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Barbary Wars

April 09, 2024

For the articles examining each war individually, see First Barbary War and Second Barbary War.

The Barbary Wars were a series of two wars fought by the United States, Sweden, and the Kingdom of Sicily against the Barbary states (including Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli) and Morocco of North Africa in the early 19th century. Sweden had been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800 and was joined by the newly independent US.[3][unreliable source?] The First Barbary War extended from 10 May 1801 to 10 June 1805, with the Second Barbary War lasting only three days, ending on 19 June 1815. The Barbary Wars were the first major American war fought entirely outside the New World, and in the Arab World.[4][5]

Barbary Wars

USS Philadelphia burning at the Battle of Tripoli Harbor during the First Barbary War in 1804
DateMay 10, 1801 – June 10, 1805 & June 17–19, 1815
Location
Barbary Coast
Belligerents
 United States
Sweden (1800–1802)
Sicily[1][unreliable source?] (1801–1805)		 Algiers
Tripolitania
Morocco[2] (1802–1804)
Commanders and leaders

The wars were largely a reaction to piracy by the Barbary states. Since the 16th century, North African pirates had captured ships and even raided cities across the Mediterranean Sea. By the 19th century, pirate activity had declined, but Barbary pirates continued to demand tribute from American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean. Refusal to pay would result in the capture of American ships and goods, and often the enslavement or ransoming of crew members.

After Thomas Jefferson became president of the US in March 1801, he sent a U.S. Navy fleet to the Mediterranean to combat the Barbary pirates. The fleet bombarded numerous fortified cities in present-day Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria, ultimately extracting concessions of safe conduct from the Barbary states and ending the first war.

During the War of 1812, with the encouragement of the United Kingdom,[6] the Barbary corsairs resumed their attacks on American vessels. Following the conclusion of the War of 1812 and America's peace with Britain, James Madison, Jefferson's successor, directed military forces against the Barbary states in the Second Barbary War. Lasting only three days, the second conflict ended the need for further tribute from the United States, granted the U.S. full shipping rights in the Mediterranean Sea, and significantly reduced incidence of piracy in the region.[7]

Background edit

The Barbary corsairs were pirates and privateers who operated out of North Africa, based primarily in the ports of Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers. This area was known in Europe as the Barbary Coast, in reference to the Berbers. Their predation extended throughout the Mediterranean, south along West Africa's Atlantic seaboard and even to the eastern coast of Brazil,[8] and into the North Atlantic Ocean as far north as Iceland, but they primarily operated in the western Mediterranean. In addition to seizing ships, they engaged in razzias, raids on European coastal towns and villages, mainly in Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal, but also in England, Scotland, the Netherlands, Ireland, and as far away as Iceland. The main purpose of their attacks was to capture Europeans for the slave market in North Africa.[9]

The Barbary states were nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, but in practice they were independent and the Ottoman government in Constantinople was not involved.[10]

Attacks edit

Since the 1600s, the Barbary pirates had attacked British shipping along the northern coast of Africa, holding captives for ransom or enslaving them. Ransoms were generally raised by families and local church groups. The British became familiar with captivity narratives written by Barbary pirates' prisoners and slaves.[11]

During the American Revolutionary War, the pirates attacked American ships. On December 20, 1777, Morocco's sultan Mohammed III declared that merchant ships of the new American nation would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage into the Mediterranean and along the coast. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as America's oldest unbroken friendship treaty[12][13] with a foreign power. In 1787, Morocco became one of the first nations to recognize the United States.[14]

Starting in the 1780s, realizing that American vessels were no longer under the protection of the British navy, the Barbary pirates seized American ships in the Mediterranean. As the U.S. had disbanded its Continental Navy and had no seagoing military force, its government agreed in 1786 to pay tribute to stop the attacks.[15] On March 20, 1794, at the urging of President George Washington, Congress voted to authorize the building of six heavy frigates and establish the United States Navy, in order to stop these attacks and demands for more and more money.[16] The United States had signed treaties with all of the Barbary states after its independence was recognized between 1786 and 1794 to pay tribute in exchange for leaving American merchantmen alone, and by 1797, the United States had paid out $1.25 million or a fifth of the government's annual budget in tribute.[17] These demands for tribute imposed a heavy financial drain and by 1799 the U.S. was in arrears of $140,000 to Algiers and some $150,000 to Tripoli.[18] Many Americans resented these payments, arguing that the money would be better spent on a navy that would protect American ships from the attacks of the Barbary pirates, and in the 1800 United States presidential election, Thomas Jefferson won against incumbent second President John Adams in part by noting that the United States was "subjected to the spoliations of foreign cruisers" and was humiliated by paying "an enormous tribute to the petty tyrant of Algiers".[19]

History edit

United States Mediterranean policy edit

Main article: Algerian–American War (1785–1795)
 
Brigantine Polly of Newburyport Captured by Algerine Pirates, 1793

After Spain concluded a peace treaty with Algiers in 1785, the Algerian corsair captains entered the waters of the Atlantic and attacked American ships, refusing to release them except for large sums of money. Two American ships, the schooner Maria, and the Dauphin were captured by Algerian pirates in July 1785 and the survivors forced into slavery, their ransom set at $60,000. A rumor that Benjamin Franklin, who was en route from France to Philadelphia about that time, had been captured by Barbary pirates, caused considerable upset in the U.S.[20]

Thomas Jefferson, who was elected to the presidency twice, was inclined to the idea of confronting Algiers with force.[21] He wrote in his autobiography:[22]

I was very unwilling that we should acquiesce in the European humiliation of paying a tribute to those lawless pirates and endeavored to form an association of the powers subject to habitual depredations from them.

