming in their wars against the Qing despite incurring military retaliation from the latter The Manchus were viewed as barbarians by the Korean court which regarding itself as the new Confucian ideological center in place of the Ming continued to use the Ming calendar and era names in defiance of the Qing despite sending tribute missions 22 Meanwhile Japan avoided direct contact with Qing China and instead manipulated embassies from neighboring Joseon and Ryukyu to make it falsely appear as though they came to pay tribute 23 Joseon Korea remained a tributary of Qing China until 1895 when the First Sino Japanese War ended this relationship Rituals edit The Chinese tributary system required a set of rituals from the tributary states whenever they sought relations with China as a way of regulating diplomatic relations 24 The main rituals generally included The sending of missions by tributary states to China 24 The tributary envoys kowtowing before the Chinese emperor as a symbolic recognition of their inferiority and acknowledgment of their status of a vassal state 24 The presentation of tribute and receipt of the emperor s vassals gifts 24 The investiture of the tributary state s ruler as the legitimate king of his land 24 After the completion of the rituals the tributary states engaged in their desired business such as trade 24 History editFor a more comprehensive list see List of tributary states of China See also Emperor at home king abroad nbsp Kyrgyz deliver a white horse as a tribute to the Qianlong Emperor of China 1757 soon after the Qing conquest of Xinjiang Soon intensive trade started in Kulja and Chuguchak Kyrgyz horses sheep and goats being traded for Chinese silk and cotton fabrics 25 Tributary relations emerged during the Tang dynasty as Chinese rulers started perceiving foreign envoys bearing tribute as a token of conformity to the Chinese world order 26 The Ming founder Hongwu Emperor adopted a maritime prohibition policy and issued tallies to tribute bearing embassies for missions Missions were subject to limits on the number of persons and items allowed 27 Korea edit The Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang recorded Silla sending women 4 in total all rejected 28 gold silver among other things as tribute to the Tang dynasty 29 30 If Silla indeed served China wholeheartedly by dispatching tributary ships one after another why did King Beopheung use his own reign title This is indeed confusing From then on Silla maintained this erroneous practice for many more years even after Emperor Taizong had learned about it and reproved the Silla ambassador Now they eventually adopted the Tang reign title Although a move out of necessity we may still say that they have been able to correct their mistake 31 Kim Bu sik 1075 1151 writing on the nature of Silla s tributary relationship with China Goryeo s rulers called themselves Great King viewing themselves as the sovereigns of the Goryeo centered world of Northeast Asia They maintained their own Imperial style in their setup of government institutions administrative divisions and own tributary system 32 As the struggle between the Northern Yuan and the Red Turban Rebellion and the Ming remained indecisive Goryeo retained neutrality despite both sides pleading for their assistance in order to break this stalemate As the Ming eventually gained the upper hand Goryeo paid an enormous tribute to Ming in February 1385 consisting of five thousand horses five hundred jin of gold fifty thousand jin of silver and fifty thousand bolts of cotton fabric order to maintain their neutrality 33 Japan edit Early kings of Japan had formal diplomatic inquiries with the Jin dynasty and its successors and were appointed as King of Wa The Emperors of China commonly referred to the ruler of Japan as 倭寇王 wōkouwang wakuō meaning King of Wa while they themselves styled themselves as ōkimi meaning Great King in relation to the Chinese emperor Internally 天皇 tennō meaning heavenly king also used to put the ruler of Japan on the same level as the one of China Between 607 and 838 Japan submitted and sent 19 missions to China under the Sui and Tang dynasties The nature of these bilateral contacts evolved gradually from political and ceremonial acknowledgment to cultural exchanges and the process accompanied the growing commercial ties which developed over time 34 Knowledge was the principal objective of each expedition For example Priests studied Chinese Buddhism Officials studied Chinese government Doctors studied Chinese medicine Painters studied Chinese painting Approximately one third of those who embarked from Japan did not survive to return home 35 Japan under the Ashikaga shogunate again became a tributary of China under the Ming dynasty in 1401 As a result in 1404 Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu who held most of the de facto power in Japan accepted the title King of Japan from the Ming despite the nominal sovereign of Japan still residing in Kyōto Yoshimitsu was the first and only Japanese ruler in the early modern period to accept a Chinese title 36 During the Muromachi period Japan accepted the Ming led worldview This relationship continued until 1549 except the 1411 1432 period when Japan chose to end its recognition of China s regional hegemony and cancel any further tribute missions 37 Membership in the tributary system was a prerequisite for any economic exchange with China In exiting the system Japan relinquished its trade relationship with China 38 Under the rule of the Wanli Emperor Ming China quickly interpreted the Japanese invasions of Korea 1592 1598 which failed as a challenge to the Ming centered predominant worldview and order 39 Thailand edit Thailand was an important Chinese tributary state from the Sui dynasty 581 618 until the Taiping Rebellion of the late Qing dynasty during the mid 19th century 40 The Sukhothai Kingdom the first unified Thai state established official tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty during the reign of King Ram Khamhaeng and Thailand remained a tributary of China until 1853 41 Wei Yuan the 19th century Chinese scholar considered Thailand to be the strongest and most loyal of China s Southeast Asian tributaries citing the time when Thailand offered to directly attack Japan to divert the Japanese in their planned invasions of Korea and the Asian mainland as well as other acts of loyalty to the Ming dynasty 42 Thailand was welcoming and open to Chinese immigrants who dominated commerce and trade and achieved high positions in the government 43 Vietnam edit Vietnam was ruled by China for 1050 years When Vietnam gained independence in 939 it became a tributary of China until 1885 when it became a protectorate of France with the Treaty of Huế 1884 The Le dynasty 1428 1527 and Nguyễn dynasty 1802 1945 adopted the imperial Chinese system with rulers declaring themselves emperors on the Confucian model and attempting to create a Vietnamese imperial tributary system while still remaining a tributary state of China 44 Even though Vietnam was the only sinicized country in Southeast Asia the Ming dynasty treated it with less respect than Korea or the Ryukyu Kingdom 45 The Hongwu Emperor was firmly opposed to military expeditions in Southeast Asia and only rebuked Vietnam s conquest of Champa which had sent tribute missions to China seeking help After the death of Emperor Hongwu the Chinese intervened after a Vietnamese general Le Qui Ly usurped the Vietnamese throne 46 The Malacca sultanate sent envoys to China to inform them that while returning to Malacca in 1469 from a trip to China their ship had been driven by a storm to the coast of Vietnam and the Vietnamese killed enslaved and castrated the survivors The Malaccans reported that Vietnam was in control of Champa and that the Vietnamese sought to conquer Malacca but the Malaccans did not fight back because of a lack of permission from the Chinese to engage in war Malacca avoided reciprocating hostilities until they received a letter from the Ming dynasty in which the Ming emperor scolded them ordering the Malaccans to raise soldiers and retaliate if the Vietnamese attacked 47 According to a 2018 study in the Journal of Conflict Resolution covering Vietnam China relations from 1365 to 1841 the Vietnamese court explicitly recognized its unequal status in its relations with China through a number of institutions and norms Due to their participation in the tributary system Vietnamese rulers behaved as though China was not a threat and paid very little military attention to it Rather Vietnamese leaders were clearly more concerned with quelling chronic domestic instability and managing relations with kingdoms to their south and west 48 Ryukyu Kingdom edit From the late 14th to early 16th centuries the Ryukyu Kingdom served an important position in the Ming s tributary order as they became a key intermediary for the Ming s trade with Northeast and Southeast Asia through goods funnelled into Ming Ryukyu tribute missions Ryukyu s intermediary role was also facilitated by Chinese diaspora communities who settled in Ryukyu and served positions in the Ryukyu court 49 Maritime Southeast Asia edit The Sultanate of Malacca and the Sultanate of Brunei sent tribute to the Ming dynasty with their first rulers personally traveling to China with the Imperial fleets 50 51 In the Philippine islands trade with China is believed to have begun during the Tang dynasty and expanded during the Song dynasty 52 by the second millennium AD some polities were part of the tributary system of China 53 177 178 between