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Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands

January 01, 1970

Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands, Southeastern cultures, or Southeast Indians are an ethnographic classification for Native Americans who have traditionally inhabited the area now part of the Southeastern United States and the northeastern border of Mexico, that share common cultural traits. This classification is a part of the Eastern Woodlands. The concept of a southeastern cultural region was developed by anthropologists, beginning with Otis Mason and Franz Boas in 1887. The boundaries of the region are defined more by shared cultural traits than by geographic distinctions.[1] Because the cultures gradually instead of abruptly shift into Plains, Prairie, or Northeastern Woodlands cultures, scholars do not always agree on the exact limits of the Southeastern Woodland culture region. Shawnee, Powhatan, Waco, Tawakoni, Tonkawa, Karankawa, Quapaw, and Mosopelea are usually seen as marginally southeastern and their traditional lands represent the borders of the cultural region.[2]

Painting of a Choctaw woman by George Catlin

The area was linguistically diverse, major language groups were Caddoan and Muskogean, besides a number of language isolates.

List of peoples edit

Further information: Indigenous peoples of Florida

Federally recognized tribes edit

  1. Alabama-Coushatta Tribes of Texas
  2. Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town, Oklahoma
  3. Caddo Nation of Oklahoma
  4. Catawba Indian Nation, South Carolina
  5. Cherokee Nation, Oklahoma
  6. Chickasaw Nation, Oklahoma
  7. Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana
  8. Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma
  9. Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana
  10. Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians of North Carolina
  11. Jena Band of Choctaw Indians, Louisiana
  12. Kialegee Tribal Town, Oklahoma
  13. Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida
  14. Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, Mississippi
  15. Muscogee (Creek) Nation, Oklahoma
  16. Poarch Band of Creek Indians of Alabama
  17. Seminole Tribe of Florida
  18. Seminole Nation of Oklahoma
  19. Thlopthlocco Tribal Town, Oklahoma
  20. Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe of Louisiana
  21. United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians in Oklahoma

History edit

The following section deals primarily with the history of the peoples in the lengthy period before European contact. Evidence of the preceding cultures have been found primarily in archeological artifacts, but also in major earthworks and the evidence of linguistics. In the Late Prehistoric time period in the Southeastern Woodlands, cultures increased agricultural production, developed ranked societies, increased their populations, trade networks, and intertribal warfare.[27] Most Southeastern peoples (excepting some of the coastal peoples) were highly agricultural,[citation needed] growing crops like maize, squash, and beans for food. They supplemented their diet with hunting, fishing,[28] and gathering wild plants and fungi.

Belonging in the Lithic stage, the oldest known art in the Americas is the Vero Beach bone found in present-day Florida. It is possibly a mammoth bone, etched with a profile of walking mammoth; it dates to 11,000 BCE.[29]

Poverty Point culture edit

The Poverty Point culture inhabited portions of the state of Louisiana from 2000–1000 BCE during the Archaic period.[30] Many objects excavated at Poverty Point sites were made of materials that originated in distant places, indicating that the people were part of an extensive trading culture. Such items include chipped stone projectile points and tools; ground stone plummets, gorgets and vessels; and shell and stone beads. Stone tools found at Poverty Point were made from raw materials that can be traced to the relatively nearby Ouachita and Ozark mountains, as well as others from the more distant Ohio and Tennessee River valleys. Vessels were made from soapstone which came from the Appalachian foothills of Alabama and Georgia.[31] Hand-modeled lowly fired clay objects occur in a variety of shapes including anthropomorphic figurines and cooking balls.[30]

  •  
    "Poverty point objects," earthenware, believed to be for cooking, Poverty Point
  •  
    Clay female figurines, Poverty Point
  •  
    Carved shell gorgets and atlatl weights, Poverty Point