 
Map of Algiers during the Barbary wars, by Samuel Dunn (1794)

A proposal was made to put up a coalition of naval warships from nations at war with the Barbary states, provided that naval operations would be directed against Algerian vessels in particular, and then impose a maritime blockade on North Africa.[23] When this proposal was presented to the concerned countries, France refused, and Spain apologized for not accepting it, because of its recent treaty with Algiers. The proposal was favored by Portugal, Malta, Naples, Venice, Denmark and Sweden. But the project failed when the US Congress objected to it for fear of its high financial costs, and more Algerian ships attacked American ships because of their lack of association with Algiers by any treaty in this period.[24] Thus, in February 1, 1791, the US Congress was forced to allocate $40,000 to free American captives in Algiers.[25] But two years later, it passed the "Naval Act of 1794" on the need to establish a defensive naval fleet, but stipulated in one of its articles that the project be stopped if an agreement was reached with Algiers.[26]

During the presidency of George Washington (April 30, 1789 – 1797), and after America failed to form an American-European alliance against the Maghreb countries, the U.S. announced its desire to establish friendly relations with Algiers in February 1792, and reported this to the Dey Hassan III Pasha, just like the Great Britain bought peace and security for its ships.[27]

United States pays tribute to Algiers edit

 
Hassan Pasha]] Dey of Algiers, his dîwân, and his subjects: a scan of the original document handwritten in Osmanli, signed September 5, 1795 in Algiers

When the American government began negotiating with Algiers,[28] the Dey asked for $2,435,000 as the price for the peace contract and the ransom of the prisoners,[29] then reduced the amount to $642,500 and $21,000 in military equipment that is presented to Algiers every year. Reconciliation took place between the two parties, and the dey pledged to work with Tunisia and Tripoli, to also sign this treaty, and peace would be achieved for America in the entire Mediterranean basin. On September 5, 1795, American negotiator Joseph Donaldson signed a peace treaty with the dey of Algiers, with 22 articles that included an upfront payment of $642,500 in specie (silver coinage) for peace, the release of American captives, expenses, and various gifts for the dey's royal court and family.[30] America suffered another humiliation when it sent tribute carried by the large armed frigate "USS George Washington (1798)" to Algiers; Dey Mustapha Pasha forced US commodore William Bainbridge to hoist an Ottoman Algerian flag over his warship before sailing to Constantinople carrying tribute to the Ottoman sultan in 1800.[31] As Lieutenant and consul William Eaton informed newly appointed Secretary of State John Marshall in 1800, "It is a maxim of the Barbary States, that 'The Christians who would be on good terms with them must fight well or pay well.'"[32]

America paid to Algiers during the presidency of George Washington and his successor, John Adams (1797-1801), $1,000,000, or a fifth of the government's annual budget, in tribute.[26]

First Barbary War (1801–1805) edit

 
Stephen Decatur's Conflict with the Algerine at Tripoli, during the boarding of a Tripolitan gunboat on 3 August 1804
Main article: First Barbary War

The First Barbary War (1801–1805), also known as the Tripolitian War or the Barbary Coast War, was the first of two wars fought between the alliance of the United States and several European countries[33][34] against the Northwest African Muslim states known collectively as the Barbary states. These were Tripoli and Algiers, quasi-independent entities nominally belonging to the Ottoman Empire, and (briefly) the independent Sultanate of Morocco. This war began during Thomas Jefferson's term when he refused to pay an amount that greatly increased when he became president. A U.S. naval fleet was sent on May 13, 1801, under the command of Commodore Richard Dale. Other notable officers in the fleet included Stephen Decatur, assigned to the frigate USS Essex and William Bainbridge in command of Essex which was attached to Commodore Richard Dale's squadron which also included Philadelphia, President and Enterprise.[35]

 
Painting depicting the bombardment of Tripoli on 3 August 1804

The ship Philadelphia was blockading Tripoli's harbor when she ran aground on an uncharted reef. Under fire from shore batteries and Tripolitan gunboats, Captain William Bainbridge tried to refloat her by casting off all of her guns and other objects that weighed it down. The ship was eventually captured and the crew taken prisoners and enslaved. To prevent this powerful warship from being used by the Barbary pirates, the ship was later destroyed by a raiding party of American Marines and soldiers and allied sailors from the armed forces of King Ferdinand of Sicily, led by Stephen Decatur.[36][37]

In accordance with the treaty that was concluded Between them, on June 30, 1805, America paid Algiers $60,000 ransom for the prisoners,[21] and agreed to continue sending gifts to the dey and replace its consul with another one, then withdrew its fleet from the Mediterranean in 1807.[38]

Second Barbary war edit

Main article: Second Barbary War
 
Commodore Decatur and the dey of Algiers Haji Ali Pasha

When the war broke out between America and Britain in 1812, the regent on the British throne, George IV, sent a letter to Dey Haji Ali Pasha (1809-1815) confirming to him the bonds of friendship that united the two countries and declaring his country's readiness to defend Algiers against every aggressor as long as these ties remained. By that he intended to win over Algiers to Britain against America, or at least convince Algiers to adopt a position of neutrality.[39] Thus, the countries of Europe and the United States of America failed to ally against the countries of the Islamic Maghreb and Algiers in particular, and the matter so remained until the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815. James Madison recommended that Congress declare the "existence of a state of war between the United States and the Dey and Regency of Algiers."[39][40] While Congress did not formally declare a state of war, they did pass legislation, enacted on March 3, 1815, that authorized the president to use the U.S. Navy, "as judged requisite by the President" to protect the "commerce and seamen" of the United States on the "Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean and adjoining seas."[40] Congress also authorized the president to grant the U.S. Navy the ability to seize all vessels and goods belonging to Algiers. The legislation also authorized the president to commission privateers for the same purpose.[40]

 
Commodore Decatur's Squadron capturing the Algerian pirate ship Mashuda, on 17 June 1815. Mashuda, flagship of the Algerian Navy

During the reign of the Dey Omar Pasha (1815-1817), American-Algerian relations worsened when the Dey began to demand an increase in the annual tribute. The Americans went to Algiers to fight under Commodore Stephen Decatur,[39] which culminated in the Battle off Cape Gata and the death of the famous corsair captain Raïs Hamidou. A letter to the dey followed on April 12, 1815 informing him of America's decision to enter into war against him and giving him the choice between peace and war after reminding him of the horrors of war and the advantages of peace and understanding.[41] In the year 1816, Dey Omar answered this letter and offered America the renewal of the previous treaty concluded during the reign of Hassan Pasha (1791-1798). Madison answered him on August 21 and asked him to resume negotiations. These were renewed and ended with a peace agreement in favor of America. The dey was forced to pay $10,000 in compensation and to renounce all that America had been paying him.[42]

