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Sensor

March 27, 2023

"Sensors" redirects here. For other uses, see Sensors (disambiguation).
"Detector" redirects here. For detector circuits in radio and other signal-related electronics, see Detector (radio).
Not to be confused with Censor, Censure, Censer, or Senser.

A sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing a physical phenomenon.

Different types of light sensors

In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor. Sensors are always used with other electronics.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, and in innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure [1] and flow measurement,[2] for example into MARG sensors.

Analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used. Their applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life. There is a wide range of other sensors that measure chemical and physical properties of materials, including optical sensors for refractive index measurement, vibrational sensors for fluid viscosity measurement, and electro-chemical sensors for monitoring pH of fluids.

A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much its output changes when the input quantity it measures changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1  cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, its sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the slope dy/dx assuming a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages.[3]

Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly faster measurement time and higher sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches.[3][4] Due to the increasing demand for rapid, affordable and reliable information in today's world, disposable sensors—low-cost and easy‐to‐use devices for short‐term monitoring or single‐shot measurements—have recently gained growing importance. Using this class of sensors, critical analytical information can be obtained by anyone, anywhere and at any time, without the need for recalibration and worrying about contamination.[5]

Classification of measurement errors

A good sensor obeys the following rules:[5]

  • it is sensitive to the measured property
  • it is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application, and
  • it does not influence the measured property.

Most sensors have a linear transfer function. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is constant with the units [V/K]. The sensitivity is the slope of the transfer function. Converting the sensor's electrical output (for example V) to the measured units (for example K) requires dividing the electrical output by the slope (or multiplying by its reciprocal). In addition, an offset is frequently added or subtracted. For example, −40 must be added to the output if 0 V output corresponds to −40 C input.

For an analog sensor signal to be processed or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted to a digital signal, using an analog-to-digital converter.

Sensor deviations

Since sensors cannot replicate an ideal transfer function, several types of deviations can occur which limit sensor accuracy:

  • Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.[citation needed]
  • The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error. This is an error in the slope of a linear transfer function.
  • If the output signal differs from the correct value by a constant, the sensor has an offset error or bias. This is an error in the y-intercept of a linear transfer function.
  • Nonlinearity is deviation of a sensor's transfer function from a straight line transfer function. Usually, this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.
  • Deviation caused by rapid changes of the measured property over time is a dynamic error. Often, this behavior is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error and phase shift as a function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.
  • If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined as drift. Long term drift over months or years is caused by physical changes in the sensor.
  • Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
  • A hysteresis error causes the output value to vary depending on the previous input values. If a sensor's output is different depending on whether a specific input value was reached by increasing vs. decreasing the input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error.
  • If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured property. This error is also called quantization error.
  • If the signal is monitored digitally, the sampling frequency can cause a dynamic error, or if the input variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency near a multiple of the sampling rate, aliasing errors may occur.
  • The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.

All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the dynamic behavior of the sensor.

Resolution

The sensor resolution or measurement resolution is the smallest change that can be detected in the quantity that it is being measured. The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the numerical resolution of the digital output. The resolution is related to the precision with which the measurement is made, but they are not the same thing. A sensor's accuracy may be considerably worse than its resolution.

  • For example, the distance resolution is the minimum distance that can be accurately measured by any distance measuring devices. In a time-of-flight camera, the distance resolution is usually equal to the standard deviation (total noise) of the signal expressed in unit of length.
  • The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.