Mississippian culture edit

See also: Mississippian shatter zone

Mississippian cultures flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1500 CE, varying regionally.[32] After adopting maize agriculture the Mississippian culture became fully agrarian, as opposed to the preceding Woodland cultures that supplemented hunting and gathering with limited horticulture. Mississippian peoples often built platform mounds. They refined their ceramic techniques and often used ground mussel shell as a tempering agent. Many were involved with the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, a multi-regional and multi-linguistic religious and trade network that marked the southeastern part of the Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere. Information about Southeastern Ceremonial Complex primary comes from archaeology and the study of the elaborate artworks left behind by its participants, including elaborate pottery, conch shell gorgets and cups, stone statuary, and Long-nosed god maskettes. The Calusa peoples, of southern Florida, carved and painted wood in exquisite depictions of animals.

By the time of European contact the Mississippian societies were already experiencing severe social stress. Some major centers had already been abandoned. With social upsets and diseases unknowingly introduced by Europeans many of the societies collapsed and ceased to practice a Mississippian lifestyle, with an exception being the Natchez people of Mississippi and Louisiana. Other tribes descended from Mississippian cultures include the Alabama, Biloxi, Caddo, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Tunica, and many other southeastern peoples.

Post-European contact edit

During the Indian Removal era of the 1830s, most southeastern tribes were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River by the US federal government, as European-American settlers pushed the government to acquire their lands.[33] Some members of the tribes chose to stay in their homelands and accept state and US citizenship; others simply hid in the mountains or swamps and sought to maintain some cultural continuity. Since the late 20th century, descendants of these people have organized as tribes; in a limited number of cases, some have achieved federal recognition but more have gained state recognition through legislation at the state level.

Culture edit

 
A sacred religious symbol to the Southeastern peoples was the solar cross which was a symbol of both the sun and fire. It had several variations, the one shown is from the Caddo from East Texas.
See also: Woodland period and Eastern Agricultural Complex

Frank Speck identified several key cultural traits of Southeastern Woodlands peoples. Social traits included having a matrilineal kinship system, exogamous marriage between clans, and organizing into settled villages and towns.[1] Southeastern Woodlands societies were usually divided into clans; the most common from pre-contact Hopewellian times into the present include Bear, Beaver, Bird other than a raptor, Canine (e.g. Wolf), Elk, Feline (e.g. Panther), Fox, Raccoon, and Raptor.[34] They observe strict incest taboos, including taboos against marriage within a clan. In the past, they frequently allowed polygamy to chiefs and other men who could support multiple wives. They held puberty rites for both boys and girls.[28]

Southeastern peoples also traditionally shared similar religious beliefs, based on animism. They used fish poison, and practiced purification ceremonies among their religious rituals, as well as the Green Corn Ceremony.[1] Medicine people are important spiritual healers.

Many southeastern peoples engaged in mound building to create sacred or acknowledged ritual sites. Many of the religious beliefs of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex or the Southern Cult, were also shared by the Northeastern Woodlands tribes, probably spread through the dominance of the Mississippian culture in the 10th century.

The main agricultural crops of the region were the Three Sisters : winter squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans (usually tepary beans or common beans). Originating in Mesoamerica, these three crops were carried northward over centuries to many parts of North America. The three crops were normally planted together using a technique known as companion planting on flat-topped mounds of soil.[35] The three crops were planted in this way as each benefits from the proximity of the others.[36] The tall maize plants provide a structure for the beans to climb, while the beans provide nitrogen to the soil that benefits the other plants. Meanwhile, the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight to prevent weeds from growing and retaining moisture in the soil.

