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Supervolcano

October 15, 2023

For other uses, see Supervolcano (disambiguation).

A supervolcano is a volcano that has had an eruption with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 8, the largest recorded value on the index. This means the volume of deposits for such an eruption is greater than 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cubic miles).[1]

Map of known VEI 7 and VEI 8 volcanoes around the world:
  Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 8 (Supervolcanoes)
  Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 7
Location of Yellowstone hotspot over time. Numbers indicate millions of years before the present.
Satellite image of Lake Toba, the site of a VEI 8 eruption c. 75,000 years ago
Cross-section through Long Valley Caldera

Supervolcanoes occur when magma in the mantle rises into the crust but is unable to break through it. Pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure and ruptures. This can occur at hotspots (for example, Yellowstone Caldera) or at subduction zones (for example, Toba).[2][3]

Large-volume supervolcanic eruptions are also often associated with large igneous provinces, which can cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash. These can cause long-lasting climate change (such as the triggering of a small ice age) and threaten species with extinction. The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand's Taupō Volcano (about 26,500 years ago) was the world's most recent VEI-8 eruption.[4]

Terminology Edit

The term "supervolcano" was first used in a volcanic context in 1949.[note 1]

Its origins lie in an early 20th-century scientific debate about the geological history and features of the Three Sisters volcanic region of Oregon in the United States. In 1925, Edwin T. Hodge suggested that a very large volcano, which he named Mount Multnomah, had existed in that region.[note 2] He believed that several peaks in the Three Sisters area were remnants of Mount Multnomah after it had been largely destroyed by violent volcanic explosions, similarly to Mount Mazama.[6] In his 1948 book The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon, volcanologist Howel Williams ignored the possible existence of Mount Multnomah, but in 1949 another volcanologist, F. M. Byers Jr.,[7] reviewed the book, and in the review, Byers refers to Mount Multnomah as a supervolcano.[8]

More than fifty years after Byers' review was published, the term supervolcano was popularised by the BBC popular science television program Horizon in 2000, referring to eruptions that produce extremely large amounts of ejecta.[9][10]

The term megacaldera is sometimes used for caldera supervolcanoes, such as the Blake River Megacaldera Complex in the Abitibi greenstone belt of Ontario and Quebec, Canada.[11]

Eruptions that rate VEI 8 are termed "super eruptions".[12] Though there is no well-defined minimum explosive size for a "supervolcano", there are at least two types of volcanic eruptions that have been identified as supervolcanoes: large igneous provinces and massive eruptions.[13]

Large igneous provinces Edit

 
Map of large Flood Basalt igneous provinces worldwide
Main article: Large igneous province

Large igneous provinces, such as Iceland, the Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, and the Ontong Java Plateau, are extensive regions of basalts on a continental scale resulting from flood basalt eruptions. When created, these regions often occupy several thousand square kilometres and have volumes on the order of millions of cubic kilometers. In most cases, the lavas are normally laid down over several million years. They release large amounts of gases.

The Réunion hotspot produced the Deccan Traps about 66 million years ago, coincident with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The scientific consensus is that an asteroid impact was the cause of the extinction event, but the volcanic activity may have caused environmental stresses on extant species up to the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary.[14] Additionally, the largest flood basalt event (the Siberian Traps) occurred around 250 million years ago and was coincident with the largest mass extinction in history, the Permian–Triassic extinction event, although it is unknown whether it was solely responsible for the extinction event.

Such outpourings are not explosive, though lava fountains may occur. Many volcanologists consider Iceland to be a large igneous province that is currently being formed. The last major outpouring occurred in 1783–84 from the Laki fissure, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) long. An estimated 14 km3 (3.4 cu mi) of basaltic lava was poured out during the eruption (VEI 4).

The Ontong Java Plateau has an area of about 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi), and the province was at least 50% larger before the Manihiki and Hikurangi Plateaus broke away.

Massive explosive eruptions Edit

See also: List of largest volcanic eruptions

Volcanic eruptions are classified using the Volcanic explosivity index, or VEI. It is a logarithmic scale, and an increase of one in VEI number is equivalent to a tenfold increase in volume of erupted material. VEI 7 or VEI 8 eruptions are so powerful that they often form circular calderas rather than cones because the downward withdrawal of magma causes the overlying rock mass to collapse into the empty magma chamber beneath it.

Known super eruptions Edit

Based on incomplete statistics, at least 60 VEI 8 eruptions have been identified.[13][15] Below is a list of well-known super-eruptions.

