Székely Land

The Székely Land^[1][2] or Szeklerland^[3] (Hungarian: Székelyföld, pronounced [ˈseːkɛjføld], Székely runes: 𐲥𐳋𐳓𐳉𐳗𐳌𐳖𐳞𐳇; Romanian: Ținutul Secuiesc and sometimes Secuimea; German: Szeklerland; Latin: Terra Siculorum)^[4] is a historic and ethnographic area in present-day Romania, inhabited mainly by Székelys, a subgroup of Hungarians.^[5][6] Its cultural centre is the city of Târgu Mureș (Marosvásárhely), the largest settlement in the region.^[4]

Flag and coat of arms of the Székelys

The historical Székely seats on the map of present-day Romania

Székelys (or Szeklers) live in the valleys and hills of the Eastern Carpathian Mountains, corresponding mostly to the present-day Harghita, Covasna, and parts of Mureș counties in Romania.

Originally, the name Székely Land denoted the territories of a number of autonomous Székely seats within Transylvania. The self-governing Székely seats had their own administrative system,^[7] and existed as legal entities from medieval times until the 1870s. The privileges of the Székely and Saxon seats were abolished and seats were replaced with counties in 1876.

Along with Transylvania and eastern parts of Hungary proper, the Székely Land became a part of Romania in 1920, in accordance with the Treaty of Trianon. In August 1940, as a consequence of the Second Vienna Award, northern territories of Transylvania, including the Székely Land, were returned to Hungary. Northern Transylvania came under the control of Soviet and Romanian forces in 1944,^[8][9][10] and were confirmed as part of Romania by the Paris Peace Treaties signed after World War II.

Under the name Magyar Autonomous Region, with Târgu-Mureș as capital,^[11] parts of the Székely Land enjoyed a certain level of autonomy between 8 September 1952 and 16 February 1968.

There are territorial autonomy initiatives with the aim to obtain self-governance for this region within Romania.

Geography

See also: List of Székely settlements

The exact territory of the present-day Székely Land is not disputed. The boundaries of the historical Székely does not exist legally seats and the present-day administrative divisions of Romania are dissimilar. According to Minahan its territory is an estimated 16,943 square kilometres (6,542 sq mi).^[4] The autonomy proposal of the Szekler National Council consists of about 13,000 km². This size is close to the extent of the historical Székely Land. However, it does not contain the region of Aranyos Seat. The UDMR's autonomy project covers a slightly bigger territory. It includes the whole territories of Mureș, Harghita, and Covasna counties.

History

See also: History of the Székely people and Hungarians in Romania

 

The Székely flag flown in Kurultáj in 2014

The ancient period

See also: Celts in Transylvania, Dacian kingdom, Roman Dacia, Thervingi, Huns, and Gepids

Transylvania was populated by Thracian peoples in the First Iron Age. The area received a large influx of Scythians from the East in the first half of the first millennium BC. The Celts appeared in Transylvania in the La Tène period (c. 4th century BC).

Dacian culture presence in southeastern Transylvania is marked by discoveries such as the flagship hoard Sâncrăieni (Harghita county) or Dacian fortresses in Covasna county (Cetatea Zânelor) or Jigodin (Harghita county).

Dacian Kingdom led by Decebal the Romanian ancestors, was taken after two wars, in 106 AD by the Roman Empire under the emperor Trajan, who began organizing the new Roman province of Dacia. Southeastern Transylvania was included in the provinces of Dacia Porolissensis, Dacia Apulensis and Meuse and fortified with numerous camps such as those at Inlăceni ( Praetoria Augusta) and Sânpaul (Harghita county) Breţcu (Angustia) and Oltenia (Covasna county) or Brâncoveneşti and Călugăreni (Mureș county).

After the fall of Roman Dacia, the present-day territory of the Székely Land became part of the Thervingi kingdom "Gutthiuda". The migration of the Huns from the east pressured most of the German tribes to leave. In the Battle of Nedao the East Germanic Gepids defeated the Huns and founded Gepidia in the territory of present-day Transylvania. This marked the end of the Hunnic Empire.

