fbpx
Wikipedia

Barbary slave trade

The Barbary slave trade involved the capture and selling of European slaves at slave markets in the Barbary states. European slaves were captured by Barbary pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal towns from Italy to the Netherlands, Ireland and the southwest of Britain, as far north as Iceland and into the Eastern Mediterranean.

The redemption (buying back) of Christian captives by Mercedarian friars in the Barbary states.
The Barbary Coast.

The Ottoman Eastern Mediterranean was the scene of intense piracy.[1] As late as the 18th century, piracy continued to be a "consistent threat to maritime traffic in the Aegean".[2]

Extent edit

 
Turk and clergyman with Christian slaves. Jan Luyken, 1684.

The authorities of Ottoman and pre-Ottoman times kept no relevant official records, but observers estimated that around 35,000 European slaves were held throughout the 17th century on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli and Tunis, but mostly in Algiers.[3][4][5][6] The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Italy.[7]

Robert Davis, author of Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters, estimates that slave traders from Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli enslaved 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans in North Africa, from the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th century.[8] To extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates remained roughly constant for a 250-year period.[9]

Other historians have challenged Davis's numbers.[9]

 
Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers. Jan Luyken, 1684

John Wright cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.[10] A second book by Davis, Holy War and Human Bondage: Tales of Christian-Muslim Slavery in the Early-Modern Mediterranean, widened its focus to related slavery.[11]

From bases on the Barbary coast, North Africa, the Barbary pirates raided ships traveling through the Mediterranean and along the northern and western coasts of Africa, plundering their cargo and enslaving the people they captured. From at least 1500, the pirates also conducted raids on seaside towns of Italy, Spain, France, England, the Netherlands, Ireland, and as far away as Iceland, capturing men, women and children. In 1544, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island of Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 2,000–7,000 inhabitants of Lipari.[12][13] In 1551, Ottoman corsair Dragut enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Ottoman Tripolitania. In 1554 corsairs under Dragut sacked Vieste, beheaded 5,000 of its inhabitants, and abducted another 6,000.[14] The Balearic Islands were invaded in 1558, and 4,000 people were taken into slavery.[15] In 1618 the Algerian pirates attacked the Canary Islands taking 1000 captives to be sold as slaves.[16] On some occasions, settlements such as Baltimore in Ireland were abandoned following a raid, only being resettled many years later. Between 1609 and 1616, England alone lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.[17]

 
1816 illustration of Christian slaves in Algiers

While Barbary corsairs looted the cargo of ships they captured, their primary goal was to capture non-Muslim people for sale as slaves or for ransom. Those who had family or friends who might ransom them were held captive; the most famous of these was the author Miguel de Cervantes, who was held for almost five years – from 1575 to 1580. Others were sold into various types of servitude. Captives who converted to Islam were generally freed, since enslavement of Muslims was prohibited; but this meant that they could never return to their native countries.[18][19][need quotation to verify]

Customs' statistics from the 16th and 17th century suggest that Istanbul's additional slave imports from the Black Sea slave trade may have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700.[20] The markets declined after Sweden and the United States defeated the Barbary States in the Barbary Wars (1800–1815). A US Navy expedition under Commodore Edward Preble engaged gunboats and fortifications in Tripoli in 1804. A British diplomatic mission to Algiers led to the Dey to agree to release some Sardinian slaves. However, the moment the British left, the Dey ordered the Sardinians massacred; the same fleet joined by some Dutch warships returned and delivered a nine-hour bombardment of Algiers in 1816 leading to the Dey accepting a new agreement in which he promised to end his slavery operations. Despite this, the trade continued, only ending with the French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847). The Kingdom of Morocco had already suppressed piracy by then.

Origins edit

North African piracy had very ancient origins. It gained a political significance during the 16th century, mainly through Barbarossa (Khayr al-Dīn), who united Algeria and Tunisia as military states under the Ottoman sultanate and maintained his revenues by piracy. With the arrival of powerful Moorish bands in Rabat and Tétouan (1609), Morocco became a new centre for the pirates and for the ʿAlawī sultans, who quickly gained control of the two republics and encouraged piracy as a valuable source of revenue. During the 17th century, the Algerian and Tunisian pirates joined forces, and by 1650 more than 30,000 of their captives were imprisoned in Algiers alone.[21]

The towns on the North African coast were recorded in Roman times for their slave markets, and this trend continued into the medieval age. The Barbary Coast increased in influence in the 15th century, when the Ottoman Empire took over as rulers of the area. Coupled with this was an influx of Sephardi Jews[22] and Moorish refugees, newly expelled from Spain after the Reconquista.

With Ottoman protection and a host of destitute immigrants, the coastline soon became reputed for piracy. Crews from the seized ships were either enslaved or ransomed. Between 1580 and 1680, there were in Barbary around 15,000 renegades, Christian Europeans who converted to Islam, and half of the corsair captains were in fact renegades. Some of them were slaves that converted to Islam but most had probably never been slaves and had come to North Africa looking for opportunity.[23]

Rise of the Barbary pirates edit

 
The bombardment of Algiers in 1682, by Abraham Duquesne.

After a revolt in the mid-17th century reduced the ruling Ottoman Pashas to little more than figureheads in the region, the towns of Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis, and others became independent in all but name. Without a large central authority and its laws, the pirates themselves started to gain much influence.

Pirate raids for the acquisition of slaves occurred in towns and villages on the African Atlantic seaboard, as well as in Europe. Reports of Barbary raids and kidnappings of those in Italy, Spain, France, Portugal, England, Netherlands, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and as far north as Iceland exist from between the 16th to the 19th centuries. Robert Davis estimated that between 1 and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by pirates and sold as slaves in Tunis, Algiers and Tripoli during this time period. The slave trade in Europeans in other parts of the Mediterranean is not included in this estimation. However, other historians such as David Earle have questioned Robert Davis' estimates: “His figures sound a bit dodgy and I think he may be exaggerating.”[24]

Famous accounts of Barbary slave raids include a mention in the diary of Samuel Pepys and a raid on the coastal village of Baltimore, Ireland, during which pirates left with the entire populace of the settlement. The attack was led by a Dutch captain, Jan Janszoon van Haarlem, also known as Murad Reis the Younger. Janszoon also led the 1627 raid on Iceland. About 50 people were killed and close to 400 captured and sold into slavery.[25] Such raids in the Mediterranean were so frequent and devastating that the coastline between Venice and Málaga[26] suffered widespread depopulation, and settlement there was discouraged. In fact, it was said that "there was no one left to capture any longer."[23]

In 1627 a group known as the Salé Rovers, from the Republic of Salé (now Salé in Morocco) occupied Lundy for five years. These Barbary Pirates, under the command of Janszoon, flew an Ottoman flag over the island. Slaving raids were made embarking from Lundy by the Barbary Pirates, and captured Europeans were held on Lundy before being sent to Algiers to be sold as slaves.[27][28][29][30]

The power and influence of these pirates during this time was such that nations including the United States paid tribute to stave off their attacks.[31]

An account of the later phase of the trade was published in 1740 by Englishman Thomas Pellow, who had escaped from Morocco after 21 years of slavery, having been captured from a ship in 1716 as an 11-year-old boy.[32]

Slave sources by nation edit

Between the 16th-century and the early 19th-century, the Barbary slave trade in South and West Europe was one of two major slave routes for European slaves to the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, the other being the contemporary Crimean slave trade in Eastern Europe.

The Barbary corsairs attacked a number of different nations in Southern and Western Europe, as well as the Americas. Some of the nations were exclusively attacked by sea, while others were also subjected to slave raids on land. Each nation had their own policy in order to address the issue, and different European governments maintained negotiations with the Barbary states in order to pay ransom for captives, prevent attacks on their ships or raids on their coasts.

Britain and Ireland edit

Britain and Ireland were attacked by the Barbary Corsairs pirates both on sea and by raids on land. The Irish Sea was infamous for being frequented by barbary pirates.