Chemical sensor

A chemical sensor is a self-contained analytical device that can provide information about the chemical composition of its environment, that is, a liquid or a gas phase.[6][7] The information is provided in the form of a measurable physical signal that is correlated with the concentration of a certain chemical species (termed as analyte). Two main steps are involved in the functioning of a chemical sensor, namely, recognition and transduction. In the recognition step, analyte molecules interact selectively with receptor molecules or sites included in the structure of the recognition element of the sensor. Consequently, a characteristic physical parameter varies and this variation is reported by means of an integrated transducer that generates the output signal. A chemical sensor based on recognition material of biological nature is a biosensor. However, as synthetic biomimetic materials are going to substitute to some extent recognition biomaterials, a sharp distinction between a biosensor and a standard chemical sensor is superfluous. Typical biomimetic materials used in sensor development are molecularly imprinted polymers and aptamers.[8]

Biosensor

Main article: Biosensor

In biomedicine and biotechnology, sensors which detect analytes thanks to a biological component, such as cells, protein, nucleic acid or biomimetic polymers, are called biosensors. Whereas a non-biological sensor, even organic (carbon chemistry), for biological analytes is referred to as sensor or nanosensor. This terminology applies for both in-vitro and in vivo applications. The encapsulation of the biological component in biosensors, presents a slightly different problem that ordinary sensors; this can either be done by means of a semipermeable barrier, such as a dialysis membrane or a hydrogel, or a 3D polymer matrix, which either physically constrains the sensing macromolecule or chemically constrains the macromolecule by bounding it to the scaffold.

Neuromorphic sensors

Neuromorphic sensors are sensors that physically mimic structures and functions of biological neural entities.[9] One example of this is the event camera.

MOS sensors

Metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology originates from the MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959, and demonstrated in 1960.[10] MOSFET sensors (MOS sensors) were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters.[11]

Biochemical sensors

A number of MOSFET sensors have been developed, for measuring physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters.[11] The earliest MOSFET sensors include the open-gate field-effect transistor (OGFET) introduced by Johannessen in 1970,[11] the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970,[12] the adsorption FET (ADFET) patented by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a hydrogen-sensitive MOSFET demonstrated by I. Lundstrom, M.S. Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975.[11] The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance,[11] and where the metal gate is replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane, electrolyte solution and reference electrode.[13] The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization, biomarker detection from blood, antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology.[13]

By the mid-1980s, numerous other MOSFET sensors had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), surface accessible FET (SAFET), charge flow transistor (CFT), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), biosensor FET (BioFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).[11] By the early 2000s, BioFET types such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.[13]

Image sensors

Main articles: Image sensor, Charge-coupled device, and Active-pixel sensor

MOS technology is the basis for modern image sensors, including the charge-coupled device (CCD) and the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor), used in digital imaging and digital cameras.[14] Willard Boyle and George E. Smith developed the CCD in 1969. While researching the MOS process, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next.[14] The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first digital video cameras for television broadcasting.[15]

The MOS active-pixel sensor (APS) was developed by Tsutomu Nakamura at Olympus in 1985.[16] The CMOS active-pixel sensor was later developed by Eric Fossum and his team in the early 1990s.[17]

MOS image sensors are widely used in optical mouse technology. The first optical mouse, invented by Richard F. Lyon at Xerox in 1980, used a 5 µm NMOS sensor chip.[18][19] Since the first commercial optical mouse, the IntelliMouse introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors.[20]

Monitoring sensors

 
Lidar sensor on iPad Pro[21]

MOS monitoring sensors are used for house monitoring, office and agriculture monitoring, traffic monitoring (including car speed, traffic jams, and traffic accidents), weather monitoring (such as for rain, wind, lightning and storms), defense monitoring, and monitoring temperature, humidity, air pollution, fire, health, security and lighting.[22] MOS gas detector sensors are used to detect carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and other gas substances.[23] Other MOS sensors include intelligent sensors[24] and wireless sensor network (WSN) technology.[25]