The medieval period

See also: History of the Székely people

The territory of the Székely Land was part of the Avar Khaganate^{[citation needed]}. During this period, Avar and Slavic groups migrated into Transylvania^{[citation needed]}. From around 900 to 1526 the area was under the direct control of the Hungarian state^{[citation needed]}. The Székelys presumably settled in Transylvania in the 12th century from present day Bihar and Bihor counties^{[citation needed]}.

Ancient Hungarian legends suggest a connection between the Székelys and Attila's Huns^{[citation needed]}. The origin of the Székely people is still debated. The Székely seats were the traditional self-governing territorial units of the Transylvanian Székelys during medieval times^{[citation needed]}. (Saxons were also organised in seats.) The Seats were not part of the traditional Hungarian county system, and their inhabitants enjoyed a higher level of freedom (especially until the 18th century) than those living in the counties^{[citation needed]}.

From the 12th and 13th centuries, the Székely Land enjoyed a considerable but varying amount of autonomy, first as a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, then inside the Principality of Transylvania^{[citation needed]}. The autonomy was largely due to the military service the Székely provided until the beginning of the 18th century^{[citation needed]}. The medieval Székely Land was an alliance of the seven autonomous Székely seats of Udvarhely, Csík, Maros, Sepsi, Kézdi, Orbai and Aranyos. The number of seats later decreased to five, when Sepsi, Kézdi and Orbai seats were united into one territorial unit called Háromszék (literally Three seats)^{[citation needed]}.

The main seat was Udvarhely seat, which was also called the Principal seat (Latin: Capitalis Sedes)^[12] At Székelyudvarhely (Odorheiu Secuiesc) were held many national assemblies of the Székelys^[13] A known exception is the 1554 assembly, which took place at Marosvásárhely (Târgu Mureș)^[14]

Modern era

See also: Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711), and Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867)

Due to the Ottoman conquest Transylvania became a semi-independent polity. From the end of the 17th century, Transylvania became part of the Habsburg monarchy (later Austrian Empire), and governed by imperial governors.^[15] In 1848 during the Hungarian revolution and freedom war it was declared the reunion of Hungary proper and Transylvania. The Austrian emperor incited the Romanians and Serbians living in Hungary and Transylvania against the Hungarians, promising them some kind of autonomy. In 1867, as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, Transylvania become again an integral part of the Kingdom of Hungary, within Austria-Hungary.

In 1876, a general administrative reform abolished all the autonomous areas in the Kingdom of Hungary and created a unified system of counties. As a result, the autonomy of the Székely Land came to an end as well. Four counties were created in its place: Udvarhely, Háromszék, Csík, and Maros-Torda. (Only half of the territory of Maros-Torda originally belonged to the Székely Land.) The isolated Aranyosszék became a district of Torda-Aranyos county.

In December 1918, in the wake of the First World War, Romanian delegates from throughout Transylvania voted to join the Kingdom of Romania. There was an attempt in Udvarhely to found a "Székely republic" on 9 January 1919; however, its creation was unsuccessful.^[16] In 1920, by the Treaty of Trianon, Transylvania along with further territories was officially ceded to the Kingdom of Romania. The Romanian language officially replaced Hungarian in the Székely Land, but Székely county boundaries were preserved, and Székely districts were able to elect their own officials at local level and to preserve Hungarian-language education.