VEI 8 eruptions have happened in the following locations.
Name Zone Location Notes Years ago (approx.) Ejecta bulk volume (approx.) Reference
Youngest Toba eruption Toba Caldera, North Sumatra Sumatra, Indonesia Produced 439–631 million tons of sulfuric acid 75,000 2,000–13,200 km3 [16][17][18][19][20][21][22]
Flat Landing Brook Formation Tetagouche Group New Brunswick, Canada Possibly the largest known supereruption. Existence as a single eruption is controversial, and it could have been a multiple 2,000+ km³ event that spanned less than a million years 466,000,000 2,000–12,000 km3 [23][24]
Wah Wah Springs Caldera Indian Peak–Caliente Caldera Complex Utah, United States The largest of the Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex eruptions, preserved as the Wah Wah Springs Tuff; includes pyroclastic flows more than 500 meters (1,600 ft) thick 30,600,000 5,500–5,900 km3 [25][26]
La Garita Caldera San Juan volcanic field Colorado, United States Fish Canyon eruption 27,800,000 5,000 km3 [27][28]
Grey's Landing Supereruption Yellowstone hotspot United States Deposited the Grey's Landing Ignimbrite 8,720,000 2,800 km3 [29]
La Pacana Andes Central Volcanic Zone Chile Responsible for the Antana Ignimbrite 4,000,000 2,500 km3 [30]
Huckleberry Ridge eruption Yellowstone hotspot Idaho, United States Huckleberry Ridge Tuff; consisted of three distinct eruptions separated by years to decades 2,100,000 2,450–2,500 km3 [31][32]
Whakamaru Caldera Taupō Volcanic Zone North Island, New Zealand Whakamaru Ignimbrite/Mount Curl Tephra 340,000 2,000 km3 [33]
Heise Volcanic Field Yellowstone hotspot Idaho, United States Kilgore Tuff 4,500,000 1,800 km3 [34]
McMullen Supereruption Yellowstone hotspot Southern Idaho, United States McMullen Ignimbrite 8,990,000 1,700 km3 [29]
Heise Volcanic Field Yellowstone hotspot Idaho, United States Blacktail Tuff 6,000,000 1,500 km3 [34]
Cerro Guacha Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex Sur Lípez, Bolivia Guacha ignimbrite, two smaller eruptions identified 5,700,000 1,300 km3 [35]
Mangakino Caldera Taupō Volcanic Zone North Island, New Zealand Kidnappers eruption 1,080,000 1,200 km3 [36]
Oruanui eruption Taupō Volcanic Zone North Island, New Zealand Taupō Volcano (Lake Taupō) 26,500 1,170 km3 [37]
Galán Andes Central Volcanic Zone Catamarca, Argentina Consisted of three distinct eruptions, separated by 30-40 thousand years 2,500,000 1,050 km3 [38]
Lava Creek eruption Yellowstone hotspot Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, United States Lava Creek Tuff; consisted of two distinct eruptions separated by years 640,000 1,000 km3 [31][32][26]

Media portrayal Edit

  • Nova featured an episode "Mystery of the Megavolcano" in September 2006 examining such eruptions in the last 100,000 years.[39]
  • Supervolcano is the title of a British-Canadian television disaster film, first released in 2005. It tells a fictional story of a supereruption at Yellowstone.
  • In the 2009 disaster film 2012, a supereruption of Yellowstone is one of the events that contributes to a global cataclysm.

Gallery Edit

  •  

    Volcano, lake, and caldera locations in the Taupō Volcanic Zone

See also Edit

Notes Edit

  1. ^ The term entered the English language already in a 1925 book, Conquering the World by Helen Bridgeman, about Indonesia to refer to an Indian Ocean sunset.[5]
  2. ^ Subsequent research proved that each peak of the Three Sisters was formed independently, and that Mount Multnomah never existed.[citation needed]