Effect in United States edit

See also: Original six frigates of the United States Navy

When the United States military efforts of the early 19th century were successful against the pirates, partisans of the Democratic-Republicans contrasted their presidents' refusals to buy off the pirates by paying tribute with the failure of the preceding Federalist administration to suppress the piracy. The Federalist Party had adopted the slogan, "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute," but had failed to end the attacks on merchant ships. From 1796 to 1797 French raiders seized some 316 American merchant ships flying American colors. To counter this ongoing advent three frigates, USS United States, USS Constitution and USS Constellation, were built to answer the call for security.[43]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ "Start Here! About the Barbary Wars". daddezio.com.
  2. ^ Joseph Wheelan (21 September 2004). Jefferson's War: America's First War on Terror 1801–1805. PublicAffairs. pp. 128–. ISBN 978-0-7867-4020-8.
  3. ^ Woods, Tom. "Presidential War Powers: The Constitutional Answer". Libertyclassroom.com. Retrieved 9 July 2014.
  4. ^ https://grc-usmcu.libguides.com/battle-studies/barbary-wars#:~:text=The%20Barbary%20War%20%2D%20the%20first,plundered%20seaborne%20commerce%20for%20centuries.
  5. ^ https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/barbary-wars
  6. ^ Spencer C. Tucker (2014). The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic, 1783–1812: A Political, Social, and Military History [3 volumes] A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-59884-157-2.
  7. ^ "Avalon Project - The Barbary Treaties 1786-1816 - Treaty of Peace, Signed Algiers June 30 and July 3, 1815". avalon.law.yale.edu.
  8. ^ A 44-gun Algerian corsair appeared at Río de la Plata in 1720. Cesáreo Fernández Duro, Armada española desde la unión de los reinos de Castilla y de León, Madrid, 1902, Vol. VI, p. 185
  9. ^ "BBC - History - British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". www.bbc.co.uk.
  10. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 20.
  11. ^ Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Empire, and the World, 1600–1850, New York: Anchor Books Edition, 2000
  12. ^ Roberts, Priscilla H. and Richard S. Roberts, Thomas Barclay 1728–1793: Consul in France, Diplomat in Barbary, Lehigh University Press, 2008, pp. 206–223.
  13. ^ "Milestones of American Diplomacy, Interesting Historical Notes, and Department of State History". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
  14. ^ "Cohen Renews U.S.-Morocco Ties" (mil). U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
  15. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, pp. 32–33.
  16. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 33.
  17. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 36-37.
  18. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 37.
  19. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 7.
  20. ^ David McCullough, John Adams (Simon & Schuster Paperbacks), 2001, p. 352.
  21. ^ a b Nowlan, Robert A. (2014-01-10). The American Presidents, Washington to Tyler: What They Did, What They Said, What Was Said About Them, with Full Source Notes. McFarland. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-4766-0118-2.
  22. ^ Cogliano, Francis D. (2014). Emperor of Liberty: Thomas Jefferson's Foreign Policy. Yale University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-300-17993-4.
  23. ^ Cogliano 2014, p. 68
  24. ^ بوعزيز 2007, p. 59
  25. ^ Cogliano 2014, p. 74
  26. ^ a b Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 35.
  27. ^ Washington, George (2000). The Papers of George Washington: September 1791-February 1792. University Press of Virginia. p. 403. ISBN 978-0-8139-1922-5.
  28. ^ Parton, James (October 1872). "Jefferson, American Minister in France". Atlantic Monthly. Vol. 30. p. 413.
  29. ^ بوعزيز 2007, p. 60
  30. ^ Farber, Hannah (2014). ""Millions for Credit: Peace with Algiers and the Establishment of America's Commercial Reputation Overseas, 1795–96."". Journal of the Early Republic. 34 (2): 187–217. doi:10.1353/jer.2014.0028. S2CID 154186346.
  31. ^ Ray, William (2008). Horrors of Slavery, Or, the American Tars in Tripoli. Rutgers University Press. pp. xvi. ISBN 978-0-8135-4413-7.
    • Oliver, Andrew (2015-01-01). American Travelers on the Nile: Early US Visitors to Egypt, 1774-1839. American University in Cairo Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-61797-632-2.
    • Williams, Thomas (2010-10-18). The American Spirit: The Story of Commodore William Phillip Bainbridge. AuthorHouse. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-4520-7267-8.
  32. ^ The life of the late Gen. William Eaton. E. Merriam & Co. 1813. pp. 185. (principally collected from his correspondence and other manuscripts)
  33. ^ "Tripolitan War". Encyclopedia.com (from The Oxford Companion to American Military History). 2000. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  34. ^ "War with the Barbary Pirates (Tripolitan War)". veteranmuseum.org. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  35. ^ Harris, 1837 pp.63–64, 251
  36. ^ Tucker, 1937 p.57
  37. ^ MacKenzie, 1846 pp.331–335
  38. ^ بوعزيز 2007, p. 61
  39. ^ a b c Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 76
  40. ^ a b c Elsea, Jennifer K.; Weed, Matthew C. (April 18, 2014). "Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
  41. ^ Fremont-Barnes 2006, p. 77
  42. ^ "Treaty of Peace, Signed Algiers June 30 and July 3, 1815". avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved February 4, 2022. ARTICLE 2d It is distinctly understood between the Contracting parties, that no tribute either as biennial presents, or under any other form or name whatever, shall ever be required by the Dey and Regency of Algiers from the United States of America on any pretext whatever.
  43. ^ Simons, 2003, p. 20

Bibliography edit

  • Allen, Gardner Weld (1905). Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs.
    Houghton Mifflin & Co., Boston, New York & Chicago. pp. 354.     E'book
  • Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2006). The Wars of the Barbary Pirates. London: Osprey.
  • Harris, Gardner W. (1837). The Life and Services of Commodore William Bainbridge, United States Navy.
    :Carey Lea & Blanchard, New York. pp. 254.    . E'book
  • Leiner, Frederic C. (2007). The End of Barbary Terror, America's 1815 War Against the Pirates of North Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-19-532540-9. Book (par view) 2012-10-19 at the Wayback Machine
  • Mackenzie, Alexander Slidell (1846). Life of Stephen Decatur: a commodore in the Navy of the United States. C. C. Little and J. Brown, 1846.
  • Simmons, Edwin H. (2003). The United States Marines: A History. Naval Institute Press. pp. 405. ISBN 9781557508683., Book (par view)
  • Tucker, Spencer (2004). Stephen Decatur: a life most bold and daring. Naval Institute Press, 2004, Annapolis, Maryland. p. 245. ISBN 1-55750-999-9. Book (par view)
    • بوعزيز, يحيى (2007). الموجز في تاريخ الجزائر - الجزء الثاني (Brief history of Algeria - Part Two) (in Arabic). الجزائر: ديوان المطبوعات الجامعية.