After 1930, the Romanian authorities began to Romanianize the Hungarian population of the Székely Land,^[17] with the presence of minorities in political life being repressed.^[18] The election of Hungarians was consistently nullified.^[18] The place-names were subjected to Romanianization.^[18] The minority languages were excised from official life and the local authorities were mostly led by appointed ethnic Romanians.^[18]

In 1940, as a result of the Second Vienna Award, Northern Transylvania became part of Hungary again; this territory included most of the historical Székely areas. Hungarian authorities subsequently restored the pre-Trianon structure with slight modifications.^{[citation needed]} Ion Gigurtu's antisemitic laws, the Romanian version of Nuremberg Laws, were replaced by Hungarian ones. The Jews of the Székely Land were subjected to particularly harsh treatment. These individuals had their citizenship status reviewed, many of them being detained. In Csíkszereda (Miercurea Ciuc), dozens of families were rounded up and expelled. The men in the area were drafted into forced labor battalions.^[19] For example, 1,200 Jewish males of Marosvásárhely (Târgu Mureș) were conscripted between 1941 and 1944; over half died in Ukraine, Poland and Hungary.^[20]

However, despite discrimination and many casualties, most of the community lived in relative safety until the March 1944 occupation of Hungary by Nazi Germany. A conference devoted to the concentration of Jews in the Székely Land was held on 28 April 1944; it covered the counties of Csík, Háromszék, Maros-Torda and Udvarhely. The area's Jews were ghettoized in Szászrégen (Reghin), Sepsiszentgyörgy (Sfântu Gheorghe) and Marosvásárhely. Roundups began on 3 May 1944 and were completed within a week. The Hungarian authorities actively participated in the crimes of the Nazis. The Jews ghettoized at Sepsiszentgyörgy were later sent to Szászrégen, whence on 4 June 1944, 3,149 were boarded on a train bound for the Auschwitz concentration camp. Three transports left Marosvásáhely for Auschwitz: on 27 May, 30 May and 8 June 1944; altogether, they carried 7,549 Jews.^[19]

 

The Székely Land as envisaged by the autonomy supporters based on the historical Székely seats

On 12 September 1944, the Second Vienna Award was voided by the Allied Commission through the Armistice Agreement with Romania, and the Romanian-Soviet forces seized the area in Autumn 1944; however, the Romanian administration was expelled from these territories in October due to the activities of the Romanian paramilitary groups created in the area to avenge the atrocities committed by the Hungarians against the Romanians during the Hungarian rule in Northern Transylvania.^[21][22] For instance, the so-called Iuliu Maniu Guards terrorized the Székely villages, butchered the local Hungarians by axe and hatchet^[1] and operated a death camp in Feldioara.^[23][24][25] This paramilitary group was described as "a band of terrorist-chauvinistic criminals"^[26] by the Soviets. The USSR let the Romanian authorities back to the area in March 1945,^[21] and the Paris Peace Treaties officially returned Northern Transylvania to Romania.

Following the Northern Transylvania's return to Romania after World War II, a Magyar Autonomous Region was created in 1952 under the Soviets' pressure,^[27][28] which encompassed most of the land inhabited by the Székelys. In 1960, the region was renamed to Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region. It was abolished in 1968, when Romania, following an administrative reform, returned to its traditional local administrative system based on counties. Roughly speaking, present-day Harghita County encompasses the former Udvarhely and Csík, the latter including Gyergyószék; Covasna County covers more or less the territory of the former Háromszék; and what was once Maros-Torda is mostly part of present-day Mureș County. The former Aranyosszék is today divided between Cluj and Alba counties.

Nicolae Ceaușescu came to power in 1965. For the next couple of decades, due to the Romanianization efforts, a large number^[quantify] of ethnic Romanians settled in the Székely Land.^[29] Those Székely Hungarians who possessed degrees were subjected to resettlement.^[29] In March 1990, the city of Târgu Mureș witnessed violent clashes between ethnic Romanian and Hungarian groups.

After the fall of communism, many^[who?] hoped that the former Magyar Autonomous Region, abolished by Nicolae Ceauşescu's regime, would soon be restored. This did not happen; however, there are Székely autonomy initiatives^[30][31] and further efforts from Székely organisations to reach a higher level of self-governance for the Székely Land within Romania.