In 1620–1621, the government of James VI and I maintained long negotiations to prevent attacks, but did not succeed.[33]

In the 1620s and 1640s, the coasts of Cornwall and Devon in England, as well as Southern Ireland, were subjected to slave raids by barbary corsairs, who raided the coasts after having attacked ships outside of the coasts. Women were particularly prioritised as captives by the corsairs.[34] The Southwest of England was subjected to repeated slave raids by barbary corsairs in 1625–1626.[33] In the summer of 1625, the barbary corsairs attacked ships in the Bristol Channel, which was followed by slave raids in Mount's Bay, from which around sixty men, women and children were abducted to slavery.[34] In 1645, around 200 men, women and children were abducted by a big slave raid near Fowey in Cornwall and taken as slaves to North Africa.[35] The number of captives at this occasion was possibly as high as 240, some of whom were "gentlewomen".[34]

The perhaps most historically famous of the British and Irish slave raids was the Sack of Baltimore by corsairs from Alger toward the coastal village of Baltimore in West Cork in Ireland on 20 June 1631, which was the largest slave raid by Barbary slave traders on Ireland.[36][37] A couple of years after the Sack of Baltimore of 1631, the Irish village of Dungarvan were also attacked by a slave raid resulting in around fifty captives.[34]

England assigned agents to North Africa to buy back English citizens, who were being held as slaves. In December 1640, the situation was so serious that a government committee, the Committee for Algiers, was formed to buy back English slaves from Algeria, which was then estimated to reach a number between 3,000 and 5,000 just in the city of Alger.[38] In 1643 so many English people had been taken as slaves to Alger that the English government called for a national collection of ransom money from all the churches in the Kingdom to make it possible to buy them free. To buy female slaves free was much more expensive than buying back male slaves.[39]

Among the British victims of the Barbary slave trade were Helen Gloag, Lalla Balqis, Elizabeth Marsh and Thomas Pellow. [40]

Denmark-Norway edit

The Kingdom of Denmark-Norway were attacked by the barbary corsairs both on sea and by slave raids.

The Faroe Islands, which belonged to Denmark, were subjected to repeated slave raids by the barbary corsairs in the 16th- and 18th-century. In 1607, the Faroe Islands were raided by the corsairs who abducted many people to slavery.[41]

The most famous slave raid on the Faroe Islands where the Slave raid of Suðuroy in the summer of 1629, in which thirty people were abducted to slavery, from which they never returned.[42]

The Danish–Algerian War from 1769 to 1772 between Denmark–Norway and Deylik of Algiers took place partially because of the barbary piracy against Dano-Norwegian ships, whose crews were sold in to slavery.

Among the Danish victims of the Barbary slave trade were Hark Olufs.[40]

France edit

The Franco-Ottoman alliance, which lasted between 1536 and 1798, placed France in a different position than other European nations in the context. The Franco-Ottoman alliance formally protected France more than other nations from attacks of the corsairs, who formally were Ottoman subjects. In contrast to other European nations France could complain over the corsairs to the Ottoman sultan, who would be obligated to take action because of the Franco-Ottoman alliance. The Ottoman sultan did not support Ottoman attacks on French ships or raids of French coasts, and in contrast to the attacks on many other nations, the attacks on French ships and coasts were formally considered illegal also by the Ottomans.[43]

In practice however the corsair states of North Africa were Ottoman in name only and did not necessarily respect the obligations of the Ottoman sultan, who had weak control over the provinces, and France were subjected to their attacks despite the Franco-Ottoman alliance.

During the 1550s the French provinces of Provence and Languedoc were devastated by slave razzias by the corsairs, which resulted in French complaints to the Ottoman sultan, and the city of Marseilles petitioned regent Catherine de Medici as well as taking separate measures to liberate enslaved natives and protect their commerce vessels, and reported to have lost twelve galleons aside from a large number of smaller boats.[44]

Sultan Suleyman ordered the corsairs to leave French vessels alone in 1565,[44] out of respect for the alliance. However, such orders from the Ottoman sultans only placed a slight inhibition on the corsairs in regard to France, rather than to protect them fully. There were several slave raids toward France, such as for example in on Northern France close to Calais in 1620.[45]

Among the French victims of the Barbary slave trade were Antoine Qaurtier.[40]

Iceland edit

Iceland was subjected to several slave raids by the corsairs. In 1607, Iceland were raided by the corsairs who abducted many people to slavery.[41]

The most famous slave raid on Iceland was the Turkish Abductions that took place in the summer of 1627.[25] About 400 people were captured and sold into slavery,[25] of whom only 50 individuals returned from slavery by ransom, 9 to 18 years later.[46][25]

Among the Icelandic victims of the Barbary slave trade were Ólafur Egilsson.[40]

Italy edit

Italy was, along with Spain, one of the most seriously affected countries in the context of corsair slave raids. Aside from attacks on Italian ships, the many slave raids were conducted toward Italian coasts by the corsairs during the 16th-century and 17th-century.

Italy, which after the 1550s was associated with the Ottoman arch enemy the Habsburg, was very vulnerable to slave raids, because it was politically fragmented, its coasts lacked fortifications, and it territorial defense forces was weak and dispersed, and the corsair slave raiding along Italian coasts developed in to a full scale industry.[47] As in Spain, the slave raids resulted in the abandonment of coasts and islands, and they were described as "the wretched beaches, the abandoned islands, the fishermen in flight, and the [slaving ships].... loitering past on the sea".[47]

One of the most famous of the slave raids against Italy was the attack by the fleet of Hayreddin Barbarossa on several towns in Southern Italy between July and August 1534, which resulted in devastation, economical losses and thousands of people murdered and enslaved.[48] The contemporary author Gregorio Rosso described the devastating slave raid upon Southern Italy in the summer of 1534:

"In late July he [Barbarossa] passed the lighthouse of Messina, where he burnt some ships, and his rearguard fought with some galleys of Antonio d'Ora, who was in that place. Then they sacked Santo Lucito in Calabria, leaving not a soul alive. After that, close to Citraro, Land of the Benedictine Monks of Montecassino, and as the Citizens fled, he burnt that with seven half-completed galleys, half that were in the Court's service there. From there they went to Pisciotta and on 7 of August passing in sight of Naples with more fear than harm to the City, left men on dry land on the Island of Procita and sacked that Land; not content with this, he attacked Sperlonga without warning, where they say more than a thousand people were made slaves: and finally he sent people to Fondi to seize Donna Giulia Gonzaga to present her to the Great Turk, who desired her for the great fame of her beauty. Fondi was sacked, and Donna Giulia scarcely had time to save herself that night on a horse in her nightgown, just as she was."[49]

The aftermath of the slave raids described "two thousand dead and taken in the pillage" and how it would be necessary with tax exemption for the surviving population for Fondi and Sperlonga in December 1534; how especially women had been targeted for slavery in Sperlonga, were 162 houses had been destroyed; that 1,213 houses in Fondi had been broken in to and valuables of 26,000 ducats had been stolen in that town alone, and that 73 men, women and children had been killed and 150 enslaved from Fondi.[50]

The slave raids continued during the 17th-century. In 1638, the coastal lands of Calabria was devastated by the corsair slave raids.[51]

Rich Italian families often attempted to buy back their captured relatives, and the Senate of the Republic of Venice often made efforts to buy back captured noblemen. During such negotiations, Italian or Jewish merchants were often used as intermediaries.[47]

The slave raids in Spain and Italy damaged the population and in consequence the economy in the entire Mediterranean.[51]

Among the Italian victims of the barbary slave trade were Marthe Franceschini and Felice Caronni. [40]

Malta edit

Malta was subjected to slave raids by the corsairs. In 1551, Turgut Reis and Sinan Pasha raided the islands of Malta and Gozo,[52] and the entire population of Gozo was abducted and sold as slaves in Libya.[53]

The Netherlands edit

No slave raids were performed against the coasts of The Netherlands. Dutch ships were however a frequent target of corsair pirates. The Dutch government regularly assigned agents to buy back Dutch citizens captured and enslaved in North Africa. Dutch slaves were reportedly among the highest priced, and the corsairs demanded higher prices from them than for many other Europeans.[54]

Spain edit

Spain was one of the worst affected areas in all Europe to attacks by the corsairs. Both Spanish ships as well as coasts were subjected to attacks by the corsairs from the early 16th-century onward.