See also

References

  1. ^ Peña-Consuegra, Jorge; Pagnola, Marcelo R.; Useche, Jairo; Madhukar, Pagidi; Saccone, Fabio D.; Marrugo, Andrés G. (27 October 2022). "Manufacturing and Measuring Techniques for Graphene-Silicone-Based Strain Sensors". JOM. 75 (3): 631–645. doi:10.1007/s11837-022-05550-3. S2CID 253194497.
  2. ^ Bennett, S. (1993). A History of Control Engineering 1930–1955. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. ISBN 978-0-86341-280-6The source states "controls" rather than "sensors", so its applicability is assumed. Many units are derived from the basic measurements to which it refers, such as a liquid's level measured by a differential pressure sensor.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  3. ^ a b Jihong Yan (2015). Machinery Prognostics and Prognosis Oriented Maintenance Management. Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte. Ltd. p. 107. ISBN 9781118638729.
  4. ^ Ganesh Kumar (September 2010). Modern General Knowledge. Upkar Prakashan. p. 194. ISBN 978-81-7482-180-5.
  5. ^ a b Dincer, Can; Bruch, Richard; Costa‐Rama, Estefanía; Fernández‐Abedul, Maria Teresa; Merkoçi, Arben; Manz, Andreas; Urban, Gerald Anton; Güder, Firat (2019-05-15). "Disposable Sensors in Diagnostics, Food, and Environmental Monitoring". Advanced Materials. 31 (30): 1806739. doi:10.1002/adma.201806739. ISSN 0935-9648. PMID 31094032.
  6. ^ Toniolo, Rosanna; Dossi, Nicolò; Giannilivigni, Emanuele; Fattori, Andrea; Svigelj, Rossella; Bontempelli, Gino; Giacomino, Agnese; Daniele, Salvatore (3 March 2020). "Modified Screen Printed Electrode Suitable for Electrochemical Measurements in Gas Phase". Analytical Chemistry. 92 (5): 3689–3696. doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04818. ISSN 0003-2700. PMID 32008321. S2CID 211012680.
  7. ^ Bǎnicǎ, Florinel-Gabriel (2012). Chemical Sensors and Biosensors:Fundamentals and Applications. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. p. 576. ISBN 978-1-118-35423-0.
  8. ^ Svigelj, Rossella; Dossi, Nicolo; Pizzolato, Stefania; Toniolo, Rosanna; Miranda-Castro, Rebeca; de-los-Santos-Álvarez, Noemí; Lobo-Castañón, María Jesús (1 October 2020). "Truncated aptamers as selective receptors in a gluten sensor supporting direct measurement in a deep eutectic solvent". Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 165: 112339. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2020.112339. hdl:10651/57640. PMID 32729482. S2CID 219902328.
  9. ^ Vanarse, Anup; Osseiran, Adam; Rassau, Alexander (2016). "A Review of Current Neuromorphic Approaches for Vision, Auditory, and Olfactory Sensors". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 10: 115. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00115. PMC 4809886. PMID 27065784.
  10. ^ "1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". The Silicon Engine: A Timeline of Semiconductors in Computers. Computer History Museum. Retrieved August 31, 2019.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Bergveld, Piet (October 1985). "The impact of MOSFET-based sensors" (PDF). Sensors and Actuators. 8 (2): 109–127. Bibcode:1985SeAc....8..109B. doi:10.1016/0250-6874(85)87009-8. ISSN 0250-6874.