On 4 June 2005, the Civic Forum of the Romanians of Covasna, Harghita and Mureș was founded in Miercurea Ciuc. It is an organization aimed at organizing the ethnic Romanian population in the counties that compose Székely Land.^[32]

On 2 February 2009, Romanian President Traian Băsescu met the Hungarian President László Sólyom in Budapest and discussed the issues of minority rights and regional autonomy. Băsescu stated "The Hungarian minority will never be given territorial autonomy."^[33]

In 2014, the UDMR and the Hungarian Civic Party had a joint autonomy proposal for the Székely Land, but the Szekler National Council also possessed its own suggestion.

In 2016, Hans G. Klemm, the United States Ambassador to Romania, together with other local officials, were pictured with a Székely flag during his visit to the Székely Land. The photo was posted by the mayor of Sfântu Gheorghe on Facebook. The reactions of the politicians in Bucharest were turbulent. In a response Klemm affirmed that the only two flags that are important to him, as a diplomat, are the U.S. and the Romanian ones.^[34][35][36]

•  
  Traditional Székely Land (19th century)
•  
  Hungarian autonomous provinces under the Communist era
•  
  Present-day counties of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureș within Romania

Constitutional issues

Article 1 of the Romanian Constitution defines the country as a "sovereign, independent, unitary and indivisible national state." It has often been argued^{[by whom?]} that, as a result of this provision, any ethnic-based territorial autonomy, including that of the Székely Land, would be unconstitutional.

The Supreme Council of National Defence of Romania declared that an autonomy of the so-called Székely Land would be unconstitutional.^[37]

Population

Main article: Székelys

In 2002 the estimated ethnic composition of the Székely Land (Mureș, Covasna and Harghita counties) consisted of Hungarians (66%), Romanians (29%), Germans (1%) and Roma (4%).^[4] The area forms a Hungarian ethnic enclave within present-day Romania.^[1][5] Locals refer this situation as "Everybody speaks Hungarian, here you have to speak Romanian with police and public officials".^[38]

The population of the historical Székely Land (according to the 2002 census) is 409,000, 312,043 of them Hungarians, accounting for 76.65% of the total.^[39] The Hungarians represent 59% of the populations of Harghita, Covasna and Mureș counties. The percentage of Hungarians is higher in Harghita and Covasna (84.8% and 73.58% respectively), and lower in Mureș County, (38.82%).

According to the 2011 official census, 570,033 Hungarians (53.22%) live in the counties of Covasna, Harghita and Mureș (out of a total population of 1,071,890 inhabitants). In Mureș county the Romanians have a slight majority (52.6%), while in the counties of Covasna and Harghita, the Hungarians make up the majority (79.6% and 85.9%).^[40][41] The 2011 census compared to the data of the previous census (2002) also shows that the Romanian ethnic ratio in the Székely Land has been decreasing (due to emigration).^[42]

Târgu Mureș is the home for the largest community of Hungarians in Romania (60,669 in 2011), but the town itself has a Romanian majority (69,702 out of 134,290 inhabitants).^[43]

Important centers of the Székely Land are Târgu-Mureș (Marosvásárhely), Miercurea Ciuc (Csíkszereda), Sfântu Gheorghe (Sepsiszentgyörgy), and Odorheiu Secuiesc (Székelyudvarhely).