Further reading edit

  • Allison, Robert. The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the Muslim World, 1776-1815 (2000)
  • Bak, Greg. Barbary Pirate: The Life and Crimes of John Ward (The History Press, 2010) about Jack Ward in earlier times.
  • Banham, Cynthia, and Brett Goodin. "Negotiating Liberty: The Use of Political Opportunities and Civil Society by Barbary State Captives and Guantánamo Bay Detainees." Australian Journal of Politics & History 62.2 (2016): 171-185 online.
  • Boot, Max. The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power. New York: Basic Books, 2002. ISBN 0-465-00720-1
  • Bow, C. B. "Waging War for the Righteous: William Eaton on Enlightenment, Empire, and Coup d'état in the First Barbary War, 1801–1805." History 101.348 (2016): 692–709. Argues that the First Barbary War was not a 'Holy War' nor the first American war on Islamic terrorism. online
  • Castor, Henry. The Tripolitan war, 1801-1805; America meets the menace of the Barbary pirates (1971) online
  • Chidsey, Donald Barr. The wars in Barbary; Arab piracy and the birth of the United States Navy (1971) online, popular history
  • Colás, Alejandro. "Barbary Coast in the expansion of international society: Piracy, privateering, and corsairing as primary institutions." Review of International Studies 42.5 (2016): 840-857 online.
  • Crane, Jacob. "Barbary (an) Invasions: The North African Figure in Republican Print Culture." Early American Literature 50.2 (2015): 331-358 online.
  • Crane, Jacob. "Peter Parley in Tripoli: Barbary Slavery and Imaginary Citizenship." ESQ: A Journal of Nineteenth-Century American Literature and Culture 65.3 (2019): 512-550 online.
  • Davis, Robert C. Christian slaves, Muslim masters: white slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800 (2004) online
  • Edwards, Samuel. Barbary General: the life of William H. Eaton (1968) online, popular history
  • Fullmer, Jason. "Jeffersonian Nationalism vs. Enlightenment: Securing American Core Values amidst the Barbary Wars, 1801–1809." Crescast Scientia (2016): 37–54. online.
  • Gawalt, Gerard W. "America and the Barbary pirates: An international battle against an unconventional foe." Thomas Jefferson Papers (Library of Congress, 2011) .
  • Jamieson, Alan G. Lords of the sea: a history of the Barbary corsairs (Reaktion Books, 2013).
  • Kilmeade, Brian and Yeager, Don. "Thomas Jefferson and the Tripoli Pirates" (Sentinel, 2015)
  • Kitzen, Michael L. S. Tripoli and the United States at War: A History of American Relations with the Barbary States, 1785-1805 (McFarland, 1993).
  • Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars. (Hill and Wang, 2005).
  • Lardas, Mark. American Light and Medium Frigates 1794–1836 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012).
  • London, Joshua E. Victory in Tripoli: How America's War with the Barbary Pirates Established the U.S. Navy and Shaped a Nation. (John Wiley & Sons, 2005). ISBN 0-471-44415-4
  • Murphy, Martin N. "The Barbary Pirates." Mediterranean Quarterly 24.4 (2013): 19–42. online
  • Oren, Michael B. Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present (2007)
  • Page, Kate. "Those Pirates and Muslim Barbarians: The American Public View of the Barbary Nations and the United States Participation in the Barbary War." Fairmount Folio: Journal of History 13 (2011) pp 21–34.online.
  • Panzac, Thomas. The Barbary Corsairs: The End of a Legend, 1800-1820 (E.J.Brill, 2002)
  • Peskin, Lawrence A. Captives and Countrymen: Barbary Slavery and the American Public, 1785–1816 (Johns Hopkins University Press. 2009). 256pp
  • Rejeb, Lotfi Ben. "‘The general belief of the world’: Barbary as genre and discourse in Mediterranean history." European Review of History 19.1 (2012): 15-31.
  • Ribeiro, Jorge Martins. "Conflict and peace in the Mediterranean: barbary privateering in the late 18th and early 19th centuries." in Borders and conflicts in the Mediterranean Basin (2016). online
  • Sayre, Gordon M. "Renegades from Barbary: The Transnational Turn in Captivity Studies." American Literary History 22.2 (2010): 347–359 on converts to Islam.
  • Schifalacqua, John F. "James Madison and America's First Encounter with Islam: Tracing James Madison's Engagement with Barbary Affairs Through the 1st Barbary War." Penn History Review 21.1 (2014) online.
  • Tinniswood, Adrian. Pirates of Barbary: Corsairs, Conquests and Captivity in the Seventeenth-Century Mediterranean ( Riverhead, 2010), about the earlier period.
  • Turner, Robert F. "President Thomas Jefferson and the Barbary Pirates." In Bruce A Elleman, et al. eds., Piracy and Maritime Crime: Historical and Modern Case Studies (2010): 157–172.
  • Vick, Brian. "Power, Humanitarianism and the Global Liberal Order: Abolition and the Barbary Corsairs in the Vienna Congress System." International History Review 40.4 (2018): 939–960.
  • Walther, Karine V. Sacred Interests: The United States and the Islamic World, 1821–1921 (University of North Carolina Press, 2015) 457pp online review
  • Whipple, A. B. C. To the Shores of Tripoli: The Birth of the U.S. Navy and Marines. Bluejacket Books, 1991. ISBN 1-55750-966-2
  • Wolfe, Stephen. "Borders, Bodies, and Writing: American Barbary Coast Captivity Narratives, 1816-1819." American Studies in Scandinavia 43.2 (2011): 5-30 online
  • Wright, Louis B. and Julia H Macleod. The First Americans in North Africa: William Eaton's Struggle for a Vigorous Policy Against the Barbary Pirates, 1799–1805 (Princeton UP, 1945), 227pp

Primary sources edit

  • Baepler, Paul ed. White Slaves, African Masters: An Anthology of American Barbary Captivity Narratives (The University of Chicago Press, 1999).