them the Sultanate of Sulu 54 See also editEmperor of China List of recipients of tribute from China List of tributary states of China Ming dynasty List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty Tian Heaven Shangdi God Tianxia All Under Heaven Tian Chao Dynasty of Heaven Tian Kehan Khan of Heaven Tian Ming Mandate of Heaven Tianzi Son of Heaven Pax Sinica Tributary state Emperor at home king abroad East Asian cultural sphere Little China ideology Mandala political model References editCitations edit ChuLiu 1994 p 177 Zhang Yongjin The Tribute System Oxford Bibliographies retrieved September 27 2023 Westad 2012 p 10 Rowe William 2010 China s Last Empire The Great Qing Harvard University Press p 211 ISBN 9780674054554 Retrieved September 27 2023 Perdue 2015 p 1002 Lee 2017 pp 28 29 Perdue 2015 p 1005 Perdue 2009 p 85 Zhou 2009 p 154 Lee 2017 p 9 Lee 2017 p 13 Lee 2017 p 33 Lee 2017 p 3 a b Smits 2019 p 65 a b Lee 2017 p 12 Lee 2017 p 15 16 Smits 2019 p 35 de Klundert 2013 p 176 Lee 2017 p 17 Siu 2023 p 7 12 Robinson 2009 p 48 Lee 2017 p 23 Lee 2017 p 24 a b c d e f Khong Y F 2013 The American Tributary System The Chinese Journal of International Politics 6 1 1 47 doi 10 1093 cjip pot002 ISSN 1750 8916 Millward James A 2007 Eurasian crossroads a history of Xinjiang Columbia University Press pp 45 47 ISBN 978 0231139243 Lee 2017 p 18 2014 p 19 sfn error no target CITEREF2014 help Bielenstein 2005 p 142 199 Old Book of Tang 新罗国 武德四年 遣使朝贡 贞观五年 遣使献女乐二人 皆鬒发美色 开元十六年 遣使来献方物 又上表请令人就中国学问经教 上许之 大历二年 宪英卒 国人立其子干运为王 仍遣其大臣金隐居奉表入朝 贡方物 请加册命 八年 遣使来朝 并献金 银 牛黄 鱼牙纳朝霞䌷等 九年至十二年 比岁遣使来朝 或一岁再至 元和四年 遣使金陆珍等来朝贡 五年 王子金宪章来朝贡 十五年十一月 遣使朝贡 长庆二年十二月 遣使金柱弼朝贡 199 New Book of Tang 新罗国 贞观五年 献女乐二 玄宗开元中 数入朝 献果下马 朝霞䌷 鱼牙䌷 海豹皮 又献二女 Wang 2013 p 96 Breuker Remco E 2010 Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea 918 1170 History Ideology and Identity in the Koryŏ Dynasty BRILL ISBN 9789004183254 Robinson David M Rethinking the Late Koryŏ in an International Context Korean Studies vol 41 2017 pp 75 98 JSTOR JSTOR 44508440 Accessed 11 Dec 2022 Fogel Joshua A 2009 Articulating the Sinosphere Sino Japanese Relations in Space and Time pp 102 107 Hoffman Michael Cultures Combined in the Mists of Time Origins of the China Japan relationship Asia Pacific Journal Japan Focus February 3 2006 reprinting article in Japan Times January 29 2006 Lee 2017 p 19 Howe Christopher The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy Development and Technology in Asia p 337 Joshua Fogel Articulating the Sinosphere Sino Japanese Relations in Space and Time Cambridge MA Harvard University Press 2009 p 27 Goodrich Luther Carrington et al 1976 https books google com books id JWpF dObxW8C amp pg PA1316Dictionary of Ming biography 1368 1644 p 1316 at Google Books note the economic benefit of the Sinocentric tribute system was profitable trade The tally trade kangō bōeki or kanhe maoyi in Chinese was a system devised and monitored by the Chinese see Nussbaum Louis Frederic et al 2005 Japan Encyclopedia p 471 Swope Kenneth Beyond Turtleboats Siege Accounts from Hideyoshi s Second Invasion of Korea 1597 1598 PDF Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies 761 Archived from the original PDF on 2013 11 03 Retrieved 2013 09 07 At this point in 1593 the war entered a stalemate during which intrigues and negotiations failed to produce a settlement As the suzerain of Joseon Korea Ming China exercised tight control over the Koreans during the war At the same time Ming China negotiated bilaterally with Japan while often ignoring the wishes of the Korean government Gambe Annabelle R 2000 Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia LIT Verlag Munster p 99 ISBN 9783825843861 Retrieved 19 July 2016 Chinvanno Anuson 1992 06 18 Thailand s Policies towards China 1949 54 Springer p 24 ISBN 9781349124305 Retrieved 19 July 2016 Leonard Jane Kate 1984 Wei Yuan and China s Rediscovery of the Maritime World Harvard Univ Asia Center pp 137 138 ISBN 9780674948556 Retrieved 19 July 2016 Gambe Annabelle R 2000 Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia LIT Verlag Munster pp 100 101 ISBN 9783825843861 Retrieved 19 July 2016 Alexander Woodside 1971 Vietnam and the Chinese model a comparative study of Vietnamese and Chinese government in the first half of the nineteenth century reprint illustrated ed Harvard Univ Asia Center p 234 ISBN 0 674 93721 X Retrieved June 20 2011 Dreyer Edward L 1982 Early Ming China A political history 1355 1435 Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 1105 0 Edward L Dreyer 1982 Early Ming China a political history 1355 1435 Stanford University Press p 117 ISBN 0 8047 1105 4 Retrieved 2010 11 28 Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Straits Branch Reinhold Rost 1887 Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo China reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society from Dalrymple s Oriental Repertory and the Asiatic Researches and Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Volume 1 Trubner amp Co p 252 Retrieved 2011 01 09 David C Kang et al War Rebellion and Intervention under Hierarchy Vietnam China Relations 1365 to 1841 Journal of Conflict Resolution 63 4 2019 896 922 online Geoff Wade July 2007 Ryukyu in the Ming Reign Annals 1380s 1580s Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series No 93 13 31 Anthony Reid 2010 Imperial Alchemy Nationalism and Political Identity in Southeast Asia Cambridge University Press p 51 ISBN 978 0521872379 Marie Sybille de Vienne 2015 Brunei From the Age of Commerce to the 21st Century NUS Press pp 41 44 ISBN 978 9971698188 Glover Ian Bellwood Peter eds 2004 Southeast Asia From Prehistory to History London England RoutledgeCurzon p 267 ISBN 978 0 415 29777 6 Scott William Henry 1994 Barangay Sixteenth century Philippine Culture and Society Quezon City Philippines Ateneo de Manila University Press ISBN 978 971 550 135 4 Archived from the original on February 3 2024 Retrieved October 18 2015 Shambaugh David L et al 2008 International Relations of Asia p 54 n15 p 54 at Google Books citing the 1818 Collected Statutes of the Qing Dynasty DaQing hui tien Sources edit Bielenstein Hans 2005 Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World 589 1276 Brill ISBN 978 90 474 0761 4 Chu Samuel C Liu K C eds 1994 Li Hung Chang and China s Early Modernization Routledge ISBN 1563242427 de Klundert Theo van 2013 Capitalism and Democracy A Fragile Alliance Edward Elgar Publishing Limited Lee Ji Young 2017 China s Hegemony Four Hundred Years of East Asian Domination Columbia University Press Fairbank John King ed 1968 The Chinese World Order Traditional China s Foreign Relations Cambridge Harvard University Press Perdue Peter C 2009 China and Other Colonial Empires Journal of American East Asian Relations 16 85 103 doi 10 1163 187656109793645706 2015 The Tenacious Tributary System Journal of Contemporary China 24 96 1002 1014 doi 10 1080 10670564 2015 1030949 S2CID 142685195 Smits Gregory 1999 Visions of Ryukyu identity and ideology in early modern thought and politics Honolulu HI University of Hawaii Press ISBN 0 8248 2037 1 retrieved June 20 2011 Robinson David M 2009 Empire s Twilight Northeast Asia Under the Mongols Harvard University Press p 49 ISBN 9780674036086 Retrieved 8 June 2019 Siu Yiu 2023 The Cessation of Zheng He s Voyages and the Beginning of Private Sailings Fiscal Competition between Emperors and Bureaucrats Journal of Chinese History 8 95 114 doi 10 1017 jch 2022 45 S2CID 258586977 Westad Odd Arne 2012 Restless Empire China and the World since 1750 New York Basic Books ISBN 9780465019335 Further reading editLibrary resources about Tributary system of China Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Cohen Warren I East Asia at the Center Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World New York Columbia University Press 2000 ISBN 0231101082 Fairbank John K Teng S Y 1941 On the Ch ing Tributary System Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6 2 135 246 doi 10 2307 2718006 JSTOR 2718006 Kang David C et al War Rebellion and Intervention under Hierarchy Vietnam China Relations 1365 to 1841 Journal of Conflict Resolution 63 4 2019 896 922 online Kang David C International Order in Historical East Asia Tribute and Hierarchy Beyond Sinocentrism and Eurocentrism International Organization 2019 1 29 DOI https doi org 10 1017 S0020818319000274 Song Nianshen Summer 2012 Tributary from a Multilateral and Multilayered Perspective Chinese Journal of International Politics 5 2 155 182 doi 10 1093 cjip pos005 Retrieved 11 July 2016 Smits Gregory 2019 Maritime Ryukyu 1050 1650 University of Hawaii Press Swope Kenneth M Deceit Disguise and Dependence China Japan and the Future of the Tributary System 1592 1596 International History Review 24 4 2002 757 782 Wang Zhenping 2013 Tang China in Multi Polar Asia A History of Diplomacy and War University of Hawaii Press Wills John E Past and Present in China s Foreign Policy From Tribute System to Peaceful Rise Portland ME MerwinAsia 2010 ISBN 9781878282873 Womack Brantly Asymmetry and China s tributary system Chinese Journal of International Politics 5 1 2012 37 54 online Zhang Yongjin and Barry Buzan The tributary system as international society in theory and practice Chinese Journal of International Politics 5 1 2012 3 36 Zhou Xiuqin 2009 Zhaoling The Mausoleum of Emperor Tang Taizong Sino Platonic Papers Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Tributary system of China amp oldid 1220937867, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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