Romania according to ethnic group in Harghita, Covasna and Mureș (Censuses 1930–2021) Source: National Institute of Statistics - INS Romania^[44]
Ethnic group			1930			1956			1966			1977			1992			2002			2011			2021
			Harghita	Covasna	Mureș	Harghita	Covasna	Mureș	Harghita	Covasna	Mureș	Harghita	Covasna	Mureș	Harghita	Covasna	Mureș	Harghita	Covasna	Mureș	Harghita	Covasna	Mureș	Harghita	Covasna	Mureș
Hungarians	%		86.61	76.69	41.59	89.55	79.07	45.18	88.14	79.43	44.46	85.07	78.45	44.31	84.72	75.24	41.42	84.65	73.82	39.31	85.21	73.74	38.09	85.67	71.77	35.58
	Pop		216,615	116,961	176,990	245,300	136,388	231,875	248,886	140,472	249,675	277,587	156,120	268,251	295,104	175,502	252,651	276,038	164,158	228,275	257,707	150,468	200,858	232,157	133,444	165,014
	Total	%	61.65			63.94			62.60			62.08			60.70			59.20			58.91			57.63
		Pop	510,566			613,563			639,033			701,958			723,257			668,471			609,033			530,615
Romanians	%		9.99	19.94	43.55	9.38	18.21	47.49	11.07	19.28	49.57	13.73	19.57	49.10	14.05	23.40	52.05	14.07	23.29	53.27	12.96	22.06	52.60	12.41	22.99	54.42
	Pop		24,996	30,405	185,367	25,694	31,416	243,720	31,272	34,099	278,386	44,794	38,948	297,205	48,948	54,586	317,541	45,870	51,790	309,375	39,196	45,021	277,372	33,634	42,752	252,400
	Total	%	29.07			31.35			33.68			33.69			35.34			36.05			34.98			35.71
		Pop	240,768			300,830			343,757			380,947			421,075			407,035			361,589			328,786
Romani	%		1.08	2.02	4.10	0.55	2.00	2.69	0.49	0.83	2.03	0.99	1.77	3.31	1.10	1.13	5.70	1.18	2.69	6.96	1.76	4.05	8.90	1.82	5.11	9.68
	Pop		2,702	3,080	17,444	1,514	3,450	13,804	1,390	1,465	11,402	3,228	3,522	20,019	3,827	2,641	34,798	3,835	5,973	40,425	5,326	8,267	46,947	4,928	9,507	44,880
	Total	%	2.80			1.96			1.40			2.37			3.46			4.45			5.86			6.44
		Pop	23,226			18,768			14,257			26,769			41,266			50,233			60,540			59,315

•  
  Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureș based on the 1992 data, showing areas with Hungarian majority
•  
  Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureș based on the 2002 data, showing areas with Hungarian majority
•  
  Ethnic map of Harghita, Covasna, and Mureș based on the 2011 data, showing areas with Hungarian majority

Culture

 

The contemporary building of the Târgu Mureș National Theatre inaugurated in 1973

Theatres and orchestras

• Târgu Mureș National Theatre is the continuator of the Székely Theater established in 1946 by Miklós Tompa; it has two language sections, Hungarian and Romanian
• Tamási Áron Theatre in Sfântu Gheorghe, established in 1948
• Ariel Theatre for Children and Youth in Târgu Mureș, established in 1949 (Hungarian and Romanian sections)
• Târgu Mureș State Philharmonic Orchestra, established in 1950
• Figura Stúdió Theatre in Gheorgheni (1990)
• Csíki Játékszín Municipal Theatre in Miercurea Ciuc (1998)
• Tomcsa Sándor Theatre in Odorheiu Secuiesc (1998)

Mass media

Public

• TVR Târgu Mureș (Hungarian and Romanian sections)
• Radio Târgu Mureș (Hungarian and Romanian sections)

Private

• Erdély TV (Târgu Mureș)
• Erdély FM (Târgu Mureș)
• Radio GaGa (Târgu Mureș)
• Sepsi Rádió (Sfântu Gheorghe)
• Siculus Rádió (Târgu Secuiesc)

Education

 

Teleki-Bolyai Library

• Teleki Library in Târgu Mureș (1802)
• University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Târgu Mureș (1945)
• Târgu Mureș University of Arts (1946)
• Sapientia University (2001) (in Târgu Mureș and Miercurea Ciuc)

The following is a list of the most known high schools of each city:

• Târgu-Mureş/Marosvásárhely: Bolyai Farkas, Unirea, Alexandru Papiu Ilirian^[45]
• Sovata/Szováta:Domokos Kázmér^[46]
• Odorheiu-Secuiesc/Székelyudvarhely: Tamási Áron, Benedek Elek ^[47]
• Cristuru-Secuiesc/Székelykeresztúr: Orbán Balázs^[48]
• Miercurea Ciuc/Csíkszereda: Márton Áron, Octavian Goga^[49]
• Gheorgheni/Gyergyószentmiklós: Salamon Ernő^[50]
• Topliţa/Maroshévíz: O. C. Tăslăuanu^[51]
• Sfântu-Gheorghe/Sepsiszentgyörgy: Székely Mikó, Mihai Viteazul, Mikes Kelemen^[52]
• Târgu-Secuiesc/Kézdivásárhely: Nagy Mózes^[53]
• Covasna/Kovászna: Kőrösi Csoma Sándor^[54]

Those in italic have the Romanian language as their medium of instruction.

Sport

The Székely ice hockey team Sport Club of Csíkszereda, with mainly home trained, local players (Székelys), plays simultaneously in the Erste League (Hungarian League) and in the Romanian Ice Hockey Championship. Starting with the 2010/2011 season, the Sport Club ice hockey team participated at the championships under the name HSC Csíkszereda and that year it won its first Erste League title as well.

The team's main achievements so far: The Romanian Championship (fifteen times winner): 1949, 1952, 1957, 1960, 1963, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013. The Romanian Cup (ten times winner): 1950, 1952, 1995, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011, 2014. Pannonian League (one-time winner): 2004. Erste League (one-time winner): 2011.^[55]

The majority of the Romanian men's national ice hockey team consist of Székely players. The national team are ranked 28th in the 2010 IIHF World Rankings and currently compete in Division IIA.

The Székely Land football team represents the Székely Land in ConIFA competitions.

Tourist attractions

 

Fortified church of Aita Mare

• Székely fortified churches – more than 20 Székely villages count fortified churches
• Baroque church at Șumuleu Ciuc (Csíksomlyó), a major Roman Catholic pilgrimage site
• Rural tourism
• Hiking in the Carpathians
• Mofette, spas
• Mineral springs, thermal baths
• Salt mines (treatment against allergy and asthma)
• Traditional Székely handicrafts (pottery, wood carving)
• Mikó Castle
• Kálnoky Castle
• Teleki Library
• Székely National Museum (Muzeul Național Secuiesc/Székely Nemzeti Múzeum), Sfântu Gheorghe/Sepsiszentgyörgy
• Székely Museum of Ciuc (Muzeul Secuiesc al Ciucului/Csíki Székely Múzeum), Miercurea-Ciuc/Csíkszereda

Image gallery

•  
  The fortified church of Dârjiu/Székelyderzs is on UNESCO's World Heritage List
•  
  St. Stephen chapel of Sânzieni/Kézdiszentlélek, originally built in the 12th century
•  
  Lázár Castle
•  
  Mikó Castle
•  
  Pottery shop in Corund/Korond
•  
  Mountains surrounding the Red Lake
•  
  Târgu Secuiesc/Kézdivásárhely, town in the Székely Land
•  
  A typical Székely gate in Remetea/Gyergyóremete
•  
  Decorated wooden weaving tool from the Székely Land
•  
  Kürtőskalács, a local treat
•  
  Salt-water lake in Sovata/Szováta
•  
  Áron Gábor's sculpture in Bretcu/Bereck
•  
  Alexander Csoma de Kőrös' statue in Covasna/Kovászna
•  
  Sacrifice cup – Csíkszentmihályi Sándor family
•  
  Székely flag flying above the Hungarian Parliament Building, Budapest
•  
  Demonstration in Budapest on the Székely Freedom Day

See also

• Hungarians in Romania
• Magyar Autonomous Region
• Csángó Land
• Partium
• Szekler National Council
• Székely himnusz
• Székely Land football team

Notes

1.^ "The Romanian hatred of Hungarians reminds us of the Croatian hatred of Serbs. Olteanu's method was to decapitate the men "by the use of axes" or impale them in front of their families" (Eric Markusen, David Kopf, The Holocaust and strategic bombing: genocide and total war in the twentieth century, Westview Press, 1995, p. 116)