External links edit

  • The Barbary Wars at the Clements Library:An online exhibit on the Barbary Wars with images and transcriptions of primary documents from the period.

April 09, 2024
barbary, wars, articles, examining, each, individually, first, barbary, second, barbary, were, series, wars, fought, united, states, sweden, kingdom, sicily, against, barbary, states, including, tunis, algiers, tripoli, morocco, north, africa, early, 19th, cen. For the articles examining each war individually see First Barbary War and Second Barbary War The Barbary Wars were a series of two wars fought by the United States Sweden and the Kingdom of Sicily against the Barbary states including Tunis Algiers and Tripoli and Morocco of North Africa in the early 19th century Sweden had been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800 and was joined by the newly independent US 3 unreliable source The First Barbary War extended from 10 May 1801 to 10 June 1805 with the Second Barbary War lasting only three days ending on 19 June 1815 The Barbary Wars were the first major American war fought entirely outside the New World and in the Arab World 4 5 Barbary WarsUSS Philadelphia burning at the Battle of Tripoli Harbor during the First Barbary War in 1804DateMay 10 1801 June 10 1805 amp June 17 19 1815LocationBarbary CoastBelligerents United States Sweden 1800 1802 Sicily 1 unreliable source 1801 1805 AlgiersTripolitania Morocco 2 1802 1804 Commanders and leadersThomas Jefferson James Madison Richard Dale Richard Morris William Eaton Edward Preble William Shaler Stephen Decatur Jr Gustav IV Adolf Rudolf CederstromYusuf Karamanli Rais Mahomet Rous Hassan Bey Shadi Nazmi Reis Slimane of Morocco Omar Agha Rais Hamidou The wars were largely a reaction to piracy by the Barbary states Since the 16th century North African pirates had captured ships and even raided cities across the Mediterranean Sea By the 19th century pirate activity had declined but Barbary pirates continued to demand tribute from American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean Refusal to pay would result in the capture of American ships and goods and often the enslavement or ransoming of crew members After Thomas Jefferson became president of the US in March 1801 he sent a U S Navy fleet to the Mediterranean to combat the Barbary pirates The fleet bombarded numerous fortified cities in present day Libya Tunisia and Algeria ultimately extracting concessions of safe conduct from the Barbary states and ending the first war During the War of 1812 with the encouragement of the United Kingdom 6 the Barbary corsairs resumed their attacks on American vessels Following the conclusion of the War of 1812 and America s peace with Britain James Madison Jefferson s successor directed military forces against the Barbary states in the Second Barbary War Lasting only three days the second conflict ended the need for further tribute from the United States granted the U S full shipping rights in the Mediterranean Sea and significantly reduced incidence of piracy in the region 7 Contents 1 Background 1 1 Attacks 2 History 2 1 United States Mediterranean policy 2 2 United States pays tribute to Algiers 2 3 First Barbary War 1801 1805 2 3 1 Second Barbary war 3 Effect in United States 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 Further reading 7 1 Primary sources 8 External linksBackground editThe Barbary corsairs were pirates and privateers who operated out of North Africa based primarily in the ports of Tunis Tripoli and Algiers This area was known in Europe as the Barbary Coast in reference to the Berbers Their predation extended throughout the Mediterranean south along West Africa s Atlantic seaboard and even to the eastern coast of Brazil 8 and into the North Atlantic Ocean as far north as Iceland but they primarily operated in the western Mediterranean In addition to seizing ships they engaged in razzias raids on European coastal towns and villages mainly in Italy France Spain and Portugal but also in England Scotland the Netherlands Ireland and as far away as Iceland The main purpose of their attacks was to capture Europeans for the slave market in North Africa 9 The Barbary states were nominally part of the Ottoman Empire but in practice they were independent and the Ottoman government in Constantinople was not involved 10 Attacks edit Since the 1600s the Barbary pirates had attacked British shipping along the northern coast of Africa holding captives for ransom or enslaving them Ransoms were generally raised by families and local church groups The British became familiar with captivity narratives written by Barbary pirates prisoners and slaves 11 During the American Revolutionary War the pirates attacked American ships On December 20 1777 Morocco s sultan Mohammed III declared that merchant ships of the new American nation would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage into the Mediterranean and along the coast The Moroccan American Treaty of Friendship stands as America s oldest unbroken friendship treaty 12 13 with a foreign power In 1787 Morocco became one of the first nations to recognize the United States 14 Starting in the 1780s realizing that American vessels were no longer under the protection of the British navy the Barbary pirates seized American ships in the Mediterranean As the U S had disbanded its Continental Navy and had no seagoing military force its government agreed in 1786 to pay tribute to stop the attacks 15 On March 20 1794 at the urging of President George Washington Congress voted to authorize the building of six heavy frigates and establish the United States Navy in order to stop these attacks and demands for more and more money 16 The United States had signed treaties with all of the Barbary states after its independence was recognized between 1786 and 1794 to pay tribute in exchange for leaving American merchantmen alone and by 1797 the United States had paid out 1 25 million or a fifth of the government s annual budget in tribute 17 These demands for tribute imposed a heavy financial drain and by 1799 the U S was in arrears of 140 000 to Algiers and some 150 000 to Tripoli 18 Many Americans resented these payments arguing that the money would be better spent on a navy that would protect American ships from the attacks of the Barbary pirates and in the 1800 United States presidential election Thomas Jefferson won against incumbent second President John Adams in part by noting that the United States was subjected to the spoliations of foreign cruisers and was humiliated by paying an enormous tribute to the petty tyrant of Algiers 19 History editUnited States Mediterranean policy edit Main article Algerian American War 1785 1795 nbsp Brigantine Polly of Newburyport Captured by Algerine Pirates 1793After Spain concluded a peace