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ a b c Jackson and Fogelson 3
  2. ^ Jackson and Fogelson 6
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj Sturtevant and Fogelson, 69
  4. ^ a b c d e f Sturtevant and Fogelson, 205
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Sturtevant and Fogelson, 214
  6. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 673
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Sturtevant and Fogelson, ix
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Fogelson, 374
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Sturtevant and Fogelson, 81-82
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Sturtevant, 617
  11. ^ Folgelson, ed. (2004), p. 315
  12. ^ a b c d Frank, Andrew K. Indian Removal. 2009-09-30 at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
  13. ^ "Dragging Canoe". Tennessee Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
  14. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 188
  15. ^ a b Sturtevant and Fogelson, 598-9
  16. ^ a b c d e Hann, John H. (2006). The Native American World Beyond Apalachee. University Press of Florida. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8130-2982-5.
  17. ^ a b c Sturtevant and Fogelson, 302
  18. ^ Haliwa-Saponi Tribe. . Retrieved 10 July 2009.
  19. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson 293
  20. ^ Hann 1993
  21. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 78, 668
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Hann 1996, 5-13
  23. ^ Milanich 1999, p. 49.
  24. ^ Milanich 1996, p. 46.
  25. ^ Hann 2003:11
  26. ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 190
  27. ^ Messenger, Lewis C. "The Southeastern Woodlands: Mississippian-Late Prehistoric Cultural Developments." {{citation needed|reason=unpublished not reliable|date=October 2015}} University of Indiana: MATRIX. (retrieved 2 June 2011)
  28. ^ a b [usurped] Four Directions Institute. (retrieved 2 June 2011) [citation needed]
  29. ^ "Ice Age Art from Florida." 2014-02-26 at the Wayback Machine Past Horizons, 23 June 2011 (retrieved 23 June 2011)
  30. ^ a b "Poverty Point-2000 to 1000 BCE". Retrieved 2009-03-02.
  31. ^ . Archived from the original on February 7, 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-02.
  32. ^ . Archived from the original on 2012-03-01. Retrieved 2011-06-23.
  33. ^ "People and Events: Indian Removal, 1814-1858." PBS: Resource Bank. (retrieved 25 April 2010)
  34. ^ Carr and Case 340
  35. ^ Mount Pleasant, Jane (2006). "The science behind the Three Sisters mound system: An agronomic assessment of an indigenous agricultural system in the northeast". In Staller, John E.; Tykot, Robert H.; Benz, Bruce F. (eds.). Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize. Amsterdam: Academic Press. pp. 529–537. ISBN 978-1-5987-4496-5.
  36. ^ Hill, Christina Gish (2020-11-20). "Returning the 'three sisters' – corn, beans and squash – to Native American farms nourishes people, land and cultures". The Conversation. Retrieved 2021-01-08.

References edit

  • Carr, Christopher and D. Troy Case. Gathering Hopewell: Society, Ritual, and Ritual Interaction. New York: Springer, 2006. ISBN 978-0-306-48479-7.
  • Hann, John H. "The Mayaca and Jororo and Missions to Them", in McEwan, Bonnie G. ed. The Spanish Missions of "La Florida". Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. 1993. ISBN 0-8130-1232-5.
  • Hann, John H. A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 1996. ISBN 0-8130-1424-7.
  • Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513-1763. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2645-8
  • Jackson, Jason Baird and Raymond D. Fogelson. "Introduction." Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004: 1-68. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.
  • Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.
  • Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.
  • Roark, Elisabeth Louise. Artists of Colonial America. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2003. ISBN 978-0-313-32023-1.

External links edit

  • US Federally recognized tribes of the Southeast 2012-11-11 at the Wayback Machine