The Corsairs of Tunis mainly raided the Sea and coasts of Italy and Greece, while the Corsairs of Algiers and Morocco frequented the waters and coasts of Spain and Western Europe.[55]

The slave raids on Spain started in the early 16th-century onward. The slave raids grew particularly severe during the 17th-century, when the corsairs abducted the population of entire villages along the Mediterranean coast of Spain, leaving large coastal areas depopulated.[56] In 1637 for example, 315 women and children were captured from the town of Calpe.[56] When the coastal villages depopulated, the Spanish crown was forced to raise the taxes of fish, meat, cattle and silk to finance the construction of fortresses to protect the coast and prevent people from leaving the areas for safer settlements in the interior of the country.[56]

Spanish ships were affected as well. In 1667, so many seamen had been abducted from the Basque provinces that those provinces could no longer fill the quotas of seamen to the Spanish marines.[56]

The slave raids in Spain and Italy damaged the population and in consequence the economy in the entire Mediterranean.[51]

Sweden and Finland edit

No slave raids was ever conducted by corsairs towards the coasts of Sweden and Finland (Finland was a part of Sweden). However, Swedish and Finnish ships were attacked by corsairs in the sea outside of Western Europe and in the Mediterranean.

On 20 November 1662 the Lord High Treasurer of Sweden, Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie received a letter of appeal from eight Swedish sailors who had been abducted by corsairs at sea and was being held in slavery in Alger.[57]

The Swede Johan Gabriel Sparfwenfeldt, who visited Alger and Tunis in 1691, described empathically how he had met and spoken to many Swedish slaves who asked him for help to be bought free and return to "their homes, to their children, their parents and the land of their home",[58] and listed 23 names of the Swedes then held as slaves.[59]

Sweden attempted to protect their ships by use of insurrance against slavery, convoys, international treaties and by maintaining friendly contact with the corsairs. The captives were also bought free by their relatives. This did not only apply to slaves from rich families: many poor women are known to have collected money to buy their husbands and sons free. When the young sailor Erik Persson Ångerman was enslaved in Alger after having taken captured from the ship Wibus from Stockholm on 10 May 1725, he sent a letter to his wife Maria Olssdotter via his colleague Petter Wallberg (who had been bought free and was returning to Sweden) and told her he "sat in hard slavery" in Alger.[60] Maria Olssdotter had no funds to buy his freedom, but appealed to the king via the governor of Gävle for money to be gathered in the churches for the purchase of her enslaved husband, and her application was approved; this was not an unusual case, as many poor women are known to have done the same.[60]

Almost all Swedes and Finns who were captured by the corsairs at sea were sailors. Between about 500 and 1000 Swedish citizens were enslaved by the corsairs between 1650 and 1763.[61]

One of the Swedish victims of the Barbary slave trade was Marcus Berg (1714-1761).[62]

British North America and United States edit

See also: Barbary wars

There were no Barbary land raids in British North America and the later United States. However, the barbary pirates attacked American ships, took American captives and sold them as slaves. Already in 1661, a chronicler wrote “for a long time previous the commerce of Massachussetts was annoyed by Barbary Corsairs and that many of its seamen were held in bondage.”[63]

During the American Revolutionary War, the pirates attacked American ships. On December 20, 1777, Morocco's sultan Mohammed III declared that merchant ships of the new American nation would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage into the Mediterranean and along the coast. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as America's oldest unbroken friendship treaty with a foreign power.[64][65] In 1787, Morocco became one of the first nations to recognize the United States of America.[66]

Starting in the 1780s, realizing that American vessels were no longer under the protection of the British navy, the Barbary pirates had started seizing American ships in the Mediterranean. As the U.S. had disbanded its Continental Navy and had no seagoing military force, its government agreed in 1786 to pay tribute to stop the attacks.[67] On March 20, 1794, at the urging of President George Washington, Congress voted to authorize the building of six heavy frigates and establish the United States Navy, in order to stop these attacks and demands for more and more money.[68]

The United States had signed treaties with all of the Barbary states after its independence was recognized between 1786 and 1794 to pay tribute in exchange for leaving American merchantmen alone, and by 1797, the United States had paid out $1.25 million or a fifth of the government's annual budget then in tribute.[69]

The barbary attacks on American ships was a contributing cause of the Americans participating in the Barbary wars.

Decline edit

 
A US Navy expedition under Commodore Edward Preble engaging gunboats and fortifications in Tripoli, 1804.

In the first years of the 19th century, the United States, allied with European nations, fought and won the First and the Second Barbary Wars against the pirates. The wars were a direct response of the American, British, French and the Dutch states to the raids and the slave trade by the Barbary pirates against them, which ended in the 1830s, when the region was conquered by France. The Barbary slave trade and slave markets in the Mediterranean declined and eventually disappeared after the European occupations.[20]

After an Anglo-Dutch bombardment in 1816 of Algiers on 27 August, led by Admiral Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth, disabled most of the Pirate fleet, the Dey of Algiers was forced to agree to terms which included the release of the surviving 1,200 slaves (mostly from Sardinia) and the cessation of their practice of enslaving Europeans. After being defeated in this period of formal hostilities with European and American powers, the Barbary states went into decline.[20]

The Barbary pirates refused to cease their slaving operations, resulting in another bombardment by a Royal Navy fleet against Algiers in 1824. France invaded Algiers in 1830, placing it under colonial rule. Tunis was similarly invaded by France in 1881. Tripoli returned to direct Ottoman control in 1835, before falling into Italian hands in the 1911 Italo-Turkish War. As such, the slave traders now found that they had to work in accordance with the laws of their governors, and could no longer look to self-regulation. The slave trade ceased on the Barbary coast in the 19th and 20th centuries or when European governments passed laws granting emancipation to slaves.[20]

The word razzia was borrowed via Italian and French from Maghrebi Arabic ghaziya (Arabic: غزية, lit.'raiding'), originally referring to slave raids conducted by Barbary pirates.