treaty with Algiers in 1785 the Algerian corsair captains entered the waters of the Atlantic and attacked American ships refusing to release them except for large sums of money Two American ships the schooner Maria and the Dauphin were captured by Algerian pirates in July 1785 and the survivors forced into slavery their ransom set at 60 000 A rumor that Benjamin Franklin who was en route from France to Philadelphia about that time had been captured by Barbary pirates caused considerable upset in the U S 20 Thomas Jefferson who was elected to the presidency twice was inclined to the idea of confronting Algiers with force 21 He wrote in his autobiography 22 I was very unwilling that we should acquiesce in the European humiliation of paying a tribute to those lawless pirates and endeavored to form an association of the powers subject to habitual depredations from them nbsp Map of Algiers during the Barbary wars by Samuel Dunn 1794 A proposal was made to put up a coalition of naval warships from nations at war with the Barbary states provided that naval operations would be directed against Algerian vessels in particular and then impose a maritime blockade on North Africa 23 When this proposal was presented to the concerned countries France refused and Spain apologized for not accepting it because of its recent treaty with Algiers The proposal was favored by Portugal Malta Naples Venice Denmark and Sweden But the project failed when the US Congress objected to it for fear of its high financial costs and more Algerian ships attacked American ships because of their lack of association with Algiers by any treaty in this period 24 Thus in February 1 1791 the US Congress was forced to allocate 40 000 to free American captives in Algiers 25 But two years later it passed the Naval Act of 1794 on the need to establish a defensive naval fleet but stipulated in one of its articles that the project be stopped if an agreement was reached with Algiers 26 During the presidency of George Washington April 30 1789 1797 and after America failed to form an American European alliance against the Maghreb countries the U S announced its desire to establish friendly relations with Algiers in February 1792 and reported this to the Dey Hassan III Pasha just like the Great Britain bought peace and security for its ships 27 United States pays tribute to Algiers edit nbsp Hassan Pasha Dey of Algiers his diwan and his subjects a scan of the original document handwritten in Osmanli signed September 5 1795 in AlgiersWhen the American government began negotiating with Algiers 28 the Dey asked for 2 435 000 as the price for the peace contract and the ransom of the prisoners 29 then reduced the amount to 642 500 and 21 000 in military equipment that is presented to Algiers every year Reconciliation took place between the two parties and the dey pledged to work with Tunisia and Tripoli to also sign this treaty and peace would be achieved for America in the entire Mediterranean basin On September 5 1795 American negotiator Joseph Donaldson signed a peace treaty with the dey of Algiers with 22 articles that included an upfront payment of 642 500 in specie silver coinage for peace the release of American captives expenses and various gifts for the dey s royal court and family 30 America suffered another humiliation when it sent tribute carried by the large armed frigate USS George Washington 1798 to Algiers Dey Mustapha Pasha forced US commodore William Bainbridge to hoist an Ottoman Algerian flag over his warship before sailing to Constantinople carrying tribute to the Ottoman sultan in 1800 31 As Lieutenant and consul William Eaton informed newly appointed Secretary of State John Marshall in 1800 It is a maxim of the Barbary States that The Christians who would be on good terms with them must fight well or pay well 32 America paid to Algiers during the presidency of George Washington and his successor John Adams 1797 1801 1 000 000 or a fifth of the government s annual budget in tribute 26 First Barbary War 1801 1805 edit nbsp Stephen Decatur s Conflict with the Algerine at Tripoli during the boarding of a Tripolitan gunboat on 3 August 1804Main article First Barbary WarThe First Barbary War 1801 1805 also known as the Tripolitian War or the Barbary Coast War was the first of two wars fought between the alliance of the United States and several European countries 33 34 against the Northwest African Muslim states known collectively as the Barbary states These were Tripoli and Algiers quasi independent entities nominally belonging to the Ottoman Empire and briefly the independent Sultanate of Morocco This war began during Thomas Jefferson s term when he refused to pay an amount that greatly increased when he became president A U S naval fleet was sent on May 13 1801 under the command of Commodore Richard Dale Other notable officers in the fleet included Stephen Decatur assigned to the frigate USS Essex and William Bainbridge in command of Essex which was attached to Commodore Richard Dale s squadron which also included Philadelphia President and Enterprise 35 nbsp Painting depicting the bombardment of Tripoli on 3 August 1804The ship Philadelphia was blockading Tripoli s harbor when she ran aground on an uncharted reef Under fire from shore batteries and Tripolitan gunboats Captain William Bainbridge tried to refloat her by casting off all of her guns and other objects that weighed it down The ship was eventually captured and the crew taken prisoners and enslaved To prevent this powerful warship from being used by the Barbary pirates the ship was later destroyed by a raiding party of American Marines and soldiers and allied sailors from the armed forces of King Ferdinand of Sicily led by Stephen Decatur 36 37 In accordance with the treaty that was concluded Between them on June 30 1805 America paid Algiers 60 000 ransom for the prisoners 21 and agreed to continue sending gifts to the dey and replace its consul with another one then withdrew its fleet from the Mediterranean in 1807 38 Second Barbary war edit Main article Second Barbary War nbsp Commodore Decatur and the dey of Algiers Haji Ali PashaWhen the war broke out between America and Britain in 1812 the regent on the British throne George IV sent a letter to Dey Haji Ali Pasha 1809 1815 confirming to him the bonds of friendship that united the two countries and declaring his country s readiness to defend Algiers against every aggressor as long as these ties remained By that he intended to win over Algiers to Britain against America or at least convince Algiers to adopt a position of neutrality 39 Thus the countries of Europe and the United States of America failed to ally against the countries of the Islamic Maghreb and Algiers in particular and the matter so remained until the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815 