References Edit

  1. ^ "Questions About Supervolcanoes". Volcanic Hazards Program. USGS Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. 21 August 2015. from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
  2. ^ Wotzlaw, Jörn-Frederik; Bindeman, Ilya N.; Watts, Kathryn E.; Schmitt, Axel K.; Caricchi, Luca; Schaltegger, Urs (September 2014). "Linking rapid magma reservoir assembly and eruption trigger mechanisms at evolved Yellowstone-type supervolcanoes". Geology. 42 (9): 807–810. Bibcode:2014Geo....42..807W. doi:10.1130/g35979.1. ISSN 1943-2682.
  3. ^ Budd, David A.; Troll, Valentin R.; Deegan, Frances M.; Jolis, Ester M.; Smith, Victoria C.; Whitehouse, Martin J.; Harris, Chris; Freda, Carmela; Hilton, David R.; Halldórsson, Sæmundur A.; Bindeman, Ilya N. (25 January 2017). "Magma reservoir dynamics at Toba caldera, Indonesia, recorded by oxygen isotope zoning in quartz". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 40624. Bibcode:2017NatSR...740624B. doi:10.1038/srep40624. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5264179. PMID 28120860.
  4. ^ Wilson, C. J. N. (2001). "The 26.5ka Oruanui eruption, New Zealand: An introduction and overview". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 112 (1–4): 133–174. Bibcode:2001JVGR..112..133W. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(01)00239-6.
  5. ^ [1][when?]
  6. ^ Harris, Stephen (1988) Fire Mountains of the West: The Cascade and Mono Lake Volcanoes, Missoula, Mountain Press.
  7. ^ Byers Jr., F. M. (1949) Reviews: The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon by Howel Williams 8 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, The Journal of Geology, volume 57, number 3, May 1949, page 324. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
  8. ^ supervolcano, n. Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, online version June 2012. Retrieved on 2012-08-17.
  9. ^ Supervolcanoes 1 August 2003 at the Wayback Machine. Bbc.co.uk (3 February 2000). Retrieved on 2011-11-18.
  10. ^ USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Vulcan.wr.usgs.gov. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.
  11. ^ Pearson, V.; Daigneault, R. (January 2009). "An Archean megacaldera complex: The Blake River Group, Abitibi greenstone belt". Precambrian Research. 168 (1–2): 66–82. Bibcode:2009PreR..168...66P. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2008.03.009.
  12. ^ de Silva, Shanaka (2008). "Arc magmatism, calderas, and supervolcanos". Geology. 36 (8): 671–672. Bibcode:2008Geo....36..671D. doi:10.1130/focus082008.1.
  13. ^ a b Bryan, S.E. (2010). "The largest volcanic eruptions on Earth" (PDF). Earth-Science Reviews. 102 (3–4): 207–229. Bibcode:2010ESRv..102..207B. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.001.
  14. ^ Keller, G (2014). "Deccan volcanism, the Chicxulub impact, and the end-Cretaceous mass extinction: Coincidence? Cause and effect?". Geological Society of America Special Papers. 505: 57–89. doi:10.1130/2014.2505(03). ISBN 9780813725055.
  15. ^ BG, Mason (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bull Volcanol. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. S2CID 129680497.
  16. ^ Petraglia, M.; Korisettar, R.; Boivin, N.; Clarkson, C.; Ditchfield, P.; Jones, S.; Koshy, J.; Lahr, M. M.; et al. (2007). "Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption". Science. 317 (5834): 114–116. Bibcode:2007Sci...317..114P. doi:10.1126/science.1141564. PMID 17615356. S2CID 20380351.
  17. ^ Knight, M.D., Walker, G.P.L., Ellwood, B.B., and Diehl, J.F. (1986). "Stratigraphy, paleomagnetism, and magnetic fabric of the Toba Tuffs: Constraints on their sources and eruptive styles". Journal of Geophysical Research. 91 (B10): 10355–10382. Bibcode:1986JGR....9110355K. doi:10.1029/JB091iB10p10355.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Ninkovich, D., Sparks, R.S.J., and Ledbetter, M.T. (1978). "The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, Sumatra: An example of using deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool". Bulletin Volcanologique. 41 (3): 286–298. Bibcode:1978BVol...41..286N. doi:10.1007/BF02597228. S2CID 128626019.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Rose, W.I. & Chesner, C.A. (1987). "Dispersal of ash in the great Toba eruption, 75 ka" (PDF). Geology. 15 (10): 913–917. Bibcode:1987Geo....15..913R. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<913:DOAITG>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2010.