References

1. Béla Tomka, A Social History of Twentieth-Century Europe, Routledge, 2013, p. 411
2. Montague, James (6 February 2013). "Symbol of a Struggle". The New York Times. from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
3. Schöpflin, George (2002). Nations, Identity, Power: The New Politics of Europe. London: Hurst. p. 404. ISBN 9781850654100.
4. Minahan, James (2002). "Szeklers". Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World. Vol. 4: S-Z. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 1810. ISBN 9780313323843.
5. Sherrill Stroschein, Ethnic Struggle, Coexistence, and Democratization in Eastern Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 210 Cited: "Székely, a Hungarian sub-group that is concentrated in the mountainous Hungarian enclave"
6. Ramet, Sabrina Petra, ed. (1992). Protestantism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia: The Communist and Postcommunist Eras. Vol. 3. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 160. ISBN 0-8223-1241-7. ...the Szekler community, now regarded as a subgroup of the Hungarian people.
7. Hévizi, Józsa (2005). Autonomies in Hungary and Europe: A Comparative Study. Translated by DeKornfeld, Thomas J. Corvinus Society. p. 195. ISBN 9781882785179.
8. Kürti, László (2001). The Remote Borderland: Transylvania in the Hungarian Imagination. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-7914-5023-6.
9. Kane, Robert B. (2014). "Romanian Campaign in Hungary, 1944–1945". In Hall, Richard C. (ed.). War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-61069-031-7.
10. "The Armistice Agreement with Rumania; September 12, 1944". The Avalon Project. from the original on July 10, 2011. Retrieved April 10, 2015.
11. Bottoni, Stefano (2008). "A romániai modell sajátosságai: a Magyar Autonóm Tartomány. A Ceauşescu- féle modell és a román államnacionalizmus" (PDF). In Nándor, Bárdi; Fedinec, Csilla; Szarka, László (eds.). Kisebbségi Magyar Közösségek a 20. Században (in Hungarian). Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó — MTA Kisebbségkutató Intézet. pp. 246–249. (PDF) from the original on 2013-10-29.
12. Pascu, Ștefan (1972). Voievodatul Transilvaniei. Vol. 4 (2nd ed.). Cluj: Dacia. ISBN 973-35-0005-4.
13. ""capitalis sedes" – Cutare Google". from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
14. Balogh, Judit (2005). A székely nemesség kialakulásának folyamata a 17. század első felében (PDF) (in Hungarian). Kolozsvár: Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület. ISBN 973-8231-48-5. (PDF) from the original on 2013-10-29.
15. . Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2015-04-20. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
16. Zoltán, Szász, ed. (2002). . Vol. 3: From 1830 to 1919. Atlantic Research and Publications. p. 784. ISBN 0-88033-497-5. Archived from the original on 2021-07-21.
17. Sándor Bíró, The Nationalities Problem in Transylvania, 1867–1940: A Social History of the Romanian Minority Under Hungarian Rule, 1867–1918 and of the Hungarian Minority Under Romanian Rule, 1918–1940, Social Science Monographs, 1992, p. 486.
18. Mandelbaum, Michael, ed. (2000). The New European Diasporas: National Minorities and Conflict in Eastern Europe. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press. p. 33.
19. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-08., part of the Final Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, at the Yad Vashem site
20. Spector, Shmuel, ed. (2001). "Targu-Mures". The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust. This period is well known for the atrocities committed by the Hungarian army which, when it entered Romania, massacred the Romanians and Saxons indiscriminately, and there are writings and evidence explaining and showing genocide. Vol. 3: Seredina-Buda - Z. New York, New York: New York University Press. p. 1289. ISBN 0-8147-9378-9.
21. Brubaker, Rogers; Feischmidt, Margit; Fox, Jon; Grancea, Liana (2006). Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 80.