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Bradford, Ernle (1968). Sultan's Admiral. the Life of Barbarossa (First ed.). Harcourt Brace World.
  2. ^ Ginio, Eyal (2001). "Piracy and Redemption in the Aegean Sea during the First Half of the Eighteenth Century". Turcica. 33: 135–147. doi:10.2143/TURC.33.0.484. consistent threat to maritime traffic in the Aegean
  3. ^ Ruedy, John Douglas (2005). Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation. Indiana University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-253-34624-7.
  4. ^ Graf, Tobias P. (2017). The Sultan's Renegades: Christian-European Converts to Islam and the Making of the Ottoman Elite, 1575-1610. Oxford University Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-19-879143-0.
  5. ^ Malcolm, Noel (2015). Agents of Empire: Knights, Corsairs, Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth-century Mediterranean World. Oxford University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-19-026278-5.
  6. ^ Levin, Carole; Bertolet, Anna Riehl; Carney, Jo Eldridge (2016-11-03). A Biographical Encyclopedia of Early Modern Englishwomen: Exemplary Lives and Memorable Acts, 1500-1650. Taylor & Francis. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-315-44071-2.
  7. ^ Davis, Robert (17 Feb 2011). "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". BBC.
  8. ^ Davis, Robert C. (2003). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 23. ISBN 978-0333719664.
  9. ^ a b Carroll, Rory (11 Mar 2004). "New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe". the Guardian. Retrieved 26 Sep 2023.
  10. ^ Wright, John (2007). "Trans-Saharan Slave Trade". Routledge. ISBN 978-0415380461.
  11. ^ Robert Davis, Holy War and Human Bondage: Tales of Christian-Muslim Slavery in the Early-Modern Mediterranean, Praeger Series on the Early Modern World (2010). ISBN 978-0275989507
  12. ^ Syed, Muzaffar Husain; Akhtar, Syed Saud; Usmani, B. D. (2011). Concise History of Islam. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN 978-9382573470.
  13. ^ Her Majesty's Commission, State Papers (1849). King Henry the Eighth Volume 10 Part V Foreign Correspondence 1544–45. London.
  14. ^ Mercati, Angelo (1982). Saggi di storia e letteratura, vol. II. Rome.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ^ Carr, Matthew, Blood and Faith: the Purging of Muslim Spain (Leiden, 1968), p. 120.
  16. ^ John Mercer (1980), The Canary Islanders : their prehistory, conquest, and survival, p. 236, Collings.
  17. ^ Rees Davies, "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast", BBC, 1 July 2003
  18. ^ Diego de Haedo, Topografía e historia general de Argel, 3 vols., Madrid, 1927–29.
  19. ^ Daniel Eisenberg, "¿Por qué volvió Cervantes de Argel?", in Ingeniosa invención: Essays on Golden Age Spanish Literature for Geoffrey L. Stagg in Honor of his Eighty-Fifth Birthday, Newark, Delaware, Juan de la Cuesta, 1999, ISBN 978-0936388830, pp. 241–253, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/por-qu-volvi-cervantes-de-argel-0/, retrieved 11/20/2014.
  20. ^ a b c d Eltis, David; Bradley, Keith; Engerman, Stanley L.; Cartledge, Paul (2011). The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521840682.
  21. ^ "Barbary pirate | Definition, Dates, Significance, & Wars | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  22. ^ Gerber, Jane (1992). The Jews of Spain. US: The Free Press. pp. 119–125. ISBN 0029115744.
  23. ^ a b "BBC – History – British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast".
  24. ^ . Ohio State News. 2004-03-08. Archived from the original on 2018-01-22. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
  25. ^ a b c d Þorsteinn Helgason. "Hvaða heimildir eru til um Tyrkjaránið?". Vísindavefurinn (in Icelandic). Retrieved 2020-12-06.
  26. ^ "BBC – History – British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast".
  27. ^ Giles Milton (2005). White Gold: The Forgotten Story of North Africa's One Million European Slaves. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0340895092.
  28. ^ de Bruxelles, Simon (28 February 2007). "Pirates who got away with it". The Times. London. Retrieved 25 November 2007.
  29. ^ Konstam, Angus (2008). Piracy: the complete history. Osprey Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 978-1846032400.
  30. ^ Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 561. ISBN 978-0198201717.
  31. ^ "About this Collection – Thomas Jefferson Papers, 1606–1827".
  32. ^ Milton 2005, p. 267
  33. ^ a b Black, Jeremy (18 August 2011). Jeremy Black: A Brief History of Slavery: A New Global History. Little, Brown Book. ISBN 978-1-84901-732-9.
  34. ^ a b c d Capp, B. (2022). British Slaves and Barbary Corsairs, 1580-1750. Storbritannien: OUP Oxford. p. 31
  35. ^ Boulton, C. (2019). Five Million Tides: A Biography of the Helford River. Storbritannien: History Press.
  36. ^ Domhnaill, Rónán Gearóid Ó (2015-04-28). Fadó Fadó: More Tales of Lesser-Known Irish History. Troubador Publishing Ltd. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-78462-230-5.
  37. ^ Wilson, Peter Lamborn (2003). Pirate Utopias: Moorish Corsairs & European Renegadoes. Autonomedia. pp. 119, 121. ISBN 978-1-57027-158-8.
  38. ^ Barbary Pirates and English Slaves
  39. ^ Milton, G. (2012). White Gold. Storbritannien: John Murray Press.
  40. ^ a b c d e Barbary Captives: An Anthology of Early Modern Slave Memoirs by Europeans in North Africa. (2022). USA: Columbia University Press.
  41. ^ a b Liisberg, H. C. B. (2020). Danmarks søfart og søhandel. Bind 1. Danmark: SAGA Egmont.
  42. ^ Niels Andreas Christian Andersen (1895). Faerøerne, 1600-1709 (in Danish). New York Public Library. G. E. C. Gad. pp. 234–254.
  43. ^ Weiss, G. (2011). Captives and Corsairs: France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean. USA: Stanford University Press. p. 9
  44. ^ a b Weiss, G. (2011). Captives and Corsairs: France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean. USA: Stanford University Press. p. 9
  45. ^ Hershenzon, D. (2018). The Captive Sea: Slavery, Communication, and Commerce in Early Modern Spain and the Mediterranean. USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, Incorporated. p. 25
  46. ^ Þorsteinn Helgason. "Hvað gerðist í Tyrkjaráninu?". Vísindavefurinn (in Icelandic). Retrieved 2019-06-10.
  47. ^ a b c Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297–1797. (2003). Storbritannien: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 455
  48. ^ Peyronel Rambaldi, S. (2021). Giulia Gonzaga: A Gentlewoman in the Italian Reformation. Italien: Viella Libreria Editrice. p. 72-73
  49. ^ Peyronel Rambaldi, S. (2021). Giulia Gonzaga: A Gentlewoman in the Italian Reformation. Italien: Viella Libreria Editrice. p. 72
  50. ^ Peyronel Rambaldi, S. (2021). Giulia Gonzaga: A Gentlewoman in the Italian Reformation. Italien: Viella Libreria Editrice. p. 73
  51. ^ a b c Black, J. (2011). A Brief History of Slavery. Storbritannien: Little, Brown Book Group.
  52. ^ Konstam, A. (2016). The Barbary Pirates 15th-17th Centuries. Storbritannien: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 18
  53. ^ Lando, S. (2010). Europas tungomål I/II. Sverige: Nomen. p. 539
  54. ^ Auchterlonie, P. (2012). Encountering Islam: Joseph Pitts: An English Slave in 17th-century Algiers and Mecca. Storbritannien: Arabian Publishing. p.
  55. ^ Tinniswood, A. (2011). Pirates Of Barbary: Corsairs, Conquests and Captivity in the 17th-Century Mediterranean. Storbritannien: Random House. p. 81
  56. ^ a b c d Giles Milton: White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and North Africa's One
  57. ^ Östlund, J. (2014). Saltets pris: svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650-1770. Sverige: Nordic Academic Press. p. 70
  58. ^ Östlund, J. (2014). Saltets pris: svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650-1770. Sverige: Nordic Academic Press. p. 53-52
  59. ^ Östlund, J. (2014). Saltets pris: svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650-1770. Sverige: Nordic Academic Press. p. 50-56
  60. ^ a b Östlund, J. (2014). Saltets pris: svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650-1770. Sverige: Nordic Academic Press. p. 60-61
  61. ^ Östlund, J. (2014). Saltets pris: svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650-1770. Sverige: Nordic Academic Press. p. 186
  62. ^ Berg, Marcus, Svensk slav i Marocko: en bearbetning av Beskrifning öfwer barbariska slafweriet uti kejsardömet Fez och Marocco i korthet författad af Marcus Berg, som tillika med många andra christna det samma utstådt tvenne år och siu dagar, och derifrån blifwit utlöst tillika med åtta stycken andra swenska den 30 augusti 1756, Textab, Arboga, 1993
  63. ^ (Claudio 2012)–cf. Ralph D. Paine (1923). The Ships and Sailors of Old Salem: The Record of a Brilliant Era of American Achivement. Boston: Charles E. Lauriat Company. p. 22. for a long time previous the commerce of Massachussetts was annoyed by Barbary Corsairs and that many of its seamen were held in bondage.
  64. ^ Roberts, Priscilla H. and Richard S. Roberts, Thomas Barclay 1728–1793: Consul in France, Diplomat in Barbary, Lehigh University Press, 2008, pp. 206–223.
  65. ^ "Milestones of American Diplomacy, Interesting Historical Notes, and Department of State History". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
  66. ^ "Cohen Renews U.S.-Morocco Ties" (mil). U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  67. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, pp. 32–33.
  68. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 33.
  69. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 36-37.

Bibliography edit

  • Claudio, Vicki, ed. (2012). A Pastoral Letter to the Captives. Exagorazo Press. ISBN 978-1441417930.

Further reading edit

  • Ekin, Des (2006). The Stolen Village : Baltimore and the Barbary Pirates. Dublin: The O'Brien Press. ISBN 978-1847171047. OCLC 817925909.
  • Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2006). The Wars of the Barbary Pirates. London: Osprey.
  • Davis, Robert C. (2004). Christian slaves, Muslim masters : white slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800 (Pbk. ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1403945518. OCLC 56443764.
  • Gerber, Jane S. (1992). The Jews of Spain : a history of the Sephardic experience. Mazal Holocaust Collection. Rogers D. Spotswood Collection. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0029115744. OCLC 26503593.
  • . Ohio State News. 2004-03-08. Archived from the original on 2018-01-22. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
  • Charles Sumner (17 February 1847). White Slavery in the Barbary States: A Lecture Before the Boston Mercantile Library Association. W. D. Ticknor.