  12. ^ Chris Toumazou; Pantelis Georgiou (December 2011). "40 years of ISFET technology:From neuronal sensing to DNA sequencing". Electronics Letters. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  13. ^ a b c Schöning, Michael J.; Poghossian, Arshak (10 September 2002). "Recent advances in biologically sensitive field-effect transistors (BioFETs)" (PDF). Analyst. 127 (9): 1137–1151. Bibcode:2002Ana...127.1137S. doi:10.1039/B204444G. ISSN 1364-5528. PMID 12375833.
  14. ^ a b Williams, J. B. (2017). The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future. Springer. pp. 245 & 249. ISBN 9783319490885.
  15. ^ Boyle, William S; Smith, George E. (1970). "Charge Coupled Semiconductor Devices". Bell Syst. Tech. J. 49 (4): 587–593. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1970.tb01790.x.
  16. ^ Matsumoto, Kazuya; et al. (1985). "A new MOS phototransistor operating in a non-destructive readout mode". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 24 (5A): L323. Bibcode:1985JaJAP..24L.323M. doi:10.1143/JJAP.24.L323. S2CID 108450116.
  17. ^ Eric R. Fossum (1993), "Active Pixel Sensors: Are CCD's Dinosaurs?" Proc. SPIE Vol. 1900, p. 2–14, Charge-Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III, Morley M. Blouke; Ed.
  18. ^ Lyon, Richard F. (2014). "The Optical Mouse: Early Biomimetic Embedded Vision". Advances in Embedded Computer Vision. Springer. pp. 3–22 (3). ISBN 9783319093871.
  19. ^ Lyon, Richard F. (August 1981). "The Optical Mouse, and an Architectural Methodology for Smart Digital Sensors" (PDF). In H. T. Kung; Robert F. Sproull; Guy L. Steele (eds.). VLSI Systems and Computations. Computer Science Press. pp. 1–19. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-68402-9_1. ISBN 978-3-642-68404-3.
  20. ^ Brain, Marshall; Carmack, Carmen (24 April 2000). "How Computer Mice Work". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
  21. ^ "LiDAR vs. 3D ToF Sensors — How Apple Is Making AR Better for Smartphones". Retrieved 2020-04-03.
  22. ^ Omura, Yasuhisa; Mallik, Abhijit; Matsuo, Naoto (2017). MOS Devices for Low-Voltage and Low-Energy Applications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9781119107354.
  23. ^ Sun, Jianhai; Geng, Zhaoxin; Xue, Ning; Liu, Chunxiu; Ma, Tianjun (17 August 2018). "A Mini-System Integrated with Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Sensor and Micro-Packed Gas Chromatographic Column". Micromachines. 9 (8): 408. doi:10.3390/mi9080408. ISSN 2072-666X. PMC 6187308. PMID 30424341.
  24. ^ Mead, Carver A.; Ismail, Mohammed, eds. (May 8, 1989). Analog VLSI Implementation of Neural Systems (PDF). The Kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science. Vol. 80. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-1639-8. ISBN 978-1-4613-1639-8.
  25. ^ Oliveira, Joao; Goes, João (2012). Parametric Analog Signal Amplification Applied to Nanoscale CMOS Technologies. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 7. ISBN 9781461416708.