January 01, 1970
indigenous, peoples, southeastern, woodlands, southeastern, cultures, southeast, indians, ethnographic, classification, native, americans, have, traditionally, inhabited, area, part, southeastern, united, states, northeastern, border, mexico, that, share, comm. Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands Southeastern cultures or Southeast Indians are an ethnographic classification for Native Americans who have traditionally inhabited the area now part of the Southeastern United States and the northeastern border of Mexico that share common cultural traits This classification is a part of the Eastern Woodlands The concept of a southeastern cultural region was developed by anthropologists beginning with Otis Mason and Franz Boas in 1887 The boundaries of the region are defined more by shared cultural traits than by geographic distinctions 1 Because the cultures gradually instead of abruptly shift into Plains Prairie or Northeastern Woodlands cultures scholars do not always agree on the exact limits of the Southeastern Woodland culture region Shawnee Powhatan Waco Tawakoni Tonkawa Karankawa Quapaw and Mosopelea are usually seen as marginally southeastern and their traditional lands represent the borders of the cultural region 2 Painting of a Choctaw woman by George Catlin The area was linguistically diverse major language groups were Caddoan and Muskogean besides a number of language isolates Contents 1 List of peoples 2 Federally recognized tribes 3 History 3 1 Poverty Point culture 3 2 Mississippian culture 3 3 Post European contact 4 Culture 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External linksList of peoples editFurther information Indigenous peoples of Florida Acolapissa Colapissa Louisiana and Mississippi 3 Ais eastern coastal Florida 4 Alafay Alafia Pojoy Pohoy Costas Alafeyes Alafaya Costas Florida 5 Amacano Florida west coast 6 Apalachee northwestern Florida 7 Atakapa Attacapa Louisiana west coast and Texas southeastern coast 7 Akokisa Texas southeast coast 8 Bidai Texas southeast coast 8 Deadose eastern Texas Eastern Atakapa western coastal Louisiana Orcoquiza southeast Texas Patiri eastern Texas Tlacopsel southeast Texas Avoyel little Natchez Louisiana 3 9 Bayogoula southeastern Louisiana 3 9 Biloxi Mississippi 3 7 Caddo Confederacy Arkansas Louisiana Oklahoma Texas 7 10 Adai Adaizan Adaizi Adaise Adahi Adaes Adees Atayos Louisiana and Texas 3 Cahinnio southern Arkansas 10 Doustioni north central Louisiana 10 Eyeish Hais eastern Texas 10 Hainai eastern Texas 10 Hasinai eastern Texas 10 Kadohadacho northeastern Texas southwestern Arkansas northwestern Louisiana 10 Nabedache eastern Texas 10 Nabiti eastern Texas 10 Nacogdoche eastern Texas 10 Nacono eastern Texas 10 Nadaco eastern Texas 10 Nanatsoho northeastern Texas 10 Nasoni eastern Texas 10 Natchitoches Lower central Louisiana Upper northeastern Texas 10 Neche eastern Texas 10 Nechaui eastern Texas 10 Ouachita northern Louisiana 10 Tula western Arkansas 10 Yatasi northwestern Louisiana 10 Calusa southwestern Florida 5 7 Cape Fear Indians North Carolina southern coast 3 Catawba Esaw Usheree Ushery Yssa 11 North Carolina South Carolina 7 Chakchiuma Alabama and Mississippi 7 Chatot people Chacato Chactoo west Florida Chawasha Washa Louisiana 3 Cheraw Chara Charah North Carolina Cherokee western North Carolina eastern Tennessee later Georgia northwestern South Carolina northern Alabama Arkansas Texas Mexico and currently North Carolina and Oklahoma 12 Chickamauga eastern Tennessee 13 Chickanee Chiquini North Carolina Chickasaw Alabama and Mississippi 7 now Oklahoma 12 Chicora coastal South Carolina 9 Chine Florida Chisca Cisca southwestern Virginia northern Florida 9 Chitimacha Louisiana 7 Choctaw Mississippi Alabama 7 and parts of Louisiana later Oklahoma 12 Chowanoc Chowanoke North Carolina Congaree Canggaree South Carolina 3 14 Coree North Carolina 9 Croatan North Carolina Cusabo coastal South Carolina 7 Eno North Carolina 3 Etiwan South Carolina Grigra Gris Mississippi 15 Guacata Santaluces eastern coastal Florida 5 Guacozo Florida Guale Cusabo Iguaja Ybaja coastal Georgia 3 7 