External links edit

  • British Slaves on the Barbary Coast
  • Seabed gold 'clue to white slavers'
  • America and the Barbary Pirates: An International Battle Against an Unconventional Foe
  • Barbary Captivity Narratives 2019-09-03 at the Wayback Machine
  • Pirates, Privateers and the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean
  • Kythira History

barbary, slave, trade, involved, capture, selling, european, slaves, slave, markets, barbary, states, european, slaves, were, captured, barbary, pirates, slave, raids, ships, raids, coastal, towns, from, italy, netherlands, ireland, southwest, britain, north, . The Barbary slave trade involved the capture and selling of European slaves at slave markets in the Barbary states European slaves were captured by Barbary pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal towns from Italy to the Netherlands Ireland and the southwest of Britain as far north as Iceland and into the Eastern Mediterranean The redemption buying back of Christian captives by Mercedarian friars in the Barbary states The Barbary Coast The Ottoman Eastern Mediterranean was the scene of intense piracy 1 As late as the 18th century piracy continued to be a consistent threat to maritime traffic in the Aegean 2 Contents 1 Extent 2 Origins 3 Rise of the Barbary pirates 4 Slave sources by nation 4 1 Britain and Ireland 4 2 Denmark Norway 4 3 France 4 4 Iceland 4 5 Italy 4 6 Malta 4 7 The Netherlands 4 8 Spain 4 9 Sweden and Finland 4 10 British North America and United States 5 Decline 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 Further reading 10 External linksExtent edit nbsp Turk and clergyman with Christian slaves Jan Luyken 1684 The authorities of Ottoman and pre Ottoman times kept no relevant official records but observers estimated that around 35 000 European slaves were held throughout the 17th century on the Barbary Coast across Tripoli and Tunis but mostly in Algiers 3 4 5 6 The majority were sailors particularly those who were English taken with their ships but others were fishermen and coastal villagers However most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa particularly Italy 7 Robert Davis author of Christian Slaves Muslim Masters estimates that slave traders from Tunis Algiers and Tripoli enslaved 1 million to 1 25 million Europeans in North Africa from the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th century 8 To extrapolate his numbers Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates remained roughly constant for a 250 year period 9 Other historians have challenged Davis s numbers 9 nbsp Christian prisoners are sold as slaves in a square in Algiers Jan Luyken 1684 John Wright cautions that modern estimates are based on back calculations from human observation 10 A second book by Davis Holy War and Human Bondage Tales of Christian Muslim Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean widened its focus to related slavery 11 From bases on the Barbary coast North Africa the Barbary pirates raided ships traveling through the Mediterranean and along the northern and western coasts of Africa plundering their cargo and enslaving the people they captured From at least 1500 the pirates also conducted raids on seaside towns of Italy Spain France England the Netherlands Ireland and as far away as Iceland capturing men women and children In 1544 Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island of Ischia taking 4 000 prisoners and enslaved some 2 000 7 000 inhabitants of Lipari 12 13 In 1551 Ottoman corsair Dragut enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo between 5 000 and 6 000 sending them to Ottoman Tripolitania In 1554 corsairs under Dragut sacked Vieste beheaded 5 000 of its inhabitants and abducted another 6 000 14 The Balearic Islands were invaded in 1558 and 4 000 people were taken into slavery 15 In 1618 the Algerian pirates attacked the Canary Islands taking 1000 captives to be sold as slaves 16 On some occasions settlements such as Baltimore in Ireland were abandoned following a raid only being resettled many years later Between 1609 and 1616 England alone lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates 17 nbsp 1816 illustration of Christian slaves in Algiers While Barbary corsairs looted the cargo of ships they captured their primary goal was to capture non Muslim people for sale as slaves or for ransom Those who had family or friends who might ransom them were held captive the most famous of these was the author Miguel de Cervantes who was held for almost five years from 1575 to 1580 Others were sold into various types of servitude Captives who converted to Islam were generally freed since enslavement of Muslims was prohibited but this meant that they could never return to their native countries 18 19 need quotation to verify Customs statistics from the 16th and 17th century suggest that Istanbul s additional slave imports from the Black Sea slave trade may have totaled around 2 5 million from 1450 to 1700 20 The markets declined after Sweden and the United States defeated the Barbary States in the Barbary Wars 1800 1815 A US Navy expedition under Commodore Edward Preble engaged gunboats and fortifications in Tripoli in 1804 A British diplomatic mission to Algiers led to the Dey to agree to release some Sardinian slaves However the moment the British left the Dey ordered the Sardinians massacred the same fleet joined by some Dutch warships returned and delivered a nine hour bombardment of Algiers in 1816 leading to the Dey accepting a new agreement in which he promised to end his slavery operations Despite this the trade continued only ending with the French conquest of Algeria 1830 1847 The Kingdom of Morocco had already suppressed piracy by then Origins editFurther information Slavery in antiquity and Saqaliba North African piracy had very ancient origins It gained a political significance during the 16th century mainly through Barbarossa Khayr al Din who united Algeria and Tunisia as military states under the Ottoman sultanate and maintained his revenues by piracy With the arrival of powerful Moorish bands in Rabat and Tetouan 1609 Morocco became a new centre for the pirates and for the ʿAlawi sultans who quickly gained control of the two republics and encouraged piracy as a valuable source of revenue During the 17th century the Algerian and Tunisian pirates joined forces and by 1650 more than 30 000 of their captives were imprisoned in Algiers alone 21 The towns on the North African coast were recorded in Roman times for their slave markets and this trend continued into the medieval age The Barbary Coast increased in influence in the 15th century when the Ottoman Empire took over as rulers of the area Coupled with this was an influx of Sephardi Jews 22 and Moorish refugees newly expelled from Spain after the Reconquista With Ottoman protection and a host of destitute immigrants the coastline soon became reputed for piracy Crews from the seized ships were either enslaved or ransomed Between 1580 and 1680 there were in Barbary around 15 000 renegades Christian Europeans who converted to Islam and half of the corsair captains were in fact renegades Some of them were slaves that converted to Islam but most had probably never been slaves and had come to North Africa looking for opportunity 23 Rise of the Barbary pirates editFurther information History of slavery in the Muslim world and Crimean slave trade nbsp The bombardment of Algiers in 1682 by Abraham Duquesne After a revolt in the mid 17th century reduced the ruling Ottoman Pashas to little more than figureheads in the region the towns of Tripoli Algiers Tunis and others became independent in all but name Without a large central authority and its laws the pirates themselves started to gain much influence Pirate raids for the acquisition of slaves occurred in towns and villages on the African Atlantic seaboard as well as in Europe Reports of Barbary raids and kidnappings of those in Italy Spain France Portugal England Netherlands Ireland Scotland Wales and as far north as Iceland exist from between the 16th to the 19th centuries Robert Davis estimated that between 1 and 1 25 million Europeans were captured by pirates and sold as slaves in Tunis Algiers and Tripoli during this time period The slave trade in Europeans in other parts of the Mediterranean is not included in this estimation However other historians such as David Earle have questioned Robert Davis estimates His figures sound a bit dodgy and I think he may be exaggerating 24 Famous accounts of Barbary slave raids include a mention in the diary of Samuel Pepys and a raid on the coastal village of Baltimore Ireland during which pirates left with the entire populace of the settlement The attack was led by a Dutch captain Jan Janszoon van Haarlem also known as Murad Reis the Younger Janszoon also led the 1627 raid on Iceland About 50 people were killed and close to 400 captured and sold into slavery 25 Such raids in the Mediterranean were so frequent and devastating that the coastline between Venice and Malaga 26 suffered widespread depopulation and settlement there was discouraged In fact it was said that there was no one left to capture any longer 23 In 1627 a group known as the Sale Rovers from the Republic of Sale now Sale in Morocco occupied Lundy for five years These Barbary Pirates under the command of Janszoon flew an Ottoman flag over the island Slaving raids were made