Further reading

  • M. Kretschmar and S. Welsby (2005), Capacitive and Inductive Displacement Sensors, in Sensor Technology Handbook, J. Wilson editor, Newnes: Burlington, MA.
  • C. A. Grimes, E. C. Dickey, and M. V. Pishko (2006), Encyclopedia of Sensors (10-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers. ISBN 1-58883-056-X
  • Blaauw, F.J., Schenk, H.M., Jeronimus, B.F., van der Krieke, L., de Jonge, P., Aiello, M., Emerencia, A.C. (2016). Let’s get Physiqual – An intuitive and generic method to combine sensor technology with ecological momentary assessments. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, vol. 63, page 141-149.
 
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March 27, 2023
sensor, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, detector, redirects, here, detector, circuits, radio, other, signal, related, electronics, detector, radio, confused, with, censor, censure, censer, senser, sensor, device, that, produces, output, signal, p. Sensors redirects here For other uses see Sensors disambiguation Detector redirects here For detector circuits in radio and other signal related electronics see Detector radio Not to be confused with Censor Censure Censer or Senser A sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing a physical phenomenon Different types of light sensors In the broadest definition a sensor is a device module machine or subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends the information to other electronics frequently a computer processor Sensors are always used with other electronics Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch sensitive elevator buttons tactile sensor and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base and in innumerable applications of which most people are never aware With advances in micromachinery and easy to use microcontroller platforms the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature pressure 1 and flow measurement 2 for example into MARG sensors Analog sensors such as potentiometers and force sensing resistors are still widely used Their applications include manufacturing and machinery airplanes and aerospace cars medicine robotics and many other aspects of our day to day life There is a wide range of other sensors that measure chemical and physical properties of materials including optical sensors for refractive index measurement vibrational sensors for fluid viscosity measurement and electro chemical sensors for monitoring pH of fluids A sensor s sensitivity indicates how much its output changes when the input quantity it measures changes For instance if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 C its sensitivity is 1 cm C it is basically the slope dy dx assuming a linear characteristic Some sensors can also affect what they measure for instance a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages 3 Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology In most cases a microsensor reaches a significantly faster measurement time and higher sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches 3 4 Due to the increasing demand for rapid affordable and reliable information in today s world disposable sensors low cost and easy to use devices for short term monitoring or single shot measurements have recently gained growing importance Using this class of sensors critical analytical information can be obtained by anyone anywhere and at any time without the need for recalibration and worrying about contamination 5 Contents 1 Classification of measurement errors 1 1 Sensor deviations 1 2 Resolution 2 Chemical sensor 3 Biosensor 4 Neuromorphic sensors 5 MOS sensors 5 1 Biochemical sensors 5 2 Image sensors 5 3 Monitoring sensors 6 See also 7 References 8 Further readingClassification of measurement errors Edit An infrared sensor A good sensor obeys the following rules 5 it is sensitive to the measured property it is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application and it does not influence the measured property Most sensors have a linear transfer function The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property For example if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output the sensitivity is constant with the units V K The sensitivity is the slope of the transfer function Converting the sensor s electrical output for example V to the measured units for example K requires dividing the electrical output by the slope or multiplying by its reciprocal In addition an offset is frequently added or subtracted For example 40 must be added to the output if 0 V output corresponds to 40 C input For an analog sensor signal to be processed or used in digital equipment it needs to be converted to a digital signal using an analog to digital converter Sensor deviations Edit Since sensors cannot replicate an ideal transfer function several types of deviations can occur which limit sensor accuracy Since the range of the output signal is always