Guazoco southwestern Florida coast 5 Houma Louisiana and Mississippi 7 Jaega Jobe eastern coastal Florida 4 Jaupin Weapemoc North Carolina Jororo Florida interior 5 Keyauwee North Carolina 3 Koasati Coushatta formerly eastern Tennessee 7 currently Louisiana Oklahoma and Texas Koroa Mississippi 3 Luca southwestern Florida coast 5 Lumbee North Carolina Machapunga North Carolina Matecumbe Matacumbeses Matacumbe Matacombe Florida Keys 5 Mayaca Florida 5 Mayaimi Mayami interior Florida 4 Mayajuaca Florida Mikasuki Miccosukee Florida Mobila Mobile Movila northwestern Florida and southern Alabama 7 Mocoso western Florida 4 5 Mougoulacha Mississippi 9 Muscogee Tennessee Georgia Alabama Mississippi Florida later Oklahoma Abihka Alabama 8 later Oklahoma Alabama formerly Alabama 8 southwestern Tennessee and northwestern Mississippi 3 7 now Oklahoma and Texas Pakana Pacani Pagna Pasquenan Pak ka na Pacanas central Alabama 3 later Texas 9 Apalachicola Province Lower Towns of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy Alabama and Georgia 16 Apalachicola town Alabama Georgia and South Carolina 16 Hitchiti Alabama and Georgia 16 Oconi Alabama and Georgia 16 Sabacola Sawakola Sabacola Savacola Sawokli Alabama and Georgia 16 Chiaha Creek Confederacy Alabama 8 Eufaula tribe Georgia later Oklahoma Kialegee Tribal Town Alabama later Oklahoma Osochee Osochi Oswichee Usachi Oosecha Creek Confederacy Alabama 3 8 Talapoosa Creek Confederacy Alabama 8 Thlopthlocco Tribal Town Alabama Georgia later Oklahoma Tukabatchee Muscogee Creek Confederacy Alabama 8 Naniaba northwestern Florida and southern Alabama 7 Natchez Louisiana and Mississippi 7 later Oklahoma Neusiok Newasiwac Neuse River Indians North Carolina 3 Norwood culture Apalachee region Florida c 12 000 BCE 4500 BCE Ofo Mosopelea Arkansas and Mississippi 7 eastern Tennessee 3 Okchai Ogchay central Alabama 3 Okelousa Louisiana 3 Opelousas Louisiana 3 Pacara people Florida Pamlico formerly North Carolina Pascagoula Mississippi coast 9 Pee Dee Pedee South Carolina 3 17 and North Carolina Pensacola Florida panhandle and southern Alabama 7 Potoskeet North Carolina Quinipissa southeastern Louisiana and Mississippi 8 Roanoke North Carolina Saluda Saludee Saruti South Carolina 3 Santee Seretee Sarati Sati Sattees South Carolina no relation to Santee Sioux South Carolina 3 Santa Luces Florida Saponi North Carolina 18 Virginia 19 Saura North Carolina Saxapahaw Sissipahua Shacioes North Carolina 3 Secotan North Carolina Seminole Florida and Oklahoma 12 Sewee Suye Joye Xoye Soya South Carolina coast 3 Shakori North Carolina Shoccoree Haw North Carolina 3 possibly Virginia Sissipahaw North Carolina Sugeree Sagarees Sugaws Sugar Succa North Carolina and South Carolina 3 Surruque east central Florida 20 Suteree Sitteree Sutarees Sataree North Carolina Taensa Mississippi 15 Tawasa Alabama 21 Tequesta southeastern coastal Florida 3 5 Timucua Florida and Georgia 3 5 7 Acuera central Florida 22 Agua Fresca or Agua Dulce or Freshwater interior northeast Florida 22 Arapaha north central Florida and south central Georgia 22 Cascangue coastal southeast Georgia 22 Icafui or Icafi coastal southeast Georgia 22 Mocama coastal northeast Florida and coastal southeast Georgia 22 Saturiwa northeast Florida 22 Tacatacuru coastal southeast Georgia 23 Northern Utina north central Florida 22 Ocale central Florida 22 Oconi interior southeast Georgia 22 Potano north central Florida 22 Tucururu or Tucuru central Florida 22 Utina or Eastern Utina northeast central Florida 24 Yufera coastal southeast Georgia 22 Yui Ibi coastal southeast Georgia 22 Yustaga north central Florida 22 Tiou Tioux Mississippi 14 Tocaste Florida 5 Tocobaga Florida 3 5 Tohome northwestern Florida and southern Alabama 7 Tomahitan eastern Tennessee Topachula Florida Tunica Arkansas and Mississippi 7 Utiza Florida 4 Uzita Tampa Bay Florida 25 Vicela Florida 4 Viscaynos Florida Waccamaw South Carolina Waccamaw Siouan North Carolina Wateree Guatari Watterees North Carolina 3 Waxhaw Waxsaws Wisack Wisacky Weesock Flathead North Carolina and South Carolina 3 17 Westo Virginia and South Carolina 9 extinct Winyaw