James Madison recommended that Congress declare the existence of a state of war between the United States and the Dey and Regency of Algiers 39 40 While Congress did not formally declare a state of war they did pass legislation enacted on March 3 1815 that authorized the president to use the U S Navy as judged requisite by the President to protect the commerce and seamen of the United States on the Atlantic Ocean the Mediterranean and adjoining seas 40 Congress also authorized the president to grant the U S Navy the ability to seize all vessels and goods belonging to Algiers The legislation also authorized the president to commission privateers for the same purpose 40 nbsp Commodore Decatur s Squadron capturing the Algerian pirate ship Mashuda on 17 June 1815 Mashuda flagship of the Algerian NavyDuring the reign of the Dey Omar Pasha 1815 1817 American Algerian relations worsened when the Dey began to demand an increase in the annual tribute The Americans went to Algiers to fight under Commodore Stephen Decatur 39 which culminated in the Battle off Cape Gata and the death of the famous corsair captain Rais Hamidou A letter to the dey followed on April 12 1815 informing him of America s decision to enter into war against him and giving him the choice between peace and war after reminding him of the horrors of war and the advantages of peace and understanding 41 In the year 1816 Dey Omar answered this letter and offered America the renewal of the previous treaty concluded during the reign of Hassan Pasha 1791 1798 Madison answered him on August 21 and asked him to resume negotiations These were renewed and ended with a peace agreement in favor of America The dey was forced to pay 10 000 in compensation and to renounce all that America had been paying him 42 Effect in United States editSee also Original six frigates of the United States Navy When the United States military efforts of the early 19th century were successful against the pirates partisans of the Democratic Republicans contrasted their presidents refusals to buy off the pirates by paying tribute with the failure of the preceding Federalist administration to suppress the piracy The Federalist Party had adopted the slogan Millions for defense but not one cent for tribute but had failed to end the attacks on merchant ships From 1796 to 1797 French raiders seized some 316 American merchant ships flying American colors To counter this ongoing advent three frigates USS United States USS Constitution and USS Constellation were built to answer the call for security 43 See also editAlgeria United States relations American Algerian War 1785 1795 Libya United States relations Morocco United States relations Ottoman Empire United States relations Tunisia United States relations Turkey United States relationsReferences edit Start Here About the Barbary Wars daddezio com Joseph Wheelan 21 September 2004 Jefferson s War America s First War on Terror 1801 1805 PublicAffairs pp 128 ISBN 978 0 7867 4020 8 Woods Tom Presidential War Powers The Constitutional Answer Libertyclassroom com Retrieved 9 July 2014 https grc usmcu libguides com battle studies barbary wars text The 20Barbary 20War 20 2D 20the 20first plundered 20seaborne 20commerce 20for 20centuries https history state gov milestones 1801 1829 barbary wars Spencer C Tucker 2014 The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic 1783 1812 A Political Social and Military History 3 volumes A Political Social and Military History ABC CLIO p 33 ISBN 978 1 59884 157 2 Avalon Project The Barbary Treaties 1786 1816 Treaty of Peace Signed Algiers June 30 and July 3 1815 avalon law yale edu A 44 gun Algerian corsair appeared at Rio de la Plata in 1720 Cesareo Fernandez Duro Armada espanola desde la union de los reinos de Castilla y de Leon Madrid 1902 Vol VI p 185 BBC History British History in depth British Slaves on the Barbary Coast www bbc co uk Fremont Barnes 2006 p 20 Linda Colley Captives Britain Empire and the World 1600 1850 New York Anchor Books Edition 2000 Roberts Priscilla H and Richard S Roberts Thomas Barclay 1728 1793 Consul in France Diplomat in Barbary Lehigh University Press 2008 pp 206 223 Milestones of American Diplomacy Interesting Historical Notes and Department of State History U S Department of State Retrieved 2007 12 17 Cohen Renews U S Morocco Ties mil U S Department of Defense Retrieved 2009 03 12 Fremont Barnes 2006 pp 32 33 Fremont Barnes 2006 p 33 Fremont Barnes 2006 p 36 37 Fremont Barnes 2006 p 37 Fremont Barnes 2006 p 7 David McCullough John Adams Simon amp Schuster Paperbacks 2001 p 352 a b Nowlan Robert A 2014 01 10 The American Presidents Washington to Tyler What They Did What They Said What Was Said About Them with Full Source Notes McFarland p 141 ISBN 978 1 4766 0118 2 Cogliano Francis D 2014 Emperor of Liberty Thomas Jefferson s Foreign Policy Yale University Press p 69 ISBN 978 0 300 17993 4 Cogliano 2014 p 68 بوعزيز 2007 p 59 Cogliano 2014 p 74 a b Fremont Barnes 2006 p 35 Washington George 2000 The Papers of George Washington September 1791 February 1792 University Press of Virginia p 403 ISBN 978 0 8139 1922 5 Parton James October 1872 Jefferson American Minister in France Atlantic Monthly Vol 30 p 413 بوعزيز 2007 p 60 Farber Hannah 2014 Millions for Credit Peace with Algiers and the Establishment of America s Commercial Reputation Overseas 1795 96 Journal of the Early Republic 34 2 187 217 doi 10 1353 jer 2014 0028 S2CID 154186346 Ray William 2008 Horrors of Slavery Or the American Tars in Tripoli Rutgers University Press pp xvi ISBN 978 0 8135 4413 7 Oliver Andrew 2015 01 01 American Travelers on the Nile Early US Visitors to Egypt 1774 1839 American University in Cairo Press p 50 ISBN 978 1 61797 632 2 Williams Thomas 2010 10 18 The American Spirit The Story of Commodore William Phillip Bainbridge AuthorHouse p 91 ISBN 978 1 4520 7267 8 The life of the late Gen William Eaton E Merriam amp Co 1813 pp 185 principally collected from his correspondence and other manuscripts Tripolitan War Encyclopedia com from The Oxford Companion to American Military History 2000 Retrieved February 11 2017 War with the Barbary Pirates Tripolitan War veteranmuseum org Retrieved February 11 2017 Harris 1837 pp 63 64 251 Tucker 1937 p 57 MacKenzie 1846 pp 331 335 بوعزيز 2007 p 61 a b c Fremont Barnes 2006 p 76 a b c Elsea Jennifer K Weed Matthew C April 18 2014 Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force Historical Background and Legal Implications PDF Congressional Research Service Retrieved 17 March 2023 Fremont Barnes 2006 p 77 Treaty of Peace Signed Algiers June 30 and July 3 1815 avalon law yale edu Retrieved February 4 2022 ARTICLE 2d It is distinctly understood between the Contracting parties that no tribute either as biennial presents or under any other form or