limited the output signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits The full scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property citation needed The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified This is called a sensitivity error This is an error in the slope of a linear transfer function If the output signal differs from the correct value by a constant the sensor has an offset error or bias This is an error in the y intercept of a linear transfer function Nonlinearity is deviation of a sensor s transfer function from a straight line transfer function Usually this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor often noted as a percentage of the full range Deviation caused by rapid changes of the measured property over time is a dynamic error Often this behavior is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error and phase shift as a function of the frequency of a periodic input signal If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property this is defined as drift Long term drift over months or years is caused by physical changes in the sensor Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time A hysteresis error causes the output value to vary depending on the previous input values If a sensor s output is different depending on whether a specific input value was reached by increasing vs decreasing the input then the sensor has a hysteresis error If the sensor has a digital output the output is essentially an approximation of the measured property This error is also called quantization error If the signal is monitored digitally the sampling frequency can cause a dynamic error or if the input variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency near a multiple of the sampling rate aliasing errors may occur The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured For example most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal processing such as filtering usually at the expense of the dynamic behavior of the sensor Resolution Edit The sensor resolution or measurement resolution is the smallest change that can be detected in the quantity that it is being measured The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the numerical resolution of the digital output The resolution is related to the precision with which the measurement is made but they are not the same thing A sensor s accuracy may be considerably worse than its resolution For example the distance resolution is the minimum distance that can be accurately measured by any distance measuring devices In a time of flight camera the distance resolution is usually equal to the standard deviation total noise of the signal expressed in unit of length The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured For example most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment Chemical sensor EditA chemical sensor is a self contained analytical device that can provide information about the chemical composition of its environment that is a liquid or a gas phase 6 7 The information is provided in the form of a measurable physical signal that is correlated with the concentration of a certain chemical species termed as analyte Two main steps are involved in the functioning of a chemical sensor namely recognition and transduction In the recognition step analyte molecules interact selectively with receptor molecules or sites included in the structure of the recognition element of the sensor Consequently a characteristic physical parameter varies and this variation is reported by means of an integrated transducer that generates the output signal A chemical sensor based on recognition material of biological nature is a biosensor However as synthetic biomimetic materials are going to substitute to some extent recognition biomaterials a sharp distinction between a biosensor and a standard chemical sensor is superfluous Typical biomimetic materials used in sensor development are molecularly imprinted polymers and aptamers 8 Biosensor EditMain article Biosensor In biomedicine and biotechnology sensors which detect analytes thanks to a biological component such as cells protein nucleic acid or biomimetic polymers are called biosensors Whereas a non biological sensor even organic carbon chemistry for biological analytes is referred to as sensor or nanosensor This terminology applies for both in vitro and in vivo applications The encapsulation of the biological component in biosensors presents a slightly different problem that ordinary sensors this can either be done by means of a semipermeable barrier such as a dialysis membrane or a hydrogel or a 3D polymer matrix which either physically constrains the sensing macromolecule or chemically constrains the macromolecule by bounding it to the scaffold Neuromorphic sensors EditNeuromorphic sensors are sensors that physically mimic structures and functions of biological neural entities 9 One example of this is the event camera MOS