South Carolina coast 3 Woccon North Carolina 3 17 Yamasee Florida Georgia 9 Yazoo southeastern tip of Arkansas eastern Louisiana Mississippi 3 26 Yuchi Euchee central Tennessee 3 7 then northwest Georgia now OklahomaFederally recognized tribes editAlabama Coushatta Tribes of Texas Alabama Quassarte Tribal Town Oklahoma Caddo Nation of Oklahoma Catawba Indian Nation South Carolina Cherokee Nation Oklahoma Chickasaw Nation Oklahoma Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians of North Carolina Jena Band of Choctaw Indians Louisiana Kialegee Tribal Town Oklahoma Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians Mississippi Muscogee Creek Nation Oklahoma Poarch Band of Creek Indians of Alabama Seminole Tribe of Florida Seminole Nation of Oklahoma Thlopthlocco Tribal Town Oklahoma Tunica Biloxi Indian Tribe of Louisiana United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians in OklahomaHistory editThe following section deals primarily with the history of the peoples in the lengthy period before European contact Evidence of the preceding cultures have been found primarily in archeological artifacts but also in major earthworks and the evidence of linguistics In the Late Prehistoric time period in the Southeastern Woodlands cultures increased agricultural production developed ranked societies increased their populations trade networks and intertribal warfare 27 Most Southeastern peoples excepting some of the coastal peoples were highly agricultural citation needed growing crops like maize squash and beans for food They supplemented their diet with hunting fishing 28 and gathering wild plants and fungi Belonging in the Lithic stage the oldest known art in the Americas is the Vero Beach bone found in present day Florida It is possibly a mammoth bone etched with a profile of walking mammoth it dates to 11 000 BCE 29 Poverty Point culture edit The Poverty Point culture inhabited portions of the state of Louisiana from 2000 1000 BCE during the Archaic period 30 Many objects excavated at Poverty Point sites were made of materials that originated in distant places indicating that the people were part of an extensive trading culture Such items include chipped stone projectile points and tools ground stone plummets gorgets and vessels and shell and stone beads Stone tools found at Poverty Point were made from raw materials that can be traced to the relatively nearby Ouachita and Ozark mountains as well as others from the more distant Ohio and Tennessee River valleys Vessels were made from soapstone which came from the Appalachian foothills of Alabama and Georgia 31 Hand modeled lowly fired clay objects occur in a variety of shapes including anthropomorphic figurines and cooking balls 30 nbsp Poverty point objects earthenware believed to be for cooking Poverty Point nbsp Clay female figurines Poverty Point nbsp Carved shell gorgets and atlatl weights Poverty Point Mississippian culture edit See also Mississippian shatter zone Mississippian cultures flourished in what is now the Midwestern Eastern and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1500 CE varying regionally 32 After adopting maize agriculture the Mississippian culture became fully agrarian as opposed to the preceding Woodland cultures that supplemented hunting and gathering with limited horticulture Mississippian peoples often built platform mounds They refined their ceramic techniques and often used ground mussel shell as a tempering agent Many were involved with the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex a multi regional and multi linguistic religious and trade network that marked the southeastern part of the Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere Information about Southeastern Ceremonial Complex primary comes from archaeology and the study of the elaborate artworks left behind by its participants including elaborate pottery conch shell gorgets and cups stone statuary and Long nosed god maskettes The Calusa peoples of southern Florida carved and painted wood in exquisite depictions of animals By the time of European contact the Mississippian societies were already