  20. ^ Williams, M.A.J. & Royce, K. (1982). "Quaternary geology of the middle son valley, North Central India: Implications for prehistoric archaeology". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 38 (3–4): 139. Bibcode:1982PPP....38..139W. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(82)90001-3.
  21. ^ Antonio Costa; Victoria C. Smith; Giovanni Macedonio; Naomi E. Matthews (2014). "The magnitude and impact of the Youngest Toba Tuff super-eruption". Frontiers in Earth Science. 2: 16. Bibcode:2014FrEaS...2...16C. doi:10.3389/feart.2014.00016.
  22. ^ Lin, Jiamei; Abbott, Peter M.; Sigl, Michael; Steffensen, Jørgen P.; Mulvaney, Robert; Severi, Mirko; Svensson, Anders (2023). "Bipolar ice-core records constrain possible dates and global radiative forcing following the ~74 ka Toba eruption". Quaternary Science Reviews. 312: 108162. Bibcode:2023QSRv..31208162L. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108162.
  23. ^ "Lexique du substrat rocheux". dnr-mrn.gnb.ca. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
  24. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  25. ^ Tingey, David G.; Hart, Garret L.; Gromme, Sherman; Deino, Alan L.; Christiansen, Eric H.; Best, Myron G. (1 August 2013). "The 36–18 Ma Indian Peak–Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas, southeastern Great Basin, USA: Multicyclic super-eruptions". Geosphere. 9 (4): 864–950. Bibcode:2013Geosp...9..864B. doi:10.1130/GES00902.1.
  26. ^ a b "Volcanic Explosivity Index: Measuring the size of an eruption".
  27. ^ Ort, Michael (22 September 1997). . Northern Arizona University. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  28. ^ Lipman, Peter W. (2 November 2007). "Geologic Map of the Central San Juan Caldera Cluster, Southwestern Colorado". USGS Investigations Series I-2799. from the original on 31 August 2010. Retrieved 6 August 2010. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  29. ^ a b Knott, Thomas; Branney, M.; Reichow, Marc; Finn, David; Tapster, Simon; Coe, Robert (June 2020). "Discovery of two new super-eruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot track (USA): Is the Yellowstone hotspot waning?". Geology. 48 (9): 934–938. Bibcode:2020Geo....48..934K. doi:10.1130/G47384.1. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  30. ^ Lindsay, J. M. (1 March 2001). "Magmatic Evolution of the La Pacana Caldera System, Central Andes, Chile: Compositional Variation of Two Cogenetic, Large-Volume Felsic Ignimbrites". Journal of Petrology. 42 (3): 459–486. Bibcode:2001JPet...42..459L. doi:10.1093/petrology/42.3.459. ISSN 0022-3530.
  31. ^ a b Global Volcanism Program | Volcanoes of the World | Large Holocene Eruptions 13 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Volcano.si.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.
  32. ^ a b "What is a supervolcano? What is a supereruption?".
  33. ^ Froggatt, P. C.; Nelson, C. S.; Carter, L.; Griggs, G.; Black, K. P. (13 February 1986). "An exceptionally large late Quaternary eruption from New Zealand". Nature. 319 (6054): 578–582. Bibcode:1986Natur.319..578F. doi:10.1038/319578a0. S2CID 4332421. The minimum total volume of tephra is 1,200 km3 but probably nearer 2,000 km3, ...
  34. ^ a b Lisa A. Morgan & William C. McIntosh (2005). "Timing and development of the Heise volcanic field, Snake River Plain, Idaho, western USA". GSA Bulletin. 117 (3–4): 288–306. Bibcode:2005GSAB..117..288M. doi:10.1130/B25519.1. S2CID 53648675.
  35. ^ Salisbury, M. J.; Jicha, B. R.; de Silva, S. L.; Singer, B. S.; Jimenez, N. C.; Ort, M. H. (21 December 2010). "40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 123 (5–6): 821–840. Bibcode:2011GSAB..123..821S. doi:10.1130/B30280.1.
  36. ^ Rejuvenation and Repeated Eruption of a 1.0 Ma Supervolcanic System at Mangakino Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2012, abstract #V31C-2797. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  37. ^ Wilson, C. J. N (1 December 2001). "The 26.5ka Oruanui eruption, New Zealand: an introduction and overview". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 112 (1): 133–174. Bibcode:2001JVGR..112..133W. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(01)00239-6. ISSN 0377-0273.
  38. ^ Kay, Suzanne Mahlburg; Coira, Beatriz; Wörner, Gerhard; Kay, Robert W.; Singer, Bradley S. (1 December 2011). "Geochemical, isotopic and single crystal 40Ar/39Ar age constraints on the evolution of the Cerro Galán ignimbrites". Bulletin of Volcanology. 73 (10): 1487–1511. Bibcode:2011BVol...73.1487K. doi:10.1007/s00445-010-0410-7. ISSN 1432-0819.
  39. ^ "Mystery of the Megavolcano" 17 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Pbs.org. Accessed on 2017-10-12.