name whatever shall ever be required by the Dey and Regency of Algiers from the United States of America on any pretext whatever Simons 2003 p 20Bibliography editAllen Gardner Weld 1905 Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs Houghton Mifflin amp Co Boston New York amp Chicago pp 354 E book Fremont Barnes Gregory 2006 The Wars of the Barbary Pirates London Osprey Harris Gardner W 1837 The Life and Services of Commodore William Bainbridge United States Navy Carey Lea amp Blanchard New York pp 254 E book Leiner Frederic C 2007 The End of Barbary Terror America s 1815 War Against the Pirates of North Africa Oxford University Press p 240 ISBN 978 0 19 532540 9 Book par view Archived 2012 10 19 at the Wayback Machine Mackenzie Alexander Slidell 1846 Life of Stephen Decatur a commodore in the Navy of the United States C C Little and J Brown 1846 Simmons Edwin H 2003 The United States Marines A History Naval Institute Press pp 405 ISBN 9781557508683 Book par view Tucker Spencer 2004 Stephen Decatur a life most bold and daring Naval Institute Press 2004 Annapolis Maryland p 245 ISBN 1 55750 999 9 Book par view بوعزيز يحيى 2007 الموجز في تاريخ الجزائر الجزء الثاني Brief history of Algeria Part Two in Arabic الجزائر ديوان المطبوعات الجامعية Further reading editAllison Robert The Crescent Obscured The United States and the Muslim World 1776 1815 2000 Bak Greg Barbary Pirate The Life and Crimes of John Ward The History Press 2010 about Jack Ward in earlier times Banham Cynthia and Brett Goodin Negotiating Liberty The Use of Political Opportunities and Civil Society by Barbary State Captives and Guantanamo Bay Detainees Australian Journal of Politics amp History 62 2 2016 171 185 online Boot Max The Savage Wars of Peace Small Wars and the Rise of American Power New York Basic Books 2002 ISBN 0 465 00720 1 Bow C B Waging War for the Righteous William Eaton on Enlightenment Empire and Coup d etat in the First Barbary War 1801 1805 History 101 348 2016 692 709 Argues that the First Barbary War was not a Holy War nor the first American war on Islamic terrorism online Castor Henry The Tripolitan war 1801 1805 America meets the menace of the Barbary pirates 1971 online Chidsey Donald Barr The wars in Barbary Arab piracy and the birth of the United States Navy 1971 online popular history Colas Alejandro Barbary Coast in the expansion of international society Piracy privateering and corsairing as primary institutions Review of International Studies 42 5 2016 840 857 online Crane Jacob Barbary an Invasions The North African Figure in Republican Print Culture Early American Literature 50 2 2015 331 358 online Crane Jacob Peter Parley in Tripoli Barbary Slavery and Imaginary Citizenship ESQ A Journal of Nineteenth Century American Literature and Culture 65 3 2019 512 550 online Davis Robert C Christian slaves Muslim masters white slavery in the Mediterranean the Barbary Coast and Italy 1500 1800 2004 online Edwards Samuel Barbary General the life of William H Eaton 1968 online popular history Fullmer Jason Jeffersonian Nationalism vs Enlightenment Securing American Core Values amidst the Barbary Wars 1801 1809 Crescast Scientia 2016 37 54 online Gawalt Gerard W America and the Barbary pirates An international battle against an unconventional foe Thomas Jefferson Papers Library of Congress 2011 online Jamieson Alan G Lords of the sea a history of the Barbary corsairs Reaktion Books 2013 Kilmeade Brian and Yeager Don Thomas Jefferson and the Tripoli Pirates Sentinel 2015 Kitzen Michael L S Tripoli and the United States at War A History of American Relations with the Barbary States 1785 1805 McFarland 1993 Lambert Frank The Barbary Wars Hill and Wang 2005 Lardas Mark American Light and Medium Frigates 1794 1836 Bloomsbury Publishing 2012 London Joshua E Victory in Tripoli How America s War with the Barbary Pirates Established the U S Navy and Shaped a Nation John Wiley amp Sons 2005 ISBN 0 471 44415 4 Murphy Martin N The Barbary Pirates Mediterranean Quarterly 24 4 2013 19 42 online Oren Michael B Power Faith and Fantasy America in the Middle East 1776 to the Present 2007 Page Kate Those Pirates and Muslim Barbarians The American Public View of the Barbary Nations and the United States Participation in the Barbary War Fairmount Folio Journal of History 13 2011 pp 21 34 online Panzac Thomas The Barbary Corsairs The End of a Legend 1800 1820 E J Brill 2002 Peskin Lawrence A Captives and Countrymen Barbary Slavery and the American Public 1785 1816 Johns Hopkins University Press 2009 256pp Rejeb Lotfi Ben The general belief of the world Barbary as genre and discourse in Mediterranean history European Review of History 19 1 2012 15 31 Ribeiro Jorge Martins Conflict and peace in the Mediterranean barbary privateering in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Borders and conflicts in the Mediterranean Basin 2016 online Sayre Gordon M Renegades from Barbary The Transnational Turn in Captivity Studies American Literary History 22 2 2010 347 359 on converts to Islam Schifalacqua John F James Madison and America s First Encounter with Islam Tracing James Madison s Engagement with Barbary Affairs Through the 1st Barbary War Penn History Review 21 1 2014 online Tinniswood Adrian Pirates of Barbary Corsairs Conquests and Captivity in the Seventeenth Century Mediterranean Riverhead 2010 about the earlier period Turner Robert F President Thomas Jefferson and the Barbary Pirates In Bruce A Elleman et al eds Piracy and Maritime Crime Historical and Modern Case Studies 2010 157 172 online Vick Brian Power Humanitarianism and the Global Liberal Order Abolition and the Barbary Corsairs in the Vienna Congress System International History Review 40 4 2018 939 960 Walther Karine V Sacred Interests The United States and the Islamic World 1821 1921 University of North Carolina Press 2015 457pp online review Whipple A B C To the Shores of Tripoli The Birth of the U S Navy and Marines Bluejacket Books 1991 ISBN 1 55750 966 2 Wolfe Stephen Borders Bodies and Writing American Barbary Coast Captivity Narratives 1816 1819 American Studies in Scandinavia 43 2 2011 5 30 online Wright Louis B and Julia H Macleod The First Americans in North Africa William Eaton s Struggle for a Vigorous Policy Against the Barbary Pirates 1799 1805 Princeton UP 1945 227pp Primary sources edit Baepler Paul ed White Slaves African Masters An Anthology of American Barbary Captivity Narratives The University of Chicago Press 1999 External links editThe Barbary Wars at the Clements Library An online exhibit on the Barbary Wars with images and transcriptions of primary documents from the period Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Barbary Wars amp oldid 1214776468, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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