experiencing severe social stress Some major centers had already been abandoned With social upsets and diseases unknowingly introduced by Europeans many of the societies collapsed and ceased to practice a Mississippian lifestyle with an exception being the Natchez people of Mississippi and Louisiana Other tribes descended from Mississippian cultures include the Alabama Biloxi Caddo Choctaw Muscogee Creek Tunica and many other southeastern peoples nbsp Engraved shell gorget Spiro Mounds Oklahoma Mississippian culture nbsp Ceremonial stone mace Spiro Mounds Oklahoma Mississippian culture nbsp Engraved stone palette Moundville site Alabama back used for mixing paint Mississippian culture nbsp Stone effigy pipe Spiro Mounds Mississippian culture nbsp Stone effigies Etowah site Georgia Mississippian culture nbsp Alligator effigy wood carving Calusa Florida Post European contact edit During the Indian Removal era of the 1830s most southeastern tribes were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River by the US federal government as European American settlers pushed the government to acquire their lands 33 Some members of the tribes chose to stay in their homelands and accept state and US citizenship others simply hid in the mountains or swamps and sought to maintain some cultural continuity Since the late 20th century descendants of these people have organized as tribes in a limited number of cases some have achieved federal recognition but more have gained state recognition through legislation at the state level Culture edit nbsp A sacred religious symbol to the Southeastern peoples was the solar cross which was a symbol of both the sun and fire It had several variations the one shown is from the Caddo from East Texas See also Woodland period and Eastern Agricultural Complex Frank Speck identified several key cultural traits of Southeastern Woodlands peoples Social traits included having a matrilineal kinship system exogamous marriage between clans and organizing into settled villages and towns 1 Southeastern Woodlands societies were usually divided into clans the most common from pre contact Hopewellian times into the present include Bear Beaver Bird other than a raptor Canine e g Wolf Elk Feline e g Panther Fox Raccoon and Raptor 34 They observe strict incest taboos including taboos against marriage within a clan In the past they frequently allowed polygamy to chiefs and other men who could support multiple wives They held puberty rites for both boys and girls 28 Southeastern peoples also traditionally shared similar religious beliefs based on animism They used fish poison and practiced purification ceremonies among their religious rituals as well as the Green Corn Ceremony 1 Medicine people are important spiritual healers Many southeastern peoples engaged in mound building to create sacred or acknowledged ritual sites Many of the religious beliefs of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex or the Southern Cult were also shared by the Northeastern Woodlands tribes probably spread through the dominance of the Mississippian culture in the 10th century The main agricultural crops of the region were the Three Sisters winter squash maize corn and climbing beans usually tepary beans or common beans Originating in Mesoamerica these three crops were carried northward over centuries to many parts of North America The three crops were normally planted together using a technique known as companion planting on flat topped mounds of soil 35 The three crops were planted in this way as each benefits from the proximity of the others 36 The tall maize plants provide a structure for the beans to climb while the beans provide nitrogen to the soil that benefits the other plants Meanwhile the squash spreads along the ground blocking the sunlight to prevent weeds from growing and retaining moisture in the soil See also editClassification of indigenous peoples of the Americas Indigenous people of the Everglades region Northeastern Woodlands tribes Stomp dance Trail of TearsNotes edit a b c Jackson and Fogelson 3 Jackson and Fogelson 6 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj Sturtevant and Fogelson 69 a b c d e f Sturtevant and Fogelson 205 a b c d e f g h i j k l m Sturtevant and Fogelson 214 Sturtevant and Fogelson 673 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Sturtevant and Fogelson ix a b c d e f g h i Sturtevant and Fogelson 374 a b c d e f g h i j Sturtevant and Fogelson 81 82 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Sturtevant 617 Folgelson ed 2004 p 315 a b c d Frank Andrew K Indian Removal Archived 2009 09 30 at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Historical Society s Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture Retrieved 10 July 2009 Dragging Canoe Tennessee Encyclopedia Retrieved 15 October 2021 a b Sturtevant and Fogelson 188 a b Sturtevant and Fogelson 598 9 a b c d e Hann John H 2006 The Native American World Beyond Apalachee University Press of Florida p 87 ISBN 978 0 8130 2982 5 a b c Sturtevant and Fogelson 302 Haliwa Saponi Tribe Retrieved 10 July 2009 Sturtevant and Fogelson 293 Hann 1993 Sturtevant and Fogelson 78 668 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Hann 1996 5 13 Milanich 1999 p 49 Milanich 1996 p 46 Hann 2003 11 Sturtevant and Fogelson 190 Messenger Lewis C The Southeastern Woodlands Mississippian Late Prehistoric Cultural Developments citation needed reason unpublished not reliable date October 2015 University of Indiana MATRIX retrieved 2 June 2011 a b Southeastern Woodlands Culture usurped Four Directions Institute retrieved 2 June 2011 citation needed Ice Age Art from Florida Archived 2014 02 26 at the Wayback Machine Past Horizons 23 June 2011 retrieved 23 June 2011 a b Poverty Point 2000 to 1000 BCE Retrieved 2009 03 02 CRT Louisiana State Parks Fees Facilities and Activities Archived from the original on February 7 2009 Retrieved 2009 03 02 Mississippian Period Overview Archived from the original on 2012 03 01 Retrieved 2011 06 23 People and Events Indian Removal 1814 1858 PBS Resource Bank retrieved 25 April 2010 Carr and Case 340 Mount Pleasant Jane 2006 The science behind the Three Sisters mound system An agronomic assessment of an indigenous agricultural system in the northeast In Staller John E Tykot Robert H Benz Bruce F eds Histories of Maize Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory Linguistics Biogeography Domestication and Evolution of Maize Amsterdam Academic Press pp 529 537 ISBN 978 1 5987 4496 5 Hill Christina Gish 2020 11 20 Returning the three sisters corn beans and squash to Native American farms nourishes people land and cultures The Conversation Retrieved 2021 01 08 References editCarr Christopher and D Troy Case Gathering Hopewell Society Ritual and Ritual Interaction New York Springer 2006 ISBN 978 0 306 48479 7 Hann John H The Mayaca and Jororo and Missions to Them in McEwan Bonnie G ed The Spanish Missions of La Florida Gainesville Florida University Press of Florida 1993 ISBN 0 8130 1232 5 Hann John H A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions Gainesville Florida University Press of Florida 1996 ISBN 0 8130 1424 7 Hann John H 2003 Indians of Central and South Florida 1513 1763 University Press of Florida ISBN 0 8130 2645 8 Jackson Jason Baird and Raymond D Fogelson Introduction Sturtevant William C general editor and Raymond D Fogelson volume editor Handbook of North American Indians Southeast Volume 14 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution 2004 1 68 ISBN 0 16 072300 0 Pritzker Barry M A Native American Encyclopedia History Culture and Peoples Oxford Oxford University Press 2000 ISBN 978 0 19 513877 1 Sturtevant William C general editor and Raymond D Fogelson volume editor Handbook of North American Indians Southeast Volume 14 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution 2004 ISBN 0 16 072300 0 Roark Elisabeth Louise Artists of Colonial America Westport CT Greenwood 2003 ISBN 978 0 313 32023 1 External links editUS Federally recognized tribes of the Southeast Archived 2012 11 11 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands amp oldid 1199939598, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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