22. Holly Case (5 May 2009). Between States: The Transylvanian Question and the European Idea during World War II. Stanford University Press. pp. 285–. ISBN 978-0-8047-8755-0.
23. FBIS Daily Report: East Europe, Issues 159–169, Issues 159–169, The Service, 1988, p. 6
24. The New Hungarian Quarterly, Volumes 31–32, Corvina Press, 1990, p. 34
25. "Magyar civilek internálása 1944 őszén Romániában, Hungarian Civilians' Relocation in the Autumn of 1944 in Romania. The Death Camp from Feldioara in the Collective Memory)" 2019-01-30 at the Wayback Machine, Hungarians from Transylvania in Soviet Captivity between 1945 and 1953 – Lectures, Exhibitions at Sapientia University –
26. Bogdan C. Iacob, History of Communism in Europe vol. 3 / 2012, Zeta Books, 2012, p. 53
27. Nicolae Edroiu, Vasile Pușcaș, The Hungarians of Romania, Fundația Culturală Română, 1996, p. 27
28. Plural Societies, Volume 18, Foundation for the Study of Plural Societies., 1988, p. 71
29. Ingrid Piller, Linguistic Diversity and Social Justice: An Introduction to Applied Sociolinguistics, Oxford University Press, 2016, p. 101
30. Kulish, Nicholas (2008-04-07). "Kosovo's Actions Hearten a Hungarian Enclave". The New York Times. from the original on 2013-05-24. Retrieved 2008-04-08.
32. "A fost înființat Forumul Civic al Românilor din Harghita și Covasna". Basilica News Agency (in Romanian). 4 June 2005.
33. . Archived from the original on 2015-04-17. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
34. "Romania: US Ambassador in Minority Group Flag Controversy". abcnews. 14 September 2016. from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
35. AGERPRES. "US Embassy: Klemm ambassador to all of Romania; MAE: Visiting diplomats need to consider." www.agerpres.ro. from the original on 2016-09-23. Retrieved 2016-09-22.
36. "New reactions in row over photo showing American ambassador holding Szekely flag: We were not "dishonest" with ambassador U.S Ambassador, says Sfantu Gheorghe Mayor". 16 September 2016. from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
37. "Proiectul de autonomie a "Ţinutului secuiesc" – iniţiativă separatistă sau un pas pe calea unei reale autonomii locale". BBC. from the original on 21 December 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
38. "Demonstration For The Autonomy Of Székely Land In Washington D.C." Hungary Today. 2016-03-08. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
39. Zsolt Árus. "The szeklers and their struggle for autonomy – SZNC – Szekler National Council". Archived from the original on 16 April 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
40. "Maros (Mureș) - statisztikai adatlap".
41. "Rezultatele recensământului din 2011". from the original on 2020-05-09. Retrieved 2015-04-04.
42. Horváth István, Tonk Márton, Minority politics within the Europe of regions, Editura ISPMN, 2014, p. 205
43. (PDF) (Report) (in Romanian). National Institute of Statistics (Romania). 2012-08-24. p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-16. Retrieved 2015-04-04.
44. "2.1. Populația după etnie pe județe la recensămintele din perioada 1930-2021". www.insse.ro (in Romanian). INS Romania.
45. "Marosvásárhely Info: Iskolák".
46. "Domokos Kázmér Óvoda, Gimnázium és Szakközépiskola".
47. "Oktatási Intézmények".
48. https://keresztur.info/hasznos/oktat%C3%A1s.html
49. "Csíkszereda Városháza › Iskolák".
50. "Oktatási intézmények - Gyergyószentmiklós - Gheorgheni".
51. "Instituții de învățământ".
52. "Líceumok".
53. "Iskolák, óvodák, oktatási intézmények".
54. "Főoldal".
55. "Csíkszeredai Sportklub – A Short Historical Overview". www.sportclub.ro. from the original on 2017-09-29. Retrieved 2017-09-29.

External links

 

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Székely Land.

• Székely Anthem
• Szeklerland Portal 2016-04-22 at the Wayback Machine
• Szekler National Council 2020-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
• The Population of Covasna and Harghita Counties. Aspects of Interethnic Co-Existence
• Kézdi.Infó Digital Community Service