Further reading Edit

  • Mason, Ben G.; Pyle, David M.; Oppenheimer, Clive (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bulletin of Volcanology. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. S2CID 129680497.
  • Oppenheimer, C. (2011). Eruptions that shook the world. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64112-8.
  • Timmreck, C.; Graf, H.-F. (2006). "The initial dispersal and radiative forcing of a Northern Hemisphere mid-latitude super volcano: a model study". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 6 (1): 35–49. Bibcode:2006ACP.....6...35T. doi:10.5194/acp-6-35-2006.

External links Edit

  • Overview and Transcript of the original BBC program
  • USGS Fact Sheet – Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions – What's in Yellowstone's Future?
  • Supervolcano eruption mystery solved, BBC Science, 6 January 2014

October 15, 2023
supervolcano, other, uses, disambiguation, supervolcano, volcano, that, eruption, with, volcanic, explosivity, index, largest, recorded, value, index, this, means, volume, deposits, such, eruption, greater, than, cubic, kilometers, cubic, miles, known, volcano. For other uses see Supervolcano disambiguation A supervolcano is a volcano that has had an eruption with a Volcanic Explosivity Index VEI of 8 the largest recorded value on the index This means the volume of deposits for such an eruption is greater than 1 000 cubic kilometers 240 cubic miles 1 Map of known VEI 7 and VEI 8 volcanoes around the world Volcanic Explosivity Index VEI 8 Supervolcanoes Volcanic Explosivity Index VEI 7 Location of Yellowstone hotspot over time Numbers indicate millions of years before the present Satellite image of Lake Toba the site of a VEI 8 eruption c 75 000 years agoCross section through Long Valley CalderaSupervolcanoes occur when magma in the mantle rises into the crust but is unable to break through it Pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure and ruptures This can occur at hotspots for example Yellowstone Caldera or at subduction zones for example Toba 2 3 Large volume supervolcanic eruptions are also often associated with large igneous provinces which can cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash These can cause long lasting climate change such as the triggering of a small ice age and threaten species with extinction The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand s Taupō Volcano about 26 500 years ago was the world s most recent VEI 8 eruption 4 Contents 1 Terminology 2 Large igneous provinces 3 Massive explosive eruptions 3 1 Known super eruptions 4 Media portrayal 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksTerminology EditThe term supervolcano was first used in a volcanic context in 1949 note 1 Its origins lie in an early 20th century scientific debate about the geological history and features of the Three Sisters volcanic region of Oregon in the United States In 1925 Edwin T Hodge suggested that a very large volcano which he named Mount Multnomah had existed in that region note 2 He believed that several peaks in the Three Sisters area were remnants of Mount Multnomah after it had been largely destroyed by violent volcanic explosions similarly to Mount Mazama 6 In his 1948 book The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon volcanologist Howel Williams ignored the possible existence of Mount Multnomah but in 1949 another volcanologist F M Byers Jr 7 reviewed the book and in the review Byers refers to Mount Multnomah as a supervolcano 8 More than fifty years after Byers review was published the term supervolcano was popularised by the BBC popular science television program Horizon in 2000 referring to eruptions that produce extremely large amounts of ejecta 9 10 The term megacaldera is sometimes used for caldera supervolcanoes such as the Blake River Megacaldera Complex in the Abitibi greenstone belt of Ontario and Quebec Canada 11 Eruptions that rate VEI 8 are termed super eruptions 12 Though there is no well defined minimum explosive size for a supervolcano there are at least two types of volcanic eruptions that have been identified as supervolcanoes large igneous provinces and massive eruptions 13 Large igneous provinces Edit nbsp Map of large Flood Basalt igneous provinces worldwideMain article Large igneous province Large igneous provinces such as Iceland the Siberian Traps Deccan Traps and the Ontong Java Plateau are extensive regions of basalts on a continental scale resulting from flood basalt eruptions When created these regions often occupy several thousand square kilometres and have volumes on the order of millions of cubic kilometers In most cases the lavas are normally laid down over several million years They release large amounts of gases The Reunion hotspot produced the Deccan Traps about 66 million years ago coincident with the Cretaceous Paleogene extinction event The