embarking from Lundy by the Barbary Pirates and captured Europeans were held on Lundy before being sent to Algiers to be sold as slaves 27 28 29 30 The power and influence of these pirates during this time was such that nations including the United States paid tribute to stave off their attacks 31 An account of the later phase of the trade was published in 1740 by Englishman Thomas Pellow who had escaped from Morocco after 21 years of slavery having been captured from a ship in 1716 as an 11 year old boy 32 Slave sources by nation editBetween the 16th century and the early 19th century the Barbary slave trade in South and West Europe was one of two major slave routes for European slaves to the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East the other being the contemporary Crimean slave trade in Eastern Europe The Barbary corsairs attacked a number of different nations in Southern and Western Europe as well as the Americas Some of the nations were exclusively attacked by sea while others were also subjected to slave raids on land Each nation had their own policy in order to address the issue and different European governments maintained negotiations with the Barbary states in order to pay ransom for captives prevent attacks on their ships or raids on their coasts Britain and Ireland edit Britain and Ireland were attacked by the Barbary Corsairs pirates both on sea and by raids on land The Irish Sea was infamous for being frequented by barbary pirates In 1620 1621 the government of James VI and I maintained long negotiations to prevent attacks but did not succeed 33 In the 1620s and 1640s the coasts of Cornwall and Devon in England as well as Southern Ireland were subjected to slave raids by barbary corsairs who raided the coasts after having attacked ships outside of the coasts Women were particularly prioritised as captives by the corsairs 34 The Southwest of England was subjected to repeated slave raids by barbary corsairs in 1625 1626 33 In the summer of 1625 the barbary corsairs attacked ships in the Bristol Channel which was followed by slave raids in Mount s Bay from which around sixty men women and children were abducted to slavery 34 In 1645 around 200 men women and children were abducted by a big slave raid near Fowey in Cornwall and taken as slaves to North Africa 35 The number of captives at this occasion was possibly as high as 240 some of whom were gentlewomen 34 The perhaps most historically famous of the British and Irish slave raids was the Sack of Baltimore by corsairs from Alger toward the coastal village of Baltimore in West Cork in Ireland on 20 June 1631 which was the largest slave raid by Barbary slave traders on Ireland 36 37 A couple of years after the Sack of Baltimore of 1631 the Irish village of Dungarvan were also attacked by a slave raid resulting in around fifty captives 34 England assigned agents to North Africa to buy back English citizens who were being held as slaves In December 1640 the situation was so serious that a government committee the Committee for Algiers was formed to buy back English slaves from Algeria which was then estimated to reach a number between 3 000 and 5 000 just in the city of Alger 38 In 1643 so many English people had been taken as slaves to Alger that the English government called for a national collection of ransom money from all the churches in the Kingdom to make it possible to buy them free To buy female slaves free was much more expensive than buying back male slaves 39 Among the British victims of the Barbary slave trade were Helen Gloag Lalla Balqis Elizabeth Marsh and Thomas Pellow 40 Denmark Norway edit The Kingdom of Denmark Norway were attacked by the barbary corsairs both on sea and by slave raids The Faroe Islands which belonged to Denmark were subjected to repeated slave raids by the barbary corsairs in the 16th and 18th century In 1607 the Faroe Islands were raided by the corsairs who abducted many people to slavery 41 The most famous slave raid on the Faroe Islands where the Slave raid of Suduroy in the summer of 1629 in which thirty people were abducted to slavery from which they never returned 42 The Danish Algerian War from 1769 to 1772 between Denmark Norway and Deylik of Algiers took place partially because of the barbary piracy against Dano Norwegian ships whose crews were sold in to slavery Among the Danish victims of the Barbary slave trade were Hark Olufs 40 France edit The Franco Ottoman alliance which lasted between 1536 and 1798 placed France in a different position than other European nations in the context The Franco Ottoman alliance formally protected France more than other nations from attacks of the corsairs who formally were Ottoman subjects In contrast to other European nations France could complain over the corsairs to the Ottoman sultan who would be obligated to take action because of the Franco Ottoman alliance The Ottoman sultan did not support Ottoman attacks on French ships or raids of French coasts and in contrast to the attacks on many other nations the attacks on French ships and coasts were formally considered illegal also by the Ottomans 43 In practice however the corsair states of North Africa were Ottoman in name only and did not necessarily respect the obligations of the Ottoman sultan who had weak control over the provinces and France were subjected to their attacks despite the Franco Ottoman alliance During the 1550s the French provinces of Provence and Languedoc were devastated by slave razzias by the corsairs which resulted in French complaints to the Ottoman sultan and the city of Marseilles petitioned regent Catherine de Medici as well as taking separate measures to liberate enslaved natives and protect their commerce vessels and reported to have lost twelve galleons aside from a large number of smaller boats 44 Sultan Suleyman ordered the corsairs to leave French vessels alone in 1565 44 out of respect for the alliance However such orders from the Ottoman sultans only placed a slight inhibition on the corsairs in regard to France rather than to protect them fully There were several slave raids toward France such as for example in on Northern France close to Calais in 1620 45 Among the French victims of the Barbary slave trade were Antoine Qaurtier 40 Iceland edit Iceland was subjected to several slave raids by the corsairs In 1607 Iceland were raided by the corsairs who abducted many people to slavery 41 The most famous slave raid on Iceland was the Turkish Abductions that took place in the summer of 1627 25 About 400 people were captured and sold into slavery 25 of whom only 50 individuals returned from slavery by ransom 9 to 18 years later 46 25 Among the Icelandic victims of the Barbary slave trade were olafur Egilsson 40 Italy edit Italy was along with Spain one of the most seriously affected countries in the context of corsair slave raids Aside from attacks on Italian ships the many slave raids were conducted toward Italian coasts by the corsairs during the 16th century and 17th century Italy which after the 1550s was associated with the Ottoman arch enemy the Habsburg was very vulnerable to slave raids because it was politically fragmented its coasts lacked fortifications and it territorial defense forces was weak and dispersed and the corsair slave raiding along Italian coasts developed in to a full scale industry 47 As in Spain the slave raids resulted in the abandonment of coasts and islands and they were described as the wretched beaches the abandoned islands the fishermen in flight and the slaving ships loitering past on the sea 47 One of the most famous of the slave raids against Italy was the attack by the fleet of Hayreddin Barbarossa on several towns in Southern Italy between July and August 1534 which resulted in devastation economical losses and thousands of people murdered and enslaved 48 The contemporary author Gregorio Rosso described the devastating slave raid upon Southern Italy in the summer of 1534 In late July he Barbarossa passed the lighthouse of Messina where he burnt some ships and his rearguard fought with some galleys of Antonio d Ora who was in that place Then they sacked Santo Lucito in Calabria leaving not a soul alive After that close to Citraro Land of the Benedictine Monks of Montecassino and as the Citizens fled he burnt that with seven half completed galleys half that were in the Court s service there From there they went to Pisciotta and on 7 of August passing in sight of Naples with more fear than harm to the City left men on dry land on the Island of Procita and sacked that Land not content with this he attacked Sperlonga without warning where they say more than a thousand people were made slaves and finally he sent people to Fondi to seize Donna Giulia Gonzaga to present her to the Great Turk who desired her for the great fame of her beauty Fondi was sacked and Donna Giulia scarcely had time to save herself that night on a horse in her nightgown just as she was 49 The aftermath of the slave raids described two thousand dead and taken in the pillage and how it would be necessary with tax exemption for the surviving population for Fondi and Sperlonga in December 1534 how especially women had been targeted for slavery in Sperlonga were 162 houses had been destroyed that 1 213 houses in Fondi had been broken in to and valuables of 26 000 ducats had been stolen in that town alone and that 73 men women and children had been killed and 150 enslaved from Fondi 