sensors EditMetal oxide semiconductor MOS technology originates from the MOSFET MOS field effect transistor or MOS transistor invented by Mohamed M Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959 and demonstrated in 1960 10 MOSFET sensors MOS sensors were later developed and they have since been widely used to measure physical chemical biological and environmental parameters 11 Biochemical sensors Edit A number of MOSFET sensors have been developed for measuring physical chemical biological and environmental parameters 11 The earliest MOSFET sensors include the open gate field effect transistor OGFET introduced by Johannessen in 1970 11 the ion sensitive field effect transistor ISFET invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970 12 the adsorption FET ADFET patented by P F Cox in 1974 and a hydrogen sensitive MOSFET demonstrated by I Lundstrom M S Shivaraman C S Svenson and L Lundkvist in 1975 11 The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance 11 and where the metal gate is replaced by an ion sensitive membrane electrolyte solution and reference electrode 13 The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications such as the detection of DNA hybridization biomarker detection from blood antibody detection glucose measurement pH sensing and genetic technology 13 By the mid 1980s numerous other MOSFET sensors had been developed including the gas sensor FET GASFET surface accessible FET SAFET charge flow transistor CFT pressure sensor FET PRESSFET chemical field effect transistor ChemFET reference ISFET REFET biosensor FET BioFET enzyme modified FET ENFET and immunologically modified FET IMFET 11 By the early 2000s BioFET types such as the DNA field effect transistor DNAFET gene modified FET GenFET and cell potential BioFET CPFET had been developed 13 Image sensors Edit Main articles Image sensor Charge coupled device and Active pixel sensor MOS technology is the basis for modern image sensors including the charge coupled device CCD and the CMOS active pixel sensor CMOS sensor used in digital imaging and digital cameras 14 Willard Boyle and George E Smith developed the CCD in 1969 While researching the MOS process they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next 14 The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first digital video cameras for television broadcasting 15 The MOS active pixel sensor APS was developed by Tsutomu Nakamura at Olympus in 1985 16 The CMOS active pixel sensor was later developed by Eric Fossum and his team in the early 1990s 17 MOS image sensors are widely used in optical mouse technology The first optical mouse invented by Richard F Lyon at Xerox in 1980 used a 5 µm NMOS sensor chip 18 19 Since the first commercial optical mouse the IntelliMouse introduced in 1999 most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors 20 Monitoring sensors Edit Lidar sensor on iPad Pro 21 MOS monitoring sensors are used for house monitoring office and agriculture monitoring traffic monitoring including car speed traffic jams and traffic accidents weather monitoring such as for rain wind lightning and storms defense monitoring and monitoring temperature humidity air pollution fire health security and lighting 22 MOS gas detector sensors are used to detect carbon monoxide sulfur dioxide hydrogen sulfide ammonia and other gas substances 23 Other MOS sensors include intelligent sensors 24 and wireless sensor network WSN technology 25 See also EditActuator Data acquisition Data logger Image sensor MOSFET BioFET Chemical field effect transistor ISFET List of sensors Machine olfaction Nanoelectronics Nanosensor Sensing floor Transducer Wireless sensor networkReferences Edit Pena Consuegra Jorge Pagnola Marcelo R Useche Jairo Madhukar Pagidi Saccone Fabio D Marrugo Andres G 27 October 2022 Manufacturing and Measuring Techniques for Graphene Silicone Based Strain Sensors JOM 75 3 631 645 doi 10 1007 s11837 022 05550 3 S2CID 253194497 Bennett S 1993 A History of Control Engineering 1930 1955 London Peter Peregrinus Ltd on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers ISBN 978 0 86341 280 6The source states controls rather than sensors so its applicability is assumed Many units are derived from the basic measurements to which it refers such as a liquid s level measured by a differential pressure sensor a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint postscript link a b Jihong Yan 2015 Machinery Prognostics and Prognosis Oriented Maintenance Management Wiley amp Sons Singapore Pte Ltd p 107 ISBN 9781118638729 Ganesh Kumar September 2010 Modern General Knowledge Upkar Prakashan p 194 ISBN 978 81 7482 180 5 a b Dincer Can Bruch Richard Costa Rama Estefania Fernandez Abedul Maria Teresa Merkoci Arben Manz Andreas Urban Gerald Anton Guder Firat 2019 05 15 Disposable Sensors in Diagnostics Food and Environmental Monitoring Advanced Materials 31 30 1806739 doi 10 1002 adma 201806739 ISSN 0935 9648 PMID 31094032 Toniolo Rosanna Dossi