scientific consensus is that an asteroid impact was the cause of the extinction event but the volcanic activity may have caused environmental stresses on extant species up to the Cretaceous Paleogene boundary 14 Additionally the largest flood basalt event the Siberian Traps occurred around 250 million years ago and was coincident with the largest mass extinction in history the Permian Triassic extinction event although it is unknown whether it was solely responsible for the extinction event Such outpourings are not explosive though lava fountains may occur Many volcanologists consider Iceland to be a large igneous province that is currently being formed The last major outpouring occurred in 1783 84 from the Laki fissure which is approximately 40 km 25 mi long An estimated 14 km3 3 4 cu mi of basaltic lava was poured out during the eruption VEI 4 The Ontong Java Plateau has an area of about 2 000 000 km2 770 000 sq mi and the province was at least 50 larger before the Manihiki and Hikurangi Plateaus broke away Massive explosive eruptions EditSee also List of largest volcanic eruptions Volcanic eruptions are classified using the Volcanic explosivity index or VEI It is a logarithmic scale and an increase of one in VEI number is equivalent to a tenfold increase in volume of erupted material VEI 7 or VEI 8 eruptions are so powerful that they often form circular calderas rather than cones because the downward withdrawal of magma causes the overlying rock mass to collapse into the empty magma chamber beneath it Known super eruptions Edit Based on incomplete statistics at least 60 VEI 8 eruptions have been identified 13 15 Below is a list of well known super eruptions VEI 8 eruptions have happened in the following locations Name Zone Location Notes Years ago approx Ejecta bulk volume approx ReferenceYoungest Toba eruption Toba Caldera North Sumatra Sumatra Indonesia Produced 439 631 million tons of sulfuric acid 75 000 2 000 13 200 km3 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Flat Landing Brook Formation Tetagouche Group New Brunswick Canada Possibly the largest known supereruption Existence as a single eruption is controversial and it could have been a multiple 2 000 km event that spanned less than a million years 466 000 000 2 000 12 000 km3 23 24 Wah Wah Springs Caldera Indian Peak Caliente Caldera Complex Utah United States The largest of the Indian Peak Caliente Caldera Complex eruptions preserved as the Wah Wah Springs Tuff includes pyroclastic flows more than 500 meters 1 600 ft thick 30 600 000 5 500 5 900 km3 25 26 La Garita Caldera San Juan volcanic field Colorado United States Fish Canyon eruption 27 800 000 5 000 km3 27 28 Grey s Landing Supereruption Yellowstone hotspot United States Deposited the Grey s Landing Ignimbrite 8 720 000 2 800 km3 29 La Pacana Andes Central Volcanic Zone Chile Responsible for the Antana Ignimbrite 4 000 000 2 500 km3 30 Huckleberry Ridge eruption Yellowstone hotspot Idaho United States Huckleberry Ridge Tuff consisted of three distinct eruptions separated by years to decades 2 100 000 2 450 2 500 km3 31 32 Whakamaru Caldera Taupō Volcanic Zone North Island New Zealand Whakamaru Ignimbrite Mount Curl Tephra 340 000 2 000 km3 33 Heise Volcanic Field Yellowstone hotspot Idaho United States Kilgore Tuff 4 500 000 1 800 km3 34 McMullen Supereruption Yellowstone hotspot Southern Idaho United States McMullen Ignimbrite 8 990 000 1 700 km3 29 Heise Volcanic Field Yellowstone hotspot Idaho United States Blacktail Tuff 6 000 000 1 500 km3 34 Cerro Guacha Altiplano Puna volcanic complex Sur Lipez Bolivia Guacha ignimbrite two smaller eruptions identified 5 700 000 1 300 km3 35 Mangakino Caldera Taupō Volcanic Zone North Island New Zealand Kidnappers eruption 1 080 000 1 200 km3 36 Oruanui eruption Taupō Volcanic Zone North Island New Zealand Taupō Volcano Lake Taupō 26 500 1 170 km3 37 Galan Andes Central Volcanic Zone Catamarca Argentina Consisted of three distinct eruptions separated by 30 40 thousand years 2 500 000 1 050 km3 38 Lava Creek eruption Yellowstone hotspot Idaho Montana and Wyoming United States Lava Creek Tuff consisted of two distinct eruptions separated by years 640 000 1 000 km3 31 32 26 Media portrayal EditNova featured an episode Mystery of the Megavolcano in September 2006 examining such eruptions in the last 100 000 years 39 Supervolcano is the title of a British Canadian television disaster film first released in 2005 It tells a fictional story of a supereruption at Yellowstone In the 2009 disaster film 2012 a supereruption of Yellowstone is one of the events that contributes to a global cataclysm Gallery Edit nbsp Volcano lake and caldera locations in the Taupō Volcanic ZoneSee also Edit nbsp Volcanoes portalGlobal catastrophic risk Potentially harmful worldwide events Timeline of volcanism on Earth Toba catastrophe theory Supereruption 74 000 years ago that may have caused a global