50 The slave raids continued during the 17th century In 1638 the coastal lands of Calabria was devastated by the corsair slave raids 51 Rich Italian families often attempted to buy back their captured relatives and the Senate of the Republic of Venice often made efforts to buy back captured noblemen During such negotiations Italian or Jewish merchants were often used as intermediaries 47 The slave raids in Spain and Italy damaged the population and in consequence the economy in the entire Mediterranean 51 Among the Italian victims of the barbary slave trade were Marthe Franceschini and Felice Caronni 40 Malta edit Malta was subjected to slave raids by the corsairs In 1551 Turgut Reis and Sinan Pasha raided the islands of Malta and Gozo 52 and the entire population of Gozo was abducted and sold as slaves in Libya 53 The Netherlands edit No slave raids were performed against the coasts of The Netherlands Dutch ships were however a frequent target of corsair pirates The Dutch government regularly assigned agents to buy back Dutch citizens captured and enslaved in North Africa Dutch slaves were reportedly among the highest priced and the corsairs demanded higher prices from them than for many other Europeans 54 Spain edit Spain was one of the worst affected areas in all Europe to attacks by the corsairs Both Spanish ships as well as coasts were subjected to attacks by the corsairs from the early 16th century onward The Corsairs of Tunis mainly raided the Sea and coasts of Italy and Greece while the Corsairs of Algiers and Morocco frequented the waters and coasts of Spain and Western Europe 55 The slave raids on Spain started in the early 16th century onward The slave raids grew particularly severe during the 17th century when the corsairs abducted the population of entire villages along the Mediterranean coast of Spain leaving large coastal areas depopulated 56 In 1637 for example 315 women and children were captured from the town of Calpe 56 When the coastal villages depopulated the Spanish crown was forced to raise the taxes of fish meat cattle and silk to finance the construction of fortresses to protect the coast and prevent people from leaving the areas for safer settlements in the interior of the country 56 Spanish ships were affected as well In 1667 so many seamen had been abducted from the Basque provinces that those provinces could no longer fill the quotas of seamen to the Spanish marines 56 The slave raids in Spain and Italy damaged the population and in consequence the economy in the entire Mediterranean 51 Sweden and Finland edit No slave raids was ever conducted by corsairs towards the coasts of Sweden and Finland Finland was a part of Sweden However Swedish and Finnish ships were attacked by corsairs in the sea outside of Western Europe and in the Mediterranean On 20 November 1662 the Lord High Treasurer of Sweden Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie received a letter of appeal from eight Swedish sailors who had been abducted by corsairs at sea and was being held in slavery in Alger 57 The Swede Johan Gabriel Sparfwenfeldt who visited Alger and Tunis in 1691 described empathically how he had met and spoken to many Swedish slaves who asked him for help to be bought free and return to their homes to their children their parents and the land of their home 58 and listed 23 names of the Swedes then held as slaves 59 Sweden attempted to protect their ships by use of insurrance against slavery convoys international treaties and by maintaining friendly contact with the corsairs The captives were also bought free by their relatives This did not only apply to slaves from rich families many poor women are known to have collected money to buy their husbands and sons free When the young sailor Erik Persson Angerman was enslaved in Alger after having taken captured from the ship Wibus from Stockholm on 10 May 1725 he sent a letter to his wife Maria Olssdotter via his colleague Petter Wallberg who had been bought free and was returning to Sweden and told her he sat in hard slavery in Alger 60 Maria Olssdotter had no funds to buy his freedom but appealed to the king via the governor of Gavle for money to be gathered in the churches for the purchase of her enslaved husband and her application was approved this was not an unusual case as many poor women are known to have done the same 60 Almost all Swedes and Finns who were captured by the corsairs at sea were sailors Between about 500 and 1000 Swedish citizens were enslaved by the corsairs between 1650 and 1763 61 One of the Swedish victims of the Barbary slave trade was Marcus Berg 1714 1761 62 British North America and United States edit See also Barbary wars There were no Barbary land raids in British North America and the later United States However the barbary pirates attacked American ships took American captives and sold them as slaves Already in 1661 a chronicler wrote for a long time previous the commerce of Massachussetts was annoyed by Barbary Corsairs and that many of its seamen were held in bondage 63 During the American Revolutionary War the pirates attacked American ships On December 20 1777 Morocco s sultan Mohammed III declared that merchant ships of the new American nation would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage into the Mediterranean and along the coast The Moroccan American Treaty of Friendship stands as America s oldest unbroken friendship treaty with a foreign power 64 65 In 1787 Morocco became one of the first nations to recognize the United States of America 66 Starting in the 1780s realizing that American vessels were no longer under the protection of the British navy the Barbary pirates had started seizing American ships in the Mediterranean As the U S had disbanded its Continental Navy and had no seagoing military force its government agreed in 1786 to pay tribute to stop the attacks 67 On March 20 1794 at the urging of President George Washington Congress voted to authorize the building of six heavy frigates and establish the United States Navy in order to stop these attacks and demands for more and more money 68 The United States had signed treaties with all of the Barbary states after its independence was recognized between 1786 and 1794 to pay tribute in exchange for leaving American merchantmen alone and by 1797 the United States had paid out 1 25 million or a fifth of the government s annual budget then in tribute 69 The barbary attacks on American ships was a contributing cause of the Americans participating in the Barbary wars Decline edit nbsp A US Navy expedition under Commodore Edward Preble engaging gunboats and fortifications in Tripoli 1804 In the first years of the 19th century the United States allied with European nations fought and won the First and the Second Barbary Wars against the pirates The wars were a direct response of the American British French and the Dutch states to the raids and the slave trade by the Barbary pirates against them which ended in the 1830s when the region was conquered by France The Barbary slave trade and slave markets in the Mediterranean declined and eventually disappeared after the European occupations 20 After an Anglo Dutch bombardment in 1816 of Algiers on 27 August led by Admiral Edward Pellew 1st Viscount Exmouth disabled most of the Pirate fleet the Dey of Algiers was forced to agree to terms which included the release of the surviving 1 200 slaves mostly from Sardinia and the cessation of their practice of enslaving Europeans After being defeated in this period of formal hostilities with European and American powers the Barbary states went into decline 20 The Barbary pirates refused to cease their slaving operations resulting in another bombardment by a Royal Navy fleet against Algiers in 1824 France invaded Algiers in 1830 placing it under colonial rule Tunis was similarly invaded by France in 1881 Tripoli returned to direct Ottoman control in 1835 before falling into Italian hands in the 1911 Italo Turkish War As such the slave traders now found that they had to work in accordance with the laws of their governors and could no longer look to self regulation The slave trade ceased on the Barbary coast in the 19th and 20th centuries or when European governments passed laws granting emancipation to slaves 20 The word razzia was borrowed via Italian and French from Maghrebi Arabic ghaziya Arabic غزية lit raiding originally referring to slave raids conducted by Barbary pirates See also editBarbary corsairs Barbary Wars Crimean Nogai raids into East Slavic lands North African slave narratives Republic of Sale Sklavenkasse Slavery in the Ottoman Empire Turkish Abductions Balkan slave trade Black Sea slave tradeReferences edit Bradford Ernle 1968 Sultan s Admiral the Life of Barbarossa First ed Harcourt Brace World Ginio Eyal 2001 Piracy and Redemption in the Aegean Sea during the First Half of the Eighteenth Century Turcica 33 135 147 doi 10 2143 TURC 33 0 484 consistent threat to maritime traffic in the Aegean Ruedy John Douglas 2005 Modern Algeria The Origins and Development of a Nation Indiana University Press p 22 ISBN 978 0 253 34624 7 Graf Tobias P 2017 The Sultan s Renegades Christian European Converts to Islam and the Making of the Ottoman Elite 1575 1610 Oxford University Press p 74 ISBN 978 0 19 879143 0 Malcolm Noel 2015 Agents of Empire Knights Corsairs Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth century Mediterranean World Oxford