Nicolo Giannilivigni Emanuele Fattori Andrea Svigelj Rossella Bontempelli Gino Giacomino Agnese Daniele Salvatore 3 March 2020 Modified Screen Printed Electrode Suitable for Electrochemical Measurements in Gas Phase Analytical Chemistry 92 5 3689 3696 doi 10 1021 acs analchem 9b04818 ISSN 0003 2700 PMID 32008321 S2CID 211012680 Bǎnicǎ Florinel Gabriel 2012 Chemical Sensors and Biosensors Fundamentals and Applications Chichester UK John Wiley amp Sons p 576 ISBN 978 1 118 35423 0 Svigelj Rossella Dossi Nicolo Pizzolato Stefania Toniolo Rosanna Miranda Castro Rebeca de los Santos Alvarez Noemi Lobo Castanon Maria Jesus 1 October 2020 Truncated aptamers as selective receptors in a gluten sensor supporting direct measurement in a deep eutectic solvent Biosensors and Bioelectronics 165 112339 doi 10 1016 j bios 2020 112339 hdl 10651 57640 PMID 32729482 S2CID 219902328 Vanarse Anup Osseiran Adam Rassau Alexander 2016 A Review of Current Neuromorphic Approaches for Vision Auditory and Olfactory Sensors Frontiers in Neuroscience 10 115 doi 10 3389 fnins 2016 00115 PMC 4809886 PMID 27065784 1960 Metal Oxide Semiconductor MOS Transistor Demonstrated The Silicon Engine A Timeline of Semiconductors in Computers Computer History Museum Retrieved August 31 2019 a b c d e f Bergveld Piet October 1985 The impact of MOSFET based sensors PDF Sensors and Actuators 8 2 109 127 Bibcode 1985SeAc 8 109B doi 10 1016 0250 6874 85 87009 8 ISSN 0250 6874 Chris Toumazou Pantelis Georgiou December 2011 40 years of ISFET technology From neuronal sensing to DNA sequencing Electronics Letters Retrieved 13 May 2016 a b c Schoning Michael J Poghossian Arshak 10 September 2002 Recent advances in biologically sensitive field effect transistors BioFETs PDF Analyst 127 9 1137 1151 Bibcode 2002Ana 127 1137S doi 10 1039 B204444G ISSN 1364 5528 PMID 12375833 a b Williams J B 2017 The Electronics Revolution Inventing the Future Springer pp 245 amp 249 ISBN 9783319490885 Boyle William S Smith George E 1970 Charge Coupled Semiconductor Devices Bell Syst Tech J 49 4 587 593 doi 10 1002 j 1538 7305 1970 tb01790 x Matsumoto Kazuya et al 1985 A new MOS phototransistor operating in a non destructive readout mode Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 24 5A L323 Bibcode 1985JaJAP 24L 323M doi 10 1143 JJAP 24 L323 S2CID 108450116 Eric R Fossum 1993 Active Pixel Sensors Are CCD s Dinosaurs Proc SPIE Vol 1900 p 2 14 Charge Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III Morley M Blouke Ed Lyon Richard F 2014 The Optical Mouse Early Biomimetic Embedded Vision Advances in Embedded Computer Vision Springer pp 3 22 3 ISBN 9783319093871 Lyon Richard F August 1981 The Optical Mouse and an Architectural Methodology for Smart Digital Sensors PDF In H T Kung Robert F Sproull Guy L Steele eds VLSI Systems and Computations Computer Science Press pp 1 19 doi 10 1007 978 3 642 68402 9 1 ISBN 978 3 642 68404 3 Brain Marshall Carmack Carmen 24 April 2000 How Computer Mice Work HowStuffWorks Retrieved 9 October 2019 LiDAR vs 3D ToF Sensors How Apple Is Making AR Better for Smartphones Retrieved 2020 04 03 Omura Yasuhisa Mallik Abhijit Matsuo Naoto 2017 MOS Devices for Low Voltage and Low Energy Applications John Wiley amp Sons pp 3 4 ISBN 9781119107354 Sun Jianhai Geng Zhaoxin Xue Ning Liu Chunxiu Ma Tianjun 17 August 2018 A Mini System Integrated with Metal Oxide Semiconductor Sensor and Micro Packed Gas Chromatographic Column Micromachines 9 8 408 doi 10 3390 mi9080408 ISSN 2072 666X PMC 6187308 PMID 30424341 Mead Carver A Ismail Mohammed eds May 8 1989 Analog VLSI Implementation of Neural Systems PDF The Kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science Vol 80 Norwell MA Kluwer Academic Publishers doi 10 1007 978 1 4613 1639 8 ISBN 978 1 4613 1639 8 Oliveira Joao Goes Joao 2012 Parametric Analog Signal Amplification Applied to Nanoscale CMOS Technologies Springer Science amp Business Media p 7 ISBN 9781461416708 Further reading EditM Kretschmar and S Welsby 2005 Capacitive and Inductive Displacement Sensors in Sensor Technology Handbook J Wilson editor Newnes Burlington MA C A Grimes E C Dickey and M V Pishko 2006 Encyclopedia of Sensors 10 Volume Set American Scientific Publishers ISBN 1 58883 056 X Blaauw F J Schenk H M Jeronimus B F van der Krieke L de Jonge P Aiello M Emerencia A C 2016 Let s get Physiqual An intuitive and generic method to combine sensor technology with ecological momentary assessments Journal of Biomedical Informatics vol 63 page 141 149 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sensors Look up sensor in Wiktionary the free dictionary http www cbm sweden se images Seminarie Class Descriptions IDA MEMS pdf see https web archive org web 20160304105724 http www cbm sweden se images Seminarie Class Descriptions IDA MEMS pdf Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sensor amp oldid 1142988106, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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