volcanic winter Volcanic winter Temperature anomaly event caused by a volcanic eruptionNotes Edit The term entered the English language already in a 1925 book Conquering the World by Helen Bridgeman about Indonesia to refer to an Indian Ocean sunset 5 Subsequent research proved that each peak of the Three Sisters was formed independently and that Mount Multnomah never existed citation needed References Edit Questions About Supervolcanoes Volcanic Hazards Program USGS Yellowstone Volcano Observatory 21 August 2015 Archived from the original on 3 July 2017 Retrieved 22 August 2017 Wotzlaw Jorn Frederik Bindeman Ilya N Watts Kathryn E Schmitt Axel K Caricchi Luca Schaltegger Urs September 2014 Linking rapid magma reservoir assembly and eruption trigger mechanisms at evolved Yellowstone type supervolcanoes Geology 42 9 807 810 Bibcode 2014Geo 42 807W doi 10 1130 g35979 1 ISSN 1943 2682 Budd David A Troll Valentin R Deegan Frances M Jolis Ester M Smith Victoria C Whitehouse Martin J Harris Chris Freda Carmela Hilton David R Halldorsson Saemundur A Bindeman Ilya N 25 January 2017 Magma reservoir dynamics at Toba caldera Indonesia recorded by oxygen isotope zoning in quartz Scientific Reports 7 1 40624 Bibcode 2017NatSR 740624B doi 10 1038 srep40624 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 5264179 PMID 28120860 Wilson C J N 2001 The 26 5ka Oruanui eruption New Zealand An introduction and overview Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 112 1 4 133 174 Bibcode 2001JVGR 112 133W doi 10 1016 S0377 0273 01 00239 6 1 when Harris Stephen 1988 Fire Mountains of the West The Cascade and Mono Lake Volcanoes Missoula Mountain Press Byers Jr F M 1949 Reviews The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon by Howel Williams Archived 8 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Journal of Geology volume 57 number 3 May 1949 page 324 Retrieved 2012 08 17 supervolcano n Oxford English Dictionary third edition online version June 2012 Retrieved on 2012 08 17 Supervolcanoes Archived 1 August 2003 at the Wayback Machine Bbc co uk 3 February 2000 Retrieved on 2011 11 18 USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Vulcan wr usgs gov Retrieved on 2011 11 18 Pearson V Daigneault R January 2009 An Archean megacaldera complex The Blake River Group Abitibi greenstone belt Precambrian Research 168 1 2 66 82 Bibcode 2009PreR 168 66P doi 10 1016 j precamres 2008 03 009 de Silva Shanaka 2008 Arc magmatism calderas and supervolcanos Geology 36 8 671 672 Bibcode 2008Geo 36 671D doi 10 1130 focus082008 1 a b Bryan S E 2010 The largest volcanic eruptions on Earth PDF Earth Science Reviews 102 3 4 207 229 Bibcode 2010ESRv 102 207B doi 10 1016 j earscirev 2010 07 001 Keller G 2014 Deccan volcanism the Chicxulub impact and the end Cretaceous mass extinction Coincidence Cause and effect Geological Society of America Special Papers 505 57 89 doi 10 1130 2014 2505 03 ISBN 9780813725055 BG Mason 2004 The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth Bull Volcanol 66 8 735 748 Bibcode 2004BVol 66 735M doi 10 1007 s00445 004 0355 9 S2CID 129680497 Petraglia M Korisettar R Boivin N Clarkson C Ditchfield P Jones S Koshy J Lahr M M et al 2007 Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super Eruption Science 317 5834 114 116 Bibcode 2007Sci 317 114P doi 10 1126 science 1141564 PMID 17615356 S2CID 20380351 Knight M D Walker G P L Ellwood B B and Diehl J F 1986 Stratigraphy paleomagnetism and magnetic fabric of the Toba Tuffs Constraints on their sources and eruptive styles Journal of Geophysical Research 91 B10 10355 10382 Bibcode 1986JGR 9110355K doi 10 1029 JB091iB10p10355 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Ninkovich D Sparks R S J and Ledbetter M T 1978 The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption Sumatra An example of using deep sea tephra layers as a geological tool Bulletin Volcanologique 41 3 286 298 Bibcode 1978BVol 41 286N doi 10 1007 BF02597228 S2CID 128626019 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Rose W I amp Chesner C A 1987 Dispersal of ash in the great Toba eruption 75 ka PDF Geology 15 10 913 917 Bibcode 1987Geo 15 913R doi 10 1130 0091 7613 1987 15 lt 913 DOAITG gt 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 0091 7613 Archived PDF from the original on 17 June 2010 Williams M A J amp Royce K 1982 Quaternary geology of the middle son valley North Central India Implications for prehistoric archaeology Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 38 3 4 139 Bibcode 1982PPP 38 139W doi 10 1016 0031 0182 82 90001 3 Antonio Costa Victoria C Smith Giovanni Macedonio Naomi E Matthews 2014 The magnitude and impact of the Youngest Toba Tuff super eruption Frontiers in Earth Science 2 16 Bibcode 2014FrEaS 2 16C doi 10 3389 feart 2014 00016 Lin Jiamei Abbott Peter M Sigl Michael Steffensen Jorgen P Mulvaney Robert Severi Mirko Svensson Anders 