University Press p 208 ISBN 978 0 19 026278 5 Levin Carole Bertolet Anna Riehl Carney Jo Eldridge 2016 11 03 A Biographical Encyclopedia of Early Modern Englishwomen Exemplary Lives and Memorable Acts 1500 1650 Taylor amp Francis p 79 ISBN 978 1 315 44071 2 Davis Robert 17 Feb 2011 British Slaves on the Barbary Coast BBC Davis Robert C 2003 Christian Slaves Muslim Masters White Slavery in the Mediterranean the Barbary Coast and Italy 1500 1800 Palgrave Macmillan p 23 ISBN 978 0333719664 a b Carroll Rory 11 Mar 2004 New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe the Guardian Retrieved 26 Sep 2023 Wright John 2007 Trans Saharan Slave Trade Routledge ISBN 978 0415380461 Robert Davis Holy War and Human Bondage Tales of Christian Muslim Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean Praeger Series on the Early Modern World 2010 ISBN 978 0275989507 Syed Muzaffar Husain Akhtar Syed Saud Usmani B D 2011 Concise History of Islam Vij Books India Pvt Ltd ISBN 978 9382573470 Her Majesty s Commission State Papers 1849 King Henry the Eighth Volume 10 Part V Foreign Correspondence 1544 45 London Mercati Angelo 1982 Saggi di storia e letteratura vol II Rome a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Carr Matthew Blood and Faith the Purging of Muslim Spain Leiden 1968 p 120 John Mercer 1980 The Canary Islanders their prehistory conquest and survival p 236 Collings Rees Davies British Slaves on the Barbary Coast BBC 1 July 2003 Diego de Haedo Topografia e historia general de Argel 3 vols Madrid 1927 29 Daniel Eisenberg Por que volvio Cervantes de Argel in Ingeniosa invencion Essays on Golden Age Spanish Literature for Geoffrey L Stagg in Honor of his Eighty Fifth Birthday Newark Delaware Juan de la Cuesta 1999 ISBN 978 0936388830 pp 241 253 http www cervantesvirtual com obra por qu volvi cervantes de argel 0 retrieved 11 20 2014 a b c d Eltis David Bradley Keith Engerman Stanley L Cartledge Paul 2011 The Cambridge World History of Slavery Volume 3 AD 1420 AD 1804 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521840682 Barbary pirate Definition Dates Significance amp Wars Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2023 12 07 Gerber Jane 1992 The Jews of Spain US The Free Press pp 119 125 ISBN 0029115744 a b BBC History British History in depth British Slaves on the Barbary Coast When Europeans Were Slaves Research Suggests White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed Ohio State News 2004 03 08 Archived from the original on 2018 01 22 Retrieved 2018 02 27 a b c d THorsteinn Helgason Hvada heimildir eru til um Tyrkjaranid Visindavefurinn in Icelandic Retrieved 2020 12 06 BBC History British History in depth British Slaves on the Barbary Coast Giles Milton 2005 White Gold The Forgotten Story of North Africa s One Million European Slaves Hodder amp Stoughton ISBN 978 0340895092 de Bruxelles Simon 28 February 2007 Pirates who got away with it The Times London Retrieved 25 November 2007 Konstam Angus 2008 Piracy the complete history Osprey Publishing p 91 ISBN 978 1846032400 Davies Norman 1996 Europe A History Oxford University Press p 561 ISBN 978 0198201717 About this Collection Thomas Jefferson Papers 1606 1827 Milton 2005 p 267 a b Black Jeremy 18 August 2011 Jeremy Black A Brief History of Slavery A New Global History Little Brown Book ISBN 978 1 84901 732 9 a b c d Capp B 2022 British Slaves and Barbary Corsairs 1580 1750 Storbritannien OUP Oxford p 31 Boulton C 2019 Five Million Tides A Biography of the Helford River Storbritannien History Press Domhnaill Ronan Gearoid o 2015 04 28 Fado Fado More Tales of Lesser Known Irish History Troubador Publishing Ltd p 33 ISBN 978 1 78462 230 5 Wilson Peter Lamborn 2003 Pirate Utopias Moorish Corsairs amp European Renegadoes Autonomedia pp 119 121 ISBN 978 1 57027 158 8 Barbary Pirates and English Slaves Milton G 2012 White Gold Storbritannien John Murray Press a b c d e Barbary Captives An Anthology of Early Modern Slave Memoirs by Europeans in North Africa 2022 USA Columbia University Press a b Liisberg H C B 2020 Danmarks sofart og sohandel Bind 1 Danmark SAGA Egmont Niels Andreas Christian Andersen 1895 Faeroerne 1600 1709 in Danish New York Public Library G E C Gad pp 234 254 Weiss G 2011 Captives and Corsairs France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean USA Stanford University Press p 9 a b Weiss G 2011 Captives and Corsairs France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean USA Stanford University Press p 9 Hershenzon D 2018 The Captive Sea Slavery Communication and Commerce in Early Modern Spain and the Mediterranean USA University of Pennsylvania Press Incorporated p 25 THorsteinn Helgason Hvad gerdist i Tyrkjaraninu Visindavefurinn in Icelandic Retrieved 2019 06 10 a b c Venice Reconsidered The History and Civilization of an Italian City State 1297 1797 2003 Storbritannien Johns Hopkins University Press p 455 Peyronel Rambaldi S 2021 Giulia Gonzaga A Gentlewoman in the Italian Reformation Italien Viella Libreria Editrice p 72 73 Peyronel Rambaldi S 2021 Giulia Gonzaga A Gentlewoman in the Italian Reformation Italien Viella Libreria Editrice p 72 Peyronel Rambaldi S 2021 Giulia Gonzaga A Gentlewoman in the Italian Reformation Italien Viella Libreria Editrice p 73 a b c Black J 2011 A Brief History of Slavery Storbritannien Little Brown Book Group Konstam A 2016 The Barbary Pirates 15th 17th Centuries Storbritannien Bloomsbury Publishing p 18 Lando S 2010 Europas tungomal I II Sverige Nomen p 539 Auchterlonie P 2012 Encountering Islam Joseph Pitts An English Slave in 17th century Algiers and Mecca Storbritannien Arabian Publishing p Tinniswood A 2011 Pirates Of Barbary Corsairs Conquests and Captivity in the 17th Century Mediterranean Storbritannien Random House p 81 a b c d Giles Milton White Gold The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and North Africa s One Ostlund J 2014 Saltets pris svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650 1770 Sverige Nordic Academic Press p 70 Ostlund J 2014 Saltets pris svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650 1770 Sverige Nordic Academic Press p 53 52 Ostlund J 2014 Saltets pris svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650 1770 Sverige Nordic Academic Press p 50 56 a b Ostlund J 2014 Saltets pris svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650 1770 Sverige Nordic Academic Press p 60 61 Ostlund J 2014 Saltets pris svenska slavar i Nordafrika och handeln i Medelhavet 1650 1770 Sverige Nordic Academic Press p 186 Berg Marcus Svensk slav i Marocko en bearbetning av Beskrifning ofwer barbariska slafweriet uti kejsardomet Fez och Marocco i korthet forfattad af Marcus Berg som tillika med manga andra christna det samma utstadt tvenne ar och siu dagar och derifran blifwit utlost tillika med atta stycken andra swenska den 30 augusti 1756 Textab Arboga 1993 Claudio 2012 cf Ralph D Paine 1923 The Ships and Sailors of Old Salem The Record of a Brilliant Era of American Achivement Boston Charles E Lauriat Company p 22 for a long time previous the commerce of Massachussetts was annoyed by Barbary Corsairs and that many of its seamen were held in bondage Roberts Priscilla H and Richard S Roberts Thomas Barclay 1728 1793 Consul in France Diplomat in Barbary Lehigh University Press 2008 pp 206 223 Milestones of American Diplomacy Interesting Historical Notes and Department of State History U S Department of State Retrieved 2007 12 17 Cohen Renews U S Morocco Ties mil U S Department of Defense Retrieved 2009 03 12 Fremont Barnes 2006 pp 32 33 Fremont Barnes 2006 p 33 Fremont Barnes 2006 p 36 37 Bibliography editClaudio Vicki ed 2012 A Pastoral Letter to the Captives Exagorazo Press ISBN 978 1441417930 Further reading editEkin Des 2006 The Stolen Village Baltimore and the Barbary Pirates Dublin The O Brien Press ISBN 978 1847171047 OCLC 817925909 Fremont Barnes Gregory 2006 The Wars of the Barbary Pirates London Osprey Davis Robert C 2004 Christian slaves Muslim masters white slavery in the Mediterranean the Barbary Coast and Italy 1500 1800 Pbk ed Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1403945518 OCLC 56443764 Gerber Jane S 1992 The Jews of Spain a history of the Sephardic experience Mazal Holocaust Collection Rogers D Spotswood Collection New York Free Press ISBN 0029115744 OCLC 26503593 When Europeans Were Slaves Research Suggests White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed Ohio State News 2004 03 08 Archived from the original on 2018 01 22 Retrieved 2017 10 27 The Thomas Jefferson Papers America and the Barbary Pirates American Memory from the Library of Congress Charles Sumner 17 February 1847 White Slavery in the Barbary States A Lecture Before the Boston Mercantile Library Association W D Ticknor External links edit nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Barbary slave trade When Europeans Were Slaves Research Suggests White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed British Slaves on the Barbary Coast Seabed gold clue to white slavers America and the Barbary Pirates An International Battle Against an Unconventional Foe Barbary Captivity Narratives Archived 2019 09 03 at the Wayback Machine History of Kythera Pirates Privateers and the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean Kythira History Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Barbary slave trade amp oldid 1221270824, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.