2023 Bipolar ice core records constrain possible dates and global radiative forcing following the 74 ka Toba eruption Quaternary Science Reviews 312 108162 Bibcode 2023QSRv 31208162L doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2023 108162 Lexique du substrat rocheux dnr mrn gnb ca Retrieved 22 December 2019 Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 12 December 2019 Retrieved 11 September 2019 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Tingey David G Hart Garret L Gromme Sherman Deino Alan L Christiansen Eric H Best Myron G 1 August 2013 The 36 18 Ma Indian Peak Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas southeastern Great Basin USA Multicyclic super eruptions Geosphere 9 4 864 950 Bibcode 2013Geosp 9 864B doi 10 1130 GES00902 1 a b Volcanic Explosivity Index Measuring the size of an eruption Ort Michael 22 September 1997 La Garita Caldera Northern Arizona University Archived from the original on 19 May 2011 Retrieved 5 August 2010 Lipman Peter W 2 November 2007 Geologic Map of the Central San Juan Caldera Cluster Southwestern Colorado USGS Investigations Series I 2799 Archived from the original on 31 August 2010 Retrieved 6 August 2010 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b Knott Thomas Branney M Reichow Marc Finn David Tapster Simon Coe Robert June 2020 Discovery of two new super eruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot track USA Is the Yellowstone hotspot waning Geology 48 9 934 938 Bibcode 2020Geo 48 934K doi 10 1130 G47384 1 Retrieved 21 June 2022 Lindsay J M 1 March 2001 Magmatic Evolution of the La Pacana Caldera System Central Andes Chile Compositional Variation of Two Cogenetic Large Volume Felsic Ignimbrites Journal of Petrology 42 3 459 486 Bibcode 2001JPet 42 459L doi 10 1093 petrology 42 3 459 ISSN 0022 3530 a b Global Volcanism Program Volcanoes of the World Large Holocene Eruptions Archived 13 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine Volcano si edu Retrieved on 2011 11 18 a b What is a supervolcano What is a supereruption Froggatt P C Nelson C S Carter L Griggs G Black K P 13 February 1986 An exceptionally large late Quaternary eruption from New Zealand Nature 319 6054 578 582 Bibcode 1986Natur 319 578F doi 10 1038 319578a0 S2CID 4332421 The minimum total volume of tephra is 1 200 km3 but probably nearer 2 000 km3 a b Lisa A Morgan amp William C McIntosh 2005 Timing and development of the Heise volcanic field Snake River Plain Idaho western USA GSA Bulletin 117 3 4 288 306 Bibcode 2005GSAB 117 288M doi 10 1130 B25519 1 S2CID 53648675 Salisbury M J Jicha B R de Silva S L Singer B S Jimenez N C Ort M H 21 December 2010 40Ar 39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province Geological Society of America Bulletin 123 5 6 821 840 Bibcode 2011GSAB 123 821S doi 10 1130 B30280 1 Rejuvenation and Repeated Eruption of a 1 0 Ma Supervolcanic System at Mangakino Caldera Taupo Volcanic Zone New Zealand American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting 2012 abstract V31C 2797 Retrieved 10 September 2017 Wilson C J N 1 December 2001 The 26 5ka Oruanui eruption New Zealand an introduction and overview Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 112 1 133 174 Bibcode 2001JVGR 112 133W doi 10 1016 S0377 0273 01 00239 6 ISSN 0377 0273 Kay Suzanne Mahlburg Coira Beatriz Worner Gerhard Kay Robert W Singer Bradley S 1 December 2011 Geochemical isotopic and single crystal 40Ar 39Ar age constraints on the evolution of the Cerro Galan ignimbrites Bulletin of Volcanology 73 10 1487 1511 Bibcode 2011BVol 73 1487K doi 10 1007 s00445 010 0410 7 ISSN 1432 0819 Mystery of the Megavolcano Archived 17 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine Pbs org Accessed on 2017 10 12 Further reading EditMason Ben G Pyle David M Oppenheimer Clive 2004 The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth Bulletin of Volcanology 66 8 735 748 Bibcode 2004BVol 66 735M doi 10 1007 s00445 004 0355 9 S2CID 129680497 Oppenheimer C 2011 Eruptions that shook the world Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 64112 8 Timmreck C Graf H F 2006 The initial dispersal and radiative forcing of a Northern Hemisphere mid latitude super volcano a model study Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6 1 35 49 Bibcode 2006ACP 6 35T doi 10 5194 acp 6 35 2006 External links EditOverview and Transcript of the original BBC program Yellowstone Supervolcano and Map of Supervolcanoes Around The World USGS Fact Sheet Steam Explosions Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions What s in Yellowstone s Future Scientific American s The Secrets of Supervolcanoes Supervolcano eruption mystery solved BBC Science 6 January 2014